ELECTRIC CHARGES AND

FIELDS
BY
UTSAV VOHRA
[B.Tech, M.Tech (Gold Medalist)]
• Charge - A characteristic property of matter due to which it
experiences and produces electrical and magnetic effects.
• How current flows in conductors?

e- e-

• If temp. increases, no. of free electrons?

 e- e-

• Resistance?
• R = ρl/A
• Causes of resistance?
• Repulsion between the free electrons moving towards positive end.
• Attraction between positive charge of nucleus and electrons.
• Current?
• i=q/t
• i=V/R
 Particle Symbol Charge Mass
Electron e, e-, β-, 0 -1.6 x 10-19 9.1 x 10-31
1

Positron e+, β+, +1.6 x 10-19 9.1 x 10-31

1

Proton p, p+, H+, H +1.6 x 10-19 1.6726 x 10-27

1
1

n, n0
1
Neutron 0 1.6749 x 10-27
Alpha particle/He α, He , He 2qp 4mp
4
2+
2

nucleus
• Scalar quantity
• Two types - +ve and -ve
• Always associated with some mass
• Transferable
• In charging (-ve charging), mass increases and in discharging (+ve
charging), mass decreases.
2e- 2e-
+2 0 2p+ -2
2p+
8 e- discharging 10 e- charging 12 e-
10 p+ 10 p+ 10 p+
NOTE - Protons cannot be transferred from one body to another because
they are bound in the nucleus. To transfer the protons, we will have to
break the nucleus which would require enourmous amount of energy.
• Charge is invariable (independent of frame of reference) unlike mass.
According to Einstein's theory of relativity, mass depends upon frame of
reference.

m m 0

1 v
2

where m is observed mass c

2
• if v = 0; m = m0
m0 is rest mass • if v = c; m ꝏ
v is relative velocity
• so if v 'es, m 'es.
c is speed of light
• Conserved
• Appears and disappears in equal and opposite amount
pair production - when a wave of wavelength λ strikes a neutron, an
electron and a positron is produced.
e+
λ
n
e-

annihiliation - when an electron and a positron strikes a neutron, a wave

of wavelength λ is produced.
e+
λ
n

e-
• Accelerated charge radiates (releases) energy.

At rest v = constt; accn = 0 v ≠ constt; accn ≠ 0

+q +q +q

EF =  EF =  EF = 
MF =  MF =  MF = 
Energy =
E.g. Hydrogen spectrum

• Quantized
• Charge resides only on the outer surface of metals/conductors. (for
insulators?)

Application - Electrostatic shielding

• Charge on any body is an integral multiple of charge of an electron.
e-
e-

q = ±ne
where q is the charge on the body
n is the no. of electrons
e is the charge of an electron i.e. 1.6 x 10-19 C
q = ±1e, ±2e, ±3e, ..., ±ne
Q. Is 4.8 x 10-16 C charge possible?
A. Given q = 4.8 x 10-16 C
We know e = 1.6 x 10-19 C
Using q = ne, we get n = q/e
So, n = 4.8 x 10-16/1.6 x 10-19
n = 3000 which is an integer
So, 4.8 x 10-16 C is possible and comprises of 3000 electrons.

Q. How many electrons are there in 1C charge?

A. Using n = q/e
n = 1/1.6 x 10-19
n = 6.25 x 1018
So, 1C charge contains 6.25 x 1018 electrons.
1. Frictional electricity

• Both bodies acquire equal and opposite charges.

