English Grammar For Primary School Extended

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT PAGE
UNIT 1 PARTS OF SPEECH 3
UNIT 2 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES 32
UNIT 3 CLAUSES 34
UNIT 4 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH 45
UNIT 5 QUESTION TAGS 53
UNIT 6 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE VERBS 57
UNIT 7 PHRASES 69
UNIT 8 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 74
UNIT 9 PUNCTUATION MARKS 76
UNIT 10 WORDS USED WITH PREPOSITIONS 80
UNIT 11 SOUNDS PRODUCED BY DIFFERENT ANIMALS 82
UNIT 12 PERSONS OR CREATURES WITH THEIR HOMES 83
UNIT 13 ANTONYMS 84
UNIT 14 SYNONYMS 87
UNIT 15 SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT 89
REFERENCES 91
First Edition 2019

Second Edition 2021 WHATSAPP #: 0991 295 167

UNIT 1 PARTS OF SPEECH BY ZIKOMO MASESE BANDA
There are 9 parts of speech, namely;

- Noun
- Pronoun
- Verb
- Adjective
- Adverb
- Preposition
- Conjunction
- Interjection
- Article
1. The noun
A noun is a name of a person, a place, an object or an idea.
Or
A noun is a naming word
Or
A noun is a name of anything
A noun names a person, an animal, a place, an object, an idea, a day
For example
a. Tikhale came.
b. He comes from Lilongwe.
c. Did you see the Lion?
d. Give me that book.
e. Children should tell the truth.
TYPES OF NOUNS
a. Common nouns
b. Proper nouns
c. Collective nouns
d. Abstract nouns
e. Gender nouns
f. Number
COMMON NOUNS
A common noun is used to name any common object.
For example
a. The boy is here.
b. The school is Kabwabwa.
c. Mr. Banda is a teacher
d. This book is mine.
PROPER NOUNS
It doesn’t refer to any but special name.
A proper noun is a special name given to a particular person or thing.
A proper noun must always begin with a capital letter.
For example
a. Names of people
- Mary
- John
- Adam
- Angella
- Zikomo
- Ndaleka
- Tinenenji
b. Names of towns or cities

- Blantyre
- Nairobi
- Lusaka
- Lilongwe

c. Names of special days
- Kamuzu Day
- Republic Day
- Chilembwe Day
COLLECTIVE NOUNS
A collective noun is a word which is used to name a group of people or things of the same kind.
It doesn’t name individual person or animal but a group.
For example
a. Our team won the match.
b. The class is having an English lesson.
c. There was a crowd of people outside the hall.
d. The army has come.
e. The government is looking into the matter.
f. The committee has reached a decision.
 A bunch of keys
 A bunch of bananas
 A pile of books
 A pile of plates
 A packet of cigarettes
 A swarm of birds
 A swarm of locusts
 A gang of thieves
 A crowd of people
 A bouquet of flowers
 A bundle of sticks
 A set of tools
 A unit of matches
 A dozen of batteries
 An army of soldiers
 A team of players
 A herd of cattle
 A choir of singers
 A cabinet of ministers
 A troop of lions
 A troop of monkeys
 A congregation of church

 A packet of cards
 A fleet of cars
 A band of musicians
 A shoal of fish
 A panel of judges
 A crew of airplane
 A board of director
 A flock of sheep
 A flock of birds
A collective noun can take either a singular or plural verb.
When the group is regarded acting together as a unit, the verb is singular.
For example
a. The government is looking onto the matter
b. The committee has reached a decision.
c. The jury is considering its verdict
ABSTRACT NOUNS
Abstract nouns are names of things which we cannot see or touch.
Abstract nouns refer to idea or state of something which we can think about or feel about which has no
physical qualities.
For example
a. A lot of people are afraid of death.
b. Malawi got her independence in 1964.
c. This man has great wisdom.
d. I do not need your help.
e. The soldiers fought with courage.
f. We must conquer poverty and ignorance.
g. He was treated with kindness.
GENDER
Noun can be classified according to gender as masculine, feminine, common or neuter.