• Due to friction, heat is generated between the two bodies and the body with
lower work function loses electrons which get trasferred to the other body.
• Assuming no electrons loss, equal and opposite charge is developed on the
two bodies.
• Body with lower work function acquires +ve charge and vice-versa.
2. Induction

1 q' is the induced charge

q
/
 q(1  ) q is the charge on the rod
k
k is conductivity
*for metals, k = ꝏ; so q' = -q i.e. equal and opposite charge.
 3. Conduction +4 V
0V

Option 1 -
+4 V
0V 2 e-

2 e-
• Electrons go from lower potential to 0V
+4 V
higher potential.
Option 2 -
• In conduction, we actually touch the
two bodies.
• Charges flow from 1 body to another
TILL THEIR VOLTAGES BECOME
EQUAL.
• In conduction, similar charges
develop on the two bodies.
+q1 +q2 +q1 -q2

+q1 +q2 +q1 -q2

q q q' q'

(q1) ( q 2) (q1)(q 2)
q q
2 2
Q. Is it possible to transfer whole charge of a body to another body?
A. Yes, whole charge of a body can be tranferred to another body by
keeping the charged body inside the uncharged body and connecting
them with a wire.

Charge flows to the outer body because charge resides only on the
outer surface of metals.
 Charge
1) Can be +ve and -ve
2) Force exerted can be attractive or
repulsive
3) Charge is quantized
4) Accelerated charge radiates energy
5) Charge is invariable (i.e. independent
of velocity)
6) It is a derived quanity [AT]
Mass
1) always +ve
2) Force exerted is always attractive
3) Mass is not quantized
4) Mass does not
5) Mass varies w.r.t. velocity
6) It is fndamental quantity
• According to this law, the force of interaction (attraction or repulsion)
b/w two charges is directly proportional to the product of magnitude of
the charges and inversely proportional to the square of distance b/w
them in space.

• F is force on q1 due to q2
12

• F is force on q2 due to q1
21
• F α |q1||q2|

1
•Fα
r
2

| q1 || q2 |
•Fα
r
2

| q1 || q2 |
•F=k
r
2

where k is electrostatic force constant Units of charge-

in cgs, k = 1 • SI - Coulomb (C)
• cgs - statcoulomb or
in SI, k = 9 x 109 Nm2/C2 (in vacuum)
esu (electrostatic unit)
• k = 1/(4Пε0)
• ε0 is absolute electrical permittivity of vacuum = 8.85 x 10-12 C2/Nm2
• εm is absolute electrical permittivity of medium
• ε is the property of a medium by which it opposes the permission of
electric field lines through it.
• Relative permittivity / Dielectric constant (εr or K)
εr or K = εm/ε0
It is the ratio of permittivity of medium to the permittivity of vacuum.
Example- For water, K =80
So, εm = K x ε0
= 80 x 8.85 x 10-12 C2/Nm2
= 7.080 x 10-12 C2/Nm2
Q. 2 charges, 1μC and 2μC, are first placed in air (or vacuum). Then they are
placed in water keeping the distance b/w them same. What will be the
effect on fore b/w them?
A. When placed in vacuum,
| q1 || q2 |
Fo = [1/(4Пεo)] 2
r
When placed in any medium,
| q1 || q2 |
Fm = [1/(4Пεm)]
r
2

This gives us,

Fo/Fm = εm/εo = εr or K
• NOTE- Relative permittivity of a medium is the ratio of force acting
between two charges when placed in vacuum to the force acting between
the same two charges when placed in medium.
ATQ, Fw = Fo/εr = Fo/80
So, force decreases by 80 times in water.
• NOTE- Ionic compounds dissolve in water because of the high dielectric
constant of water. Example- NaCl, KCl, etc.
Q. Show that Coulomb's law obeys Newton's 3rd law of motion.
A. Case 1- Two similar charges Case 2- Two dissimilar charges