Nouns that are names of males are said to be masculine gender.
For example
- Man
- Boy
- Bull
- Uncle
- Husband
Nouns that are names of females are said to be faminine gender.
For example
- Mother
- Girl
- Cow
- Sister
- Hen
- Woman
Names that are names of things without life belong to the neuter gender.
For example
- Desk
- Book
- Cup
- Table
- Grass
Nouns that may refer to either males or females are of the common gender.
NUMBER
There are two forms taken by nouns to show number in English namely:
a. The singular
b. The plural

SINGULAR NOUNS
For example: egg, girl, chair, pencil, boy
PLURAL NOUNS
For example: girls, chairs, pencils, boys
2. The pronoun
A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun
Or
A pronoun is a word which is used instead of a noun.
For example: she, he, it, her, him, himself, them, myself, someone, some, you, me, we, us, they, itself,
ourselves, herself, what, who, whom, whose, which, this, these, that, those, mine, yours, ours, anybody,
either, each, neither, nobody, something, its, theirs, hers, his, I,
For example
a. Maria is here.
She is here.
b. Alick and Mphatso played well.
They played well.
TYPES OF PRONOUNS
- Personal pronouns
- Possessive pronouns
- Reflexive pronouns
- Emphatic pronouns
- Interrogative pronouns
- Demonstrative pronouns
- Distributive pronouns
- Indefinite pronouns

PERSONAL PRONOUNS
Personal pronouns are pronouns that stand for names of people.
For example
a. He is looking at her.
b. She is reading it.
c. We are here.
d. You should go outside.
e. They are going home.
f. He told him to come.
g. He told us to write the work.
The table below makes the following points about personal pronouns.
First person Second person
Singular I You
Me
Plural We You
Us
 I and me refer to the first person singular.
 We and us refer to the first person plural.
 He, him, her refer to the third person singular.
 They and them refer to the third person plural.
He and Him To the masculine gender.
She and Her
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
Possessive pronouns are pronouns that are used to show ownership and possession.
For example
a. That is mine.
b. The pen is yours.
c. The car is ours.
d. The dog is theirs.
e. The goat is his.
f. These shoes are hers.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
Reflexive pronouns are pronouns used when the action expressed by verbs passes back to the subject.
For example
a. The little girl hurt herself.
b. A baby cannot dress itself.
c. They enjoyed themselves.
d. He cut himself with his knife.
e. We taught ourselves to swim.
EMPHATIC PRONOUNS
Emphatic pronouns have the same form as reflexive pronouns but are used in different ways.
Emphatic pronouns call attention to or are used to show emphasis.
For example
a. You yourself will have to pay for it.
b. My father himself built the house.
c. We ourselves saw the accident happening.
d. Mrs. Phiri herself saved the children.
NOTE: The deference between reflexive pronoun and emphatic pronoun is that when reflexive pronoun
are removed from the sentence, the sentence does not make sense whereas when an emphatic
pronoun is removed from the sentence, the sentence still makes sense.
Examples:
a. Mrs. Phiri cut herself.
Mrs. Phiri cut.................................. (Reflexive pronoun)
b. Mrs. Phiri herself saved the child.

Mrs. Phiri saved the children........... (Emphatic pronoun)
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
Interrogative pronouns are used when asking questions.
For example
a. What is your name?
b. Who are you?
c. Whose is this coat?

d. Which of these books do you want?
e. Whom are you going to meet?
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
Demonstrative pronouns are pronouns that point out and identify.
For example
a. This is a good book.
b. These are good books.
c. That is the house in which we live.
d. Those are the articles you wanted.
DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS
Distributive pronouns are pronouns that are used to refer to individual or separate members of a group or
class.
For example
a. Either of the cars is good for our purpose.
b. Each of the boys was given a present.
c. Neither of these is right.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
Indefinite pronoun is one which does not show exactly the person or thing which is referred to.
Indefinite pronouns refer to people or things general.
Some of indefinite pronouns are always singular and therefore take singular verbs.
The following are examples of singular indefinite pronouns;

anybody anyone anything someone
everybody everyone each either
everything much neither no one
nothing one other something
somebody
Singular:
a. Everything is in its place now.

b. Nothing ruins the economy so much as drought.
Some indefinite pronouns are always plural and they take plural verbs.
The most common plural indefinite pronouns are:
few many both several
Plural
a. Many are able to make ends meet.
b. Several belong to this organization.
The following Indefinite pronouns can either be singular or plural depending on their use in sentences.
all enough plenty most more any none some
Singular
a. Most of the help was given by the passersby.
b. Some of the work is done by the caretaker.
Plural
a. Some of the essays were interesting to read.
b. Most of the company’s houses are in the city.
When the words pair

either......or; neither....... nor are used in sentences the verb agrees with the near subject.
For example
a. Either you or he is/are expected to assist.
b. Neither John nor you are/is likely to be chosen.
c. Either a dining or dormitories is/are to be build.
d. Neither Gregory nor his classmates has/have succeeded in solving the problem.
The word none is generally plural and it should be followed by plural verb whereas the word no one is
singular and should be followed by singular verb.

For example
a. None has/have arrived.
b. No one has/have reported yet.
EXERCISE
Underline the form of the verb that agrees with the subject in each sentence.
a. Either the captain or the players is/are to blame for the fight.
b. Neither the farmer nor his sons has/have gone to the farm.
c. Either Zikomo or you are/is likely to play in the team.
d. The captain with the players was/were entertained.
e. The chicken as well as her chicks is/are playing in the flower bed.
RELATIVE PRONOUN
The relative pronoun is part of the clause which does the work of an adjective.
The relative pronoun introduces an adjectival clause which qualifies the noun.
For example
a. The bus which brought us here has broken.
b. Dalitso is a pupil upon whom one can depend.
c. The Jersey that I wore last year is now too small.
3. The verb
A verb is a doing word or one that shows action.
A verb may be just one word or may consist of several words.
For example
a. The boy went home.
b. She is a girl.
c. The boy is going home.
d. He will be seeing his father tomorrow.

AUXILIARY VERBS
Auxiliary verbs are those which help other verbs to form their tense, voice and mood. Auxiliary verbs are
also used to show the interrogative, negative and emphatic forms of verbs.
For example:
a. I am going home. (The auxiliary verb am has been used with the verb going to form the present
continuous tense)
b. Timve can’t swim. (The auxiliary verb can’t has been used with the verb swim to form the negative)
c. The boys were playing football. (The auxiliary verb were has been used with the verb playing to form
the past continuous tense)
d. Will you come with me? (The auxiliary verb will has been used with the verb come to form the
interrogative)
e. May God bless you. (The auxiliary verb may has been used with the verb bless to form the present
subjunctive mood)
f. The rat was killed by the cat. (The auxiliary verb was has been used with the verb killed to form the
passive voice)
g. Dziko did see the snake. (The auxiliary verb did has been used with the verb see to form the
emphatic)
The following is a list of primary auxiliary verbs in English:
INFINITIVE PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE

be am, is, are was, were
have has, have had
do does, do did
THE USES OF AUXILIARY VERBS

The various forms of the verb to be namely: am, is, are, were are used in forming continuous tenses and
passive voice.
For example:
a. I was reading. (past continuous tense)
b. Takondwa is writing a letter (present continuous tense)
c. The house was built by my uncle (passive voice)
d. They were told to go home (passive voice)
Have, has and had are used with other verbs to form:
a. The present perfect tense

b. The past perfect tense
For example:
a. I have already had my supper. (present perfect tense)
b. When they arrived, I had already taken my bath. (past perfect tense)
c. John has written a letter (present perfect tense)
d. She had given up all hopes of seeing her son again. (past perfect tense)
Do, does and did are used to show the negative, interrogative and emphatic forms of the verb.
For example
a. Do you live in Blantyre? (interrogative)
b. Does she enjoy dancing? (interrogative)
c. I don’t think we have met? (negative)
d. Yohane did not visit his parents. (negative)
e. We did invite you? (emphatic)
f. I do realize how important his work is. (emphatic)
NUMBER AND PERSON

Number in verbs refers to the form of a verb which indicates whether its subject is singular or plural.
A subject in the singular is followed by a verb in the singular.
For example:
- She was present. (The pronoun she is singular, so the verb was is also singular)
- Henry has gone.
- I am here.
- It is burning.
- Was she there?
Likewise a subject in the plural is followed by a verb in the plural.
For example:
- They were present. (The pronoun they is plural so the plural verb were is used)
- The boys have gone.
- We are here.
- The houses are burning.
- Were the girls ready?