| q1 || q2 |
F = (k r ) r̂2

= (k r ) r̂
21
12 | q1 || q2 |
| q1 || q2 |
F 12 2

= (k )
1 2

F 12
r
2 r̂
1 2
F = (k | q1 || q2 |
) r̂
21

r
12 2

But, r̂ = - r̂
1 2 21 But, r̂ = - r̂
1 2 21

So, F = - F
12 12
So, F = - F
12 12

So, it obeys Newton's 3rd law. So, it obeys Newton's 3rd law.
Q. Two charges, +e and +4e, are placed 'r' distance apart. Find a point
where net force experienced by a third charge, if placed, will be zero.
(This point will also be called neutral point or equilibrium point)
Q. Two charges, +e and -4e, are placed 'r' distance apart. Find a point
where net force experienced by a third charge, if placed, will be zero.
Q. Four charge, +2μC, -4μC, +6μC, +3μC are placed at the corners of
a square of side 'a'. Find the net force experienced by a 1μC charge
placed at the centre.
Q. If two charges of same magnitude Q are placed at a distance R and q
is placed at their centre, then what is the value of q so that the system
remains in equilibrium?
• The space around any charge in which another charge experiences
force of attraction or repulsion is called electric field of the charge.
• Electric Field Intensity (EFI)-

+q' is a +ve test charge

F
E P  lim
q ' 0 q'
If q' = + 1C, E P
F
• EFI at a point P due to a charge +q is equal to the force experienced by a
unit +ve test charge when placed at that point.
• Significance of lim q'→ 0 is that q' must be so small that it does not
disturb the electric field of the main charge +q.
• Unit of EFI- N/C or V/m [Volt/meter]
• It is a vector quantity.
• Direction- Same as that of force.
• DF- ?
• DF - [MLT-3A-1]
• EFI due to a point charge at a distance 'r'

• NOTE-
1) Electric Field due to a charge q at a distance 'r' is E = kq/r2. [No q']
2) Force experienced by a charge q' placed in an EF 'E' is F = q'E.
Q. Two charges +e and +4e are placed at a distance 'r'. Find the point
where EFI is zero.
• They are the path (staright or curved) on which positive test charge
moves and tangent to which gives the direction of EFI (or force) at a
particular point.
• They are also called Electric lines of forces.
• Case 1- q1q2 > 0
1) q1 = +ve and q2 = +ve; q1 = q2

2) q1 = +ve and q2 = +ve; q1 > q2

• Case 2- q1q2 < 0
q1 = +ve and q2 = -ve; |q1| = |q2|
• Properties of electric field lines-
1) It is the path on which +ve test charge moves.
2) Tangent to it gives the direction of force or EFI.
3) They are discontinuous inside the charge (because charge resides
only on the outer surface) and continuous outside the charge.
4) EFI is directly proportional to the density of lines.
5) Lines are perpendicular to surface.
6) Lines due to similar charges exert lateral pressure whereas lines due
to opposite charges contract.
7) Two lines can never intersect each other.

Because at the point of intersection, two tangents can be drawn and

tangent represents the direction of EFI at a point. So it would mean
that there are two directions of EFI at a point which is not possible.
Suppose there is a charged ring of radius A B
'a' with charge '+q'.
P is a point on the axis of ring at a distance r
'x' from the centre where EFI is to be a
calculated. dECD
dECDsinθ

x θ θ dECDcosθ

Consider two elements AB and CD of θ P θ dEABcosθ

dEAB
length 'dl' and charge 'dq'. dEABsinθ

Charge on 2πa length = q r

Charge on unit length = q/2πa = λ

C D
Charge on dl length = λdl = dl(q/2πa)
So, dq = λdl = dl(q/2πa)
Small EFI due to element AB at P is dEAB = kdq/r2
Similarly, Small EFI due to element CD at P is dECD = kdq/r2
Similar Electric fields will develop due to all other elements.
So, dEAB = dECD = ... = dE (Let)
Resolving all dEs into horizontal and vertical components.
All vertical components dEsinθs are equal and opposite. So, their resultant
is zero.
All horizontal components dEcosθs are in same direction. So, they add up.
Net EFI at P, Eax =  dE cos 
dq x
=  k r2 r
kx
= r 3  dl
kx
= 3
2a q
dl
r 0 2a
 kx q
[l ]
2a
=
r 2a 0
3