Person in verbs refers to the roles of the participants in the conversation. The form of the verb indicates
whether one is speaking, is spoken to, or is spoken about.
For example:
(a) I am singing. (In this sentence the speaker refers to himself. He has used the first person.)
(b) You are singing. (In this sentence the speaker refers to the person spoken to. He has used the
second person)
(c) He was crying. She was crying. It was crying. (In this sentence the speaker refers to the person or
creature spoken of. He has used the third person)
You must remember that a verb must agree with its subject in person or number.
When two or more subjects are connected by and the verb is plural.
For example:
- Zikomo and Tinenenji are eating.
- Chimwemwe and Sean have already eaten.
When two singular nouns connected by and form a unit, or are considered as one thing, the singular verb
is used.
For example:
- Bread and butter is eaten at most meals.
- Bacon and egg is a popular breakfast dish.
The words every, either, neither, each are singular and are followed by a singular verb.
For example:
- Has either of the girls gone?
- Neither of the girls has gone.
- Each of the pupils was given a book.
- Every member of the team is fit.
When the word pairs either – or, neither – nor are used in a sentence the verb agrees with the nearer
subject.
For example:
- Either you or he is expected to assist.
- Either George or you are likely to be chosen.

- Neither Ndaleka nor I am eligible for this post.
- Neither Mphatso nor you have been invited.
If two subjects connected by or or nor differ in number and person, the verb agrees with the nearer
subject.
For example:
- Either a dining hall or dormitories are to be built.
- Either dormitories or a dining hall is to be built.
- Either the teacher or the pupils are responsible for the damage.
- Either the pupils or the teacher is responsible for the damage.
- Neither Zikomo nor his classmates have succeeded in solving the problem.
If two subjects joined by and are preceded by the word every the verb is singular.
For example:
- Every desk drawer and bookshelf was searched.
- Every office and conference room is occupied.
When the subjects are connected by with, as well as, in addition to, like the verb takes the number and
person of the subject which stands first.
For example
a. He with his brothers is responsible for it.
b. I as well as you am included in the invitation.
c. The players in addition to their captain were involved in the fight.
The word none is generally plural; no one is singular.
For example:
- None have been lost since you last counted them.
- None of them were ready.
- No one was ready for school.
- No one is likely to be absent from the examination
Words denoting sums of money or quantities such as lengths, weights and so on are considered as units,
and take singular verbs.

For example:
- Twenty kwacha was all I had.
- Ten months is a long time to wait.
- Two hundred kwacha is too much to pay.
- Ninety kilometres is a long distance.
In a compound subject (a subject which contains two or more nouns or pronouns as subjects of a verb), if
one subject is in the affirmative and the other is in the negative, the verb agrees with the subject which is
in the affirmative.
For example:
- She, not I, is at fault.
- Thokozani, not Thokozire or Pempho, deserves to be congratulated for this wirk.
4. The adjective
An adjective is a word that is used to describe a noun.
An adjective qualifies a noun

For example: red, twenty, good, beautiful, cowardly
TYPES OF ADJECTIVES
a. Descriptive adjectives
b. Possessive adjectives
c. Interrogative adjectives
d. Demonstrative adjectives
e. Numeral adjectives
f. Indefinite adjectives
g. Qualitative adjectives
h. Distributive adjectives
i. Proper adjectives

DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES
Descriptive adjectives indicate the quality or state of a thing.
For example
a. The river is not deep.
b. Zakeyo is a brave boy.
c. That is a short girl.
d. My father is a poor man.
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
Possessive adjectives are used to indicate to whom an adjective belongs.
They are adjectives which show possession.
For example
a. Its legs are dirty.
b. This is my bicycle.
c. Our home is not very far.
d. Is that your home?
INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES
Interrogative adjectives are adjectives which are used for asking questions.
These adjectives ask questions which objective is meant.
For example
a. Which pencil do you want?
b. What time is it?
c. Which bus goes to Ndirande?
d. Which boy will win the prize?
DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES
Demonstrative adjectives are used to indicate which object is pointed at.
For example
a. This book is old.
b. That girl is my sister.
c. These bananas are green.

d. Those hoes are ours.
NUMERICAL ADJECTIVES
Numerical adjectives are adjectives which indicate exactly how many things are there or which order they
are.
For example
a. This is sixth girl in this class.
b. Twenty players were selected for the game.
c. September is the ninth month of the year.
d. She gained second place in class.
INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES
Indefinite adjectives indicate a number of things without stating exactly what the number is.
For example
a. All dogs are to be vaccinated this week.
b. Several people were invited to the ceremony.
c. Some girls took part in the competition.
d. In recent years many houses have been built in Lilongwe.
DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES
A distributive adjective shows that things are taken separately.
For example
a. Each pupil receives a copy of books.
b. Timve was told to take medicine every two hours.
c. The chairman did not support either side.
QUALITATIVE ADJECTIVES
Qualitative adjectives show how much an objective is meant.
For example
a. My father hasn’t got much money.
b. Has she got any meat?
c. I have got some bread in the house.