kx q
= 3 [2a  0]
r 2a
kqx
=
( x 2  a 2 )3
kqx
Eax =
( x 2  a 2 )3/2

Case 1- if x = 0 (Centre of ring) Case 2- if x >> a

kqx kqx kqx
E=0 E = (x  a )
2 2 3/ 2

( x 2 ) 3 / 2 [1  ( a ) 2 ]3 / 2

x3
x
kq 0
E= 2
x
i.e. a ring behaves as a point charge.
• It is a system of two equal and opposite charges separated by a very
small distance.
• Dipole moment, p  q  2a
• It is the product of either charge and
distance b/w the charges.
• Unit of dipole moment → C-m
• It is a vector quantity.
• Direction → -q to +q
• Suppose there is a dipole made up of ±q
and length 2a, such that dipole moment,
p  q  2a
• Let P be a point on the axis of the dipole
at a distance of 'r' where net EFI is to be
calculated.
• EFI due to A at P, EA = kq/(r+a)2 (opp. to p)
• EFI due to B at P, EB = kq/(r-a)2 (in the
direction of p )
• So, EA < EB
So net EFI at P,

Eax = EB - EA = [kq/(r-a)2]- [kq/(r+a)2]

 1 1 
= kq  (r  a) 2 (r  a) 2 

 
 (r  a ) 2  (r  a ) 2   r 2  a 2  2ar  r 2  a 2  2ar 
= kq 
( r  a ) 2
( r  a ) 2 

(r 2  a 2 ) 2

   
kq(4ar ) 2kr (q  2a )
= 2 2 2
 2
(r  a ) (r  a 2 ) 2
2kpr
So, Eax = (r 2  a 2 ) 2

For dipole, a << r,

2kp 2k p
So, Eax = r3
or Eax  3
r
• Suppose there is a dipole made up of ±q and
length 2a, such that dipole moment,
p  q  2a
• Let P be a point on the equitorial axis of the
dipole at a distance of 'r' where net EFI is to
be calculated.
• EFI due to A at P, EA = kq/(y)2 (towards A)
• EFI due to B at P, EB = kq/(y)2 (away from B)
• Resolve EA and EB into horizontal and
vertical components.
• Vertical components EA sinθ and EB sinθ are equal and opposite so they
cancel each other.
• Horizontal components EA cosθ and EB cosθ are in same direction (opp.
to dipole moment), so they add up to give net EFI.
• Let EA = EB = E

• So, Eeq = EA cosθ + EB cosθ = 2Ecosθ

kq a k (q  2a )
= 2 y2  y  y3
kp kp
= 1
 3
[(r 2  a 2 ) 2 ]3 (r 2  a 2 ) 2

For dipole, a << r,

kp kp
So, Eeq = or Eeq   3
r3 r
• NOTE-

• NOTE-
• Resolving the dipole moment vector can be
visualised as two dipoles placed at right angles
to each other with p' and p” as their dipole
moments.
• E' is axial type of EFI (along the p') and E” is
equitorial type of EFI (opp. to p”).
• But E' and E” are perp. to each other so their
resultant is given as- Enet  E '2  E"2
2kp' 2kp cos 
E'  3 
where r r3
kp" kp sin 
E"  3 
r r3
 2 2
 2kp cos    kp sin  
Enet   3   3 
 r   r 
kp
Enet  3
sin 2
  4 cos 2

r
kp
Enet  3
(sin 2
  cos 2
 )  3 cos 2

r
kp
Enet  3
1  3 cos 2

r
• Suppose there is a dipole made up of ±q and F = qE
length 2a, such that dipole moment, 2a
+q
p
p  q  2a θ 2asinθ
F = qE
• The dipole is placed in an uniform EF 'E' in such a -q E
way that its dipole moment makes an angle θ with
the EF.
• Force on +q charge, F = qE (along EF)
• Force on -q charge, F = qE (opp. to EF)
• So, net force on dipole, Fnet = qE - qE = 0
• But these forces act at different points on the
dipole, so they try to rotate the dipole along the EF
direction by applying a torque.
• Torque, τ = Either force x perp. distance b/w the forces
= F x 2asinθ
= qE x 2asinθ
= pEsinθ
  p E
• Case 1- θ = 00 • Case 3- θ = 900
τ = pESin0 = 0 τ = pESin90 = pE (max)
(Most stable condition) (Stable equilibrium) (Unstable condition)
• Case 2- θ = 1800
τ = pESin180 = 0
(Unstable equilibrium)
Q. What is the net force acting on a dipole paced in an unifrom EF?
A. Zero
Q. What will be the condition in a non-uniform EF?
A. There will be transatory as well
as rotational motion.
• Suppose there is a dipole made up of ±q and length dθ

2a, such that dipole moment, +q

p  q  2a +q
θ2 θ

• The dipole is placed in an uniform EF 'E' in such a θ1

way that its dipole moment makes an angle θ1 with

the EF. -q E
-q
• Suppose it is rotated upto a angle of θ2.
• Work done in rotating the dipole from θ1 to θ2 will
store in the of P.E. in the dipole.
• Small amount of work done in rotating through a small angular
displacement dθ is dW = τ.dθ
dW = (pEsinθ)dθ
• Total work done in rotating the dipole from θ1 to θ2-
2

W =  dW   ( pE sin  )d
 1

W = pE [ cos ]
2

W = △U = pE(cosθ1 - cosθ2) = -pE(cosθ2 - cosθ1)

• If initial angle θ1 = 900 and θ2 = θ
• Then, △U = pE(cos900 - cosθ) = -pEcosθ = -p.E
• Stable equilibrium (θ = 00), △U = -pE (p ||r E) [MIN]
• Zero energy state (θ = 900), △U = 0 (p ⊥ E)
• Unstable equilibrium (θ = 1800), △U = +pE (p anti-||r E) [MAX]
Q. Calculate △U of a dipole of ±5μC, length 1Ȧ, placed in a uniform EF of
5 N/C when it is rotated through the following angles-
a) 300 to 600,
b) parallel to anti-parallel,
c) for an angle of 600
• The number of electric field lines crossing through an area in normal
direction.
A
A E E
θ E
A

θ = 00 θ=θ θ = 900

E  E. A  EA cos 
• NOTE- Flux is actually based on the area that is made by the
projection of area actually considered.
• It is a scalar quantity.
• SI unit- Nm2/C or V-m (Volt-meter)
 E
θ

ds

d E  E.ds  Eds cos 

where 'ds' is a small area and 'θ' is the angle b/w area vector and EF.
 E   Eds cos 
Case 1- θ = 00 Case 2- θ = 900 Case 3- θ = 1800
A
A E A E
E

 E   EA E  0 E   EA
 • NOTE- Electric flux through closed surfaces (3-D)
y
• By covention, area vector should
H G
be taken outwards from a closed
D E or 3-D figure.
C A''
A'
E
• Entering flux = -EA (Face AEDH)
F
• Leaving flux = +EA (Face BFGC)
A B • Net flux = 0
x
• Linked flux = EA (projected area)
z
• In an uniform EF, net flux thorugh
a closed surface is always zero.
• Surface integral of electric field through a closed surface 'S' in vacuum
is equal to 1/ϵ0 times the charge enclosed by the closed surface.
1
S E.ds  0 (q)
• It is also equal to the net flux through the closed surface.
1
S E.ds  0 (q)  E
Examples-
1) (5C )  (1C ) 4 C
+5 μC E  
-1 μC 0 0
2) S2
Q2
Q1
 E1 0 Q1
S1  
Q1 E 2 Q1  Q2 Q1  Q2
0

3)  5 C
3 cm E 
 5 C If radius is doubled →  E   (No change)
0
+5 μC 0

4)  5 C
3 cm 2 cm E  If radius is doubled →
+5 μC +2 μC 0
( 5 C )  ( 2 C )  7 C
E  
0 0
Q. What is the flux through an area containing a dipole of ±5μC, length 1Ȧ?
A. Zero becuase total charge enclosed will be zero.
• Basic steps to apply gauss law-
1) Imagine a gaussian surface.
2) Take a small area element ds on it. Find θ b/w E and ds.
3) Apply gauss law.
Spherical
• Proof of gauss law- gaussian surface

Consider a charge +q placed at O.