d. The hungry man ate the whole loaf of bread.
PROPER ADJECTIVES
A proper adjective is either an adjective formed from a proper noun used as an adjective.
A proper adjective begins with capital letters.
For example
a. Mr Tobias bought a French car.
b. Japanise radios are becoming popular.
c. Malawian women used to wearing their traditional dresses.
5. The adverb
An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb.
For example: quickly, here, very, today, too, quite, when, how, why, where, soon, now, often never,
always, almost, seldom
TYPES OF ADVERBS
a. Adverb of place
b. Adverb of time
c. Adverb of manner
d. Adverb of degree
e. Interrogative adverbs
f. Relative adverbs
g. Adverb of frequency
1. ADVERB OF PLACE
An adverb of place indicates where the action of the verb takes place.
Adverbs of place answer the question “where”

For example
a. She slept here.
b. They slept there.
c. My father has gone abroad.
d. They have gone back.
2. ADVERB OF TIME
Adverbs of time indicate when the action of the verb takes place.
They answer the question “when”.
For example
a. Please write a letter soon.
b. Mr. Phiri went home yesterday.
c. Our examinations start tomorrow.
d. Can I see you now.
3. ADVERB OF MANNER
This adverb describes how an action of the verb takes place.
Most of the verbs end in ly
For example
a. Christina writes neatly.
b. The old woman walked slowly.
c. The man drove carelessly.
4. ADVERB OF DEGREE
This adverb indicates the extent or degree of any quality when they modify adjectives or adverbs, or the
degree of action of a verb.
For example
a. The pot is too hot.
b. Dalitso is a very clever girl.
c. She walked so slowly that she was left behind.
d. This sum is rather difficult.
e. He did the work quite quickly.
f. Those shoes are too big for me.

Adverbs of degree modify adjectives or another adverb.
5. INTEROGATIVE ADVERBS
Interrogative adverbs are used to introduce questions.
For example
a. When are you going to town?
b. How are you?
c. Why don’t you come?
d. Why is she crying?
e. Where are you going?
6. RELATIVE ADVERBS
These adverbs are used to introduce adverbial clauses.
For example
a. I saw them when I was in Blantyre.
b. They asked me why I was late.
c. We shall eat where the food is good.
d. When you saw me I was ill.
7. ADVERB OF FREQUENCY
Adverbs of frequency indicate the frequency which the action of the verb takes place.
For example
a. She goes home frequently.
b. I often meet him.
c. I have never met him.
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
Adverbs that can be compared have the same degree of comparison as adjectives: positive, comparative,
superlative
Adverbs of one syllable take er in the comparative form and est in the superlative

Positive Comparative Superlative
hard harder hardest
high higher highest
fast faster fastest
soon sooner soonest
The following adverbs have irregular forms

well better best
much more most
far farther farthest
little less least
bad worse worst
Other adverbs use more and most

quickly more quickly most quickly
happily more happily most happily
carefully more carefully most carefully
6. The preposition
A preposition is a word which is used with a noun or pronoun to show relationship between the noun or
pronoun and another word in a sentence.
Examples of prepositions: during, to, from, between, into, through, in, under, about, on, inside, at, off,
along, across, up, round, down, after, among, near, with, before, behind, beside, below, far, over, by,
since, for
We say a preposition governs a noun or pronoun in the objective or accusative case.

For example
a. The dog ran into the house.
b. I walked through the gate.
c. They are in the house.
d. Zikomo is sitting under the tree.
e. This chapter is about prepositions.
f. She got a letter from them.
PREPOSITIONS RELATING TO POSITION AND PLACE
Examples:
a. George was born in Lilongwe.
b. The plate is on the table.
c. Is he inside the house?
d. The books are off the shelf.
e. I met him at the bus stop.
f. The cat fell into the well.
PREPOSITIONS RELATING TO DIRECTION AND MOVEMENT
Examples:
a. Mr. Phiri walked along the road.
b. They ran up the hill.
c. She walked down the hill.
d. Kondwani has gone to Blantyre.
e. He drove through the gate.
f. Some of them ran round the corner.
PREPOSITION ASSOCIATED WITH TIME
Examples:
a. I haven’t seen him since yesterday.
b. They did most of the work during the day.
c. She started attending school in October.
d. I will see Pempho in the morning.
e. She arrived at night.
f. He was born in 1991.

g. He has been living in Lilongwe for ten years.
h. She went home on Friday.
7. The conjunction
A conjunction is a word that joins words, phrases or sentences.
For example: and, because, if, while, but, or, unless, after, although, though, before, since, both-and,
either-or, neither-nor, not only-but also, how, where
There are three kinds of conjunctions:

1. Coordinating conjunctions
2. Correlative conjunctions
3. Subordinating conjunctions
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
These conjunctions join words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank.
In the following examples, words of equal rank are joined.

a. Cats and dogs
b. Girls and boys
c. Young but strong
d. Men or women
In the following examples, phrases of equal rank are joined.

a. Along the street and around the corner.
b. At home and at school.
c. Not at school but at home
In the following examples, coordinating conjunctions join clauses of equal rank.

a. Will you call Mphatso or shall I?
b. My sister wrote a letter and I posted it.

c. Mavuto works badly but he plays football well.
d. The bus was late and I missed the train.
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
These are used to join a dependant or subordinate clauses to an independent clause.
In the following examples, subordinating conjunctions are used to join subordinate clauses to main
clauses.
a. I ate some bread because I was hungry.
b. Unless she apologies, I will punish her.
c. After he has finished his breakfast, he went to school.
d. Since the room is full, we must stay outside.
e. Although he was ill, he decided to keep his punishment.
f. Where has he been waiting since he arrived?
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
These are conjunctions which are used in pairs.
The most commonly used correlative conjunctions are:

a. Both.....................and
b. Either.................. or
c. Neither................nor
d. Not only.....................but also
For example
a. Both Timve and Tsala work in the garden on Saturday.
b. She plans to wear either the blue dress or the green dress.
c. Neither Takondwa nor Ndaleka has a bicycle.
d. Silver Strikers not only won the Chibuku Cup but also the Castle Cup.
e. Both Mr. Zingani and Mrs. Zingani are ill.

8. The interjection
An interjection is a word that is used to express a sudden strong feeling.
An interjection may show surprise, pleasure, pain, confusion, joy, sorrow or some other emotion.
For example:
a. Oh! I left my notebook at home.
b. Alas! This is the end.
c. Hurrah! Out team won.
d. Ouch! It bites.
e. Hey! You can’t go in there.
Note that an interjection is followed by an exclamation mark.
When you remove the interjection, the sentence still makes sense.
After an interjection, the word starts with a capital letter.
9. The article
The words: a, an, the perform the same function as adjectives.
They are called articles.
The is the definite article while a (or an) is the indefinite article.
THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

The definite article is used with a noun that has been mentioned previously.
For example:
- Mr. Tembo bought a car last year. This year he sold the car and bought a tractor.
We often use the definite article when we speak about a special thing or person.
For example:

- Here is the pen which I bought yesterday.
- He lives in the house on the corner.
- The window of the bathroom has been broken.
Often we use definite article in front of a common noun to refer to a person or thing if only one exists.
For example:
- The world is full of suffering.
- The moon travels round the sun.
- The sun, the sky, the earth, the equator, the north, the universe, the Vatican
We use the definite article with superlatives of comparison.
For example:
- This is the easiest way.
- She is the smallest girl.
- This is the most beautiful girl.
- That was the most terrifying experience.
We use the definite article before adjectives used as nouns to donate a whole class.
For example:
a. The blind need everybody’s sympathy.
b. This adventure is for the young.
c. He went to cheer up the sick.
d. The poor are sometimes quite happy.
THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE

It was explained before that the indefinite article a or an functions like an adjective.
A is used before a word beginning with a consonant. For example: a school, a bus, a bottle, a hoe.
A is also used before a vowel with a y or w sound. For example: a union, a European, a university, a one-
sided game.
An is used before a word beginning with a vowel. For example: an idea, an Indian, an orange, an ounce.
An is also used before words which begin with silent h. For example an hour, an honour, an heir, an
honesty boy.