Imagine a spherical gaussian surface of +q ds
radius 'r' around it. O E
r
Take small area element ds on it.
E and ds are parallel to each other i.e. θ = 00
 Applications of Gauss Theorem-
LHS  S
E .ds
1) To find EFI due to a point charge
  Eds cos 00 2) To prove Coulomb's law
kq 4r 2
 2  ds 1) To find EFI due to a point charge
r 0
q
Consider a charge +q placed at O.
 [ 4r 2
] Let P be a point at a distance of 'r'
4 0 r 2

q from +q where EFI is to be

  RHS
0 calculated.
Hence, proved . Imagine a spherical gaussian +q r P
ds
surface of radius 'r' around +q. O E

Take small area element ds on it.

E and ds are parallel to each other
i.e. θ = 00
• Applying gauss law,
2) Proof of Coulomb's law
q
S E.ds  0 Using the result of previous derivation

q
S Eds cos 0  0
0
+q r
O +q'
4r 2 q
E ds 
0 0
q
E[4r  0]  2
F = q'E = kqq'/r2 which is Coulomb's law.
0
q
E
4r 2 0
q kq
E 2
 2
(4 0 )r r
• There are three types of charge density-
Q
1) Linear charge density (1-D) - λ 
L
It is charge per unit length. dQ  dL

Q

2) Surface charge density (2-D) - σ A
dQ  dA
It is charge per unit area.
Q

3) Volume charge density (3-D) - ρ V
It is charge per unit volume. dQ  dV
• Consider a thin metallic spherical shell of
radius 'R' having charge 'q' such that its
surface charge density is   4qR
2

• Let P be a point at a distance of 'r' from its q r ds

centre O where EFI is to be calculated. O P E
R
Case 1- P lies outside the sphere (r>R)
• Imagine a spherical gaussian surface of radius
'r' such that point P lies on it.
• Take small element 'ds' on it.
• E and ds are parallel to each other so θ=00
• Applying Gauss Law, Case 2- P lies on the surface (r=R)
q kq 
S E.ds  0 E 2
  const.
R 0

q Case 3- P lies inside the surface (r<R)

S Eds cos 0  0
0

q
4r 2 q ds
E ds  O r
P E
0 0
R
q
E[4r  0]  2

0
q
E • Imagine a spherical gaussian surface of
4r 2 0
q kq radius 'r' such that point P lies on it.
E 
( 4 0 ) r 2 r 2 • Take small element 'ds' on it.
1  ( 4R 2 ) R 2
E 
4 0 r 2
0 r 2
• Applying Gauss Law
q 0
S E.ds  0  0
[Because charge enclosed in the gaussian surface is zero as charge resides
only on the outer surface of conductors or metals]
So, E = 0

• Derivation will be same for a solid metallic sphere.

• Consider a solid dielectric sphere of radius
'R' having charge 'q' such that its volume
charge density is   q
4 3
R
3 q r
ds
• Let P be a point at a distance of 'r' from its O R P E
centre O where EFI is to be calculated.
Case 1- P lies outside the sphere (r>R)
• Imagine a spherical gaussian surface of
radius 'r' such that point P lies on it.
• Take small element 'ds' on it.
• E and ds are parallel to each other so θ=00
• Applying Gauss Law, E 
q kq
 2
( 4  0 ) r 2
r
q
S E.ds  0 1

4
( R 3 )
 R 3
E  3 
q 4  0 r 2
3 0 r 2
S Eds cos 0  0
0

Case 2- P lies on the surface (r=R)

4r 2 q
E ds  kq R
0 0 E 2   const.
R 30

E[4r  0] 
q
2 Case 3- P lies inside the surface (r<R)
0
q
q r ds
E O P E
4r 2 0
R
• Imagine a spherical gaussian surface of radius 'r' such that point P lies
on it.
• Take small element 'ds' on it.
• E and ds are parallel to each other so θ=00
• Applying Gauss Law,
q' q'
S E .ds 
0
E
4r 2 0
q'
S Eds cos 0  0
0
Charge on (4/3)πR3 volume = q
Charge on unit volume = q/(4/3)πR3 = ρ
4r 2 q'
E ds  Charge on (4/3)πr3 volume = ρ[(4/3)πr3] = q' = qr3/R3
0 0
q' k qr 3 kqr r
E[4r  0] 
2 E 2 3  3 or E 
0
r R R 3 0
• Consider an infinite length of wire having charge
'q' and charge density 'λ'. qꝏ ds2
E
• Let P be a point at a distance of 'r' from the wire
where EFI is to be calculated.
• Imagine a cylindrical gaussian surface of radius 'r' r ds1
l
and height 'l' such that point P lies on it. P
E
• Take three small elements ds1, ds2 and ds3 on the
gaussian surface as shown in figure. E
ds3
• E and ds1 are parallel to each other so θ = 00.
• E and ds2 and E and ds3 are perp. to each other so ꝏ
θ = 900.
 • Applying Gauss Law,
q'
S E.ds  0
q'
 E.ds1   E.ds2   E.ds3  0
l
 Eds1 cos 0   Eds2 cos90   Eds3 cos90  0
0 0 0

2rl
l
E  ds1 
0
0
l
E [ 2  rl  0 ] 
0
 2k
E 
2r 0 r
 ꝏ
• Consider a thin infinite sheet having charge
'q' and charge density 'σ'.
• Imagine a cylindrical gaussian surface ds1
passing through the sheet as shown in figure E E
having flat surface area 'S'. ds2
ds3
• Take three small elements ds1, ds2 and ds3
on the gaussian surface as shown in figure.
• E and ds1 are perp. to each other so θ = 900.
• E and ds2 and E and ds3 are parallel to each ꝏ

other so θ = 00.
 • Applying Gauss Law,
q'
S E.ds  0
q'
 E.ds1   E.ds2   E.ds3  0
S
 Eds1 cos90   Eds2 cos 0   Eds3 cos 0  0
0 0 0

S S
S
E  ds 2  E  ds 3 
0 0
0
S
2 E[S  0] 
0

E
20
E is independent of 'r'.
• EFI due to a thick sheet-


E
2 0

E
2 0

  
Enet   
2 0 2 0 0
 Q. Find Enet at P, Q and R.
+σ1 +σ2 +σ +σ

E1 P Q R E1 Q R E
E P
E2 E2 E1 E2 E E E
1    2 1   2
E   
1   2   
Enet   2  1
2 0 2 0 2 0
Enet   2  1
2 0 2 0 2 0
Enet   2  1
2 0 2 0 2 0
Enet   
2 0 2 0 0 Enet  0 Enet   
2 0 2 0 0

+σ1 -σ2 +σ -σ

Q R Q E R
P E1 P
E2 E1 E E E
E1 E2 E2 E E
1    2   
    2    2 Enet   2  1 Enet    Enet  0
Enet  1  2  1
2 0 2 0 2 0
Enet  1  2  1
2 0 2 0 2 0
2 0 2 0 2 0 Enet  0 2 0 2 0 0
Q. Electric field lines do not form closed loops. Why?
A. Reason 1- Electric field is conservative in nature and work done for
closed loops in a conservative field is zero. But this is not the case for EF.
So, electric field lines do not form closed loops.
Reason 2- Also, field lines emerge from +ve charge and enter into a -ve
charge. A closed loop implies that it is starting and ending at the same
point.