THE USE OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE.
The indefinite article is often used to refer to one unspecified member of a class of individuals.
For example:
- Mr. Phiri bought a car.
- Mr. Banda is building a house.
- Do you keep a dog at your house?
It can be used to mean one.
For example:
- There are three fit in a yard.
- She was moving at thirty miles an hour.
- A hundred students participated.
The indefinite article is used when the speaker wants to show that he does not know the person he is
going to name.
For example:
- A Mr. Gondwe was elected chairman.
- The house opposite ours is owned by a Mr. Madula.
The indefinite article is often used before the name of a profession, an occupation, a religion, a trade.
For example:
- Mr. Banda is a Christian.
- Mr. Tembo is a doctor.
- Mrs Gondwe is a nurse.
- He is an engineer.
USE OF THE ARTICLE WITH COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

Noun is a naming word. It names something or someone.
We can say one tree, two trees, three trees, one book, two books, and so forth. We call these countable
nouns. They refer to things or creatures which we can count.

There are other nouns which refer to things which we cannot easily count. For example, the noun water
refers to something which we really cannot count, although we can measure water using containers..
The noun water and other nouns which are similar to it are called uncountable nouns. Other uncountable
nouns are: furniture, bread, advice, paper, rice.
The indefinite article (a or an) is used before singular countable nouns. We say a tree, a book, an
elephant, a stone, a man.
We do not use the indefinite article with uncountable nouns. When we want to refer to uncountable
nouns as units we use a countable noun before them.
For example:
- a drop of water
- a piece of furniture
- a bit of advice
- a pound of rice
- a bucket of water
- a loaf of bread
The definite article can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns, and with both singular and
plural nouns.
For example:
- I ordered the boy to bring the water.
- Is this the rice which you talked about?
- The children ate the bread.
You should always remember that the indefinite article (a, an) is used with a singular countable noun but
not with an uncountable noun.

UNIT 2 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES
The two ways in which verbs are used to express action are called the active and passive voices.
A verb is said to be in the active voice when the subject is taking the action.
For example:
- The snake watched the boy.
- The cat killed a rat.
- The boy opened the door.
A verb is said to be in the passive voice when the subject is receiving the action (or something that can be
imagined as action).
For example:
- The boy was watched by the snake.
- The rat was killed by the cat.
- The door was opened by the boy.
In the sentence: The snake watched the boy the verb watched is in the active voice because it expresses
an action which the subject, the snake, is taking; the boy is the object of watched.
In the passive voice, the same situation has been expressed from the point of view of the boy. If you make
the boy the subject, and refer to the same situation, the sentence becomes: The boy was watched by the
snake. In the real life situation there has been no change.
The one situation can be represented in two ways: from the point of view of the snake, which is thought
of as taking action which affects the boy; from the point of view of the boy, who is thought of as receiving
the action from the snake!
A verb is in the active voice when its subject takes action, it is in the passive voice when its subject
receives or suffers the action.
You will remember from the discussion of auxiliary verbs that the passive voice is made up of a form of
the verb to be and the past participle.

For example:
watches becomes is watched
watched becomes was watched
is/are discussing becomes is/are being discussed
killed becomes was killed
broke becomes was broken
will break becomes will be broken
had brought becomes had been brought
Look at the following sentences which show the relationships between sentences in the passive voice and
those in the active voice.
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE

VERB VERB
SUBJECT (ACTIVE) OBJECT SUBJECT (PASSIVE) AGENT
The snake watched the boy. The boy was watched by the snake.
The cat killed the rats. The rats were killed by the cat.
The boy opened the door. The door was opened by the boy.
The hunter killed the lion. The lion was killed by the hunter.
The men built the house. The house was built by the men.
The boy had brought a bag. A bad had been brought by the boy.
The committee is discussing the issue. The issue is being discussed by the committee.
The chief will welcome the minister. The minister will be welcomed by the chief.
The watchman keeps the keys. The keys are kept by the watchman.

UNIT 3 CLAUSES
1. NOUN CLAUSES
A noun clause may be defined as a subordinate clause that is used as a noun.
Noun clauses, like single nouns, are used in the ways explained below:
The noun clause as the object of a verb
- I asked him where he had put the book. (The noun clause where he had put the book is the object
of the verb asked.)
Compare the above sentence with this one: I asked him a question. (You can see that the noun clause is
performing the same function as the noun question.)
Look at this examples:
- He said he would go.

Noun clause as object of “said”
- I think that he has already left the office.

Noun clause as object of “think”
- I heard what he said.

Noun clause as object of “heard”
- George does whatever he likes.

Noun clause as object of “does”
- I cannot understand how that mistake was made.

Noun clause as object of “cannot understand”
- His father’s good influence made him what he is.

Noun clause as object of “made”
- They thought that I was ill.

- Noun clause as object of “thought”
-
- Have you decided what you will tell him?
Noun clause as object of “decided”

The noun clause as the subject of a verb
- Why I do this is no concern of yours.

Noun clause as subject of “is”
- What he did surprised us.

Noun clause as subject of “surprised”
- What he said doesn’t interest me.

Noun clause as subject of “doesn’t interest”
- Whether we play football or not depends on the weather.

Noun clause as subject of “depends”
- What he expected to gain by his conduct was a mystery to me.

Noun clause as subject of “was”
- Whoever did that job should have been more careful.

Noun clause as subject of “should have been”
- Why the woman jumped into the well will never be known.
Noun clause as subject of “will never be known”
- That your answer is wrong is quite clear.

- What you have on your desk is not yours.

- What you say is very sad.

The noun clause as the object of a preposition
- The house was sold for what it was worth.

Noun clause as object of “for”
- We cannot depend on what she says.

Noun clause as object of “on”
- Give it to whoever wants it.
Noun clause as object of “to”
- I shall give a copy to whoever asks for one.

Noun clause as object of “to”
- Your story differs from what we have already heard.

Noun clause as object of “from”
The noun clause as complement of a verb
- This is what I wanted.

Noun clause as complement of “is”
- This appears to be what they have been expecting.

Noun clause as complement of “appears to be”
- The winner will be whichever competitor scores the most points.

Noun clause as complement of “will be”
- Happiness is what everyone hopes for.

- This appears to be what he lost.
Noun clause as complement of “appears to be”
- The difficulty is that both of us want the tickets.

The noun clause used in apposition to a noun
- The knowledge that he was right gave him satisfaction.

Noun clause in apposition to “knowledge”
- The rumour that he had failed shocked his friends.

Noun clause in apposition to “rumour”

- The report that the team had been beaten proved to be without foundation.
Noun clause in apposition to “report”
- The news that the plane had crashed shocked the people.
Noun clause in apposition to “news”
2. ADVERB CLAUSES
An adverbial clause is a subordinate clause which does the work of an adverb.
Adverbial clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions such as when, where, while, before, as,
unless, because, though, although.
Like an adverb, an adverbial clause modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb.
TYPES OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
A) Adverb clauses of time
Adverbial clauses of time modify verbs in sentences and indicate when something happened.
Examples:
 The bus arrived as the sun was setting.
Modifying a verb ‘arrived’
 When I met him it was raining heavily

Modifying a verb ‘was raining’
 I shall give you this book as soon as you stop shouting at me.
Modifying a verb ‘shall give’
 She slept while I was working.

Modifying a verb ‘slept’

 When I arrived at the bus station the bus was just arriving.
Modifying a verb ‘was arriving’
B) Adverb clauses of place
Adverbial clauses of place modify verbs and indicate where something happened.
Examples:
 The injured man lay where he had fallen.
Modifying a verb ‘lay’
 I eventually found the coat where I had put it.

Modifying a verb ‘found’
 I found him where I had left him.

Modifying a verb ‘found’
 He planted the tomatoes where they were safe from birds.

Modifying a verb ‘planted’
C) Adverb clauses of manner
Adverbial clauses of manner indicate the manner in which something is done.
Examples:
 You must do this as I do it.
Modifying a verb ‘must do’
 He walks as if he is ill.
Modifying a verb ‘walks’
 He acted as if he had done a wonderful thing.

Modifying a verb ‘acted’
 She speaks as if she has a cold.

Modifying a verb ‘speaks’

D) Adverb clauses of reason or cause
Adverbial clauses of reason show why something was done.
Examples:
 They closed the window because it was raining.
Modifying a verb ‘closed’
 We missed our train because we were delayed by the heavy traffic.

Modifying a verb ‘missed’
 Since there were no seats we had to stand.

Modifying a verb ‘hat to stand’
 Since the bus has already left, let us return home.

Modifying a verb ‘return’
E) Adverb clauses of result
Adverbial clauses of result indicate the result of an action or a situation.
Examples:
 It was so hot that we decided to sit in the shade.
Modifying adjective 'hot'
 She acted so well in the play that she was given a prize.
Modifying adverb 'well'
 He gets up so early that we hardly ever see him in the morning.
Modifying adverb 'early'
 He was so intelligent that he got full marks in the examinations.

Modifying adjective 'intelligent'
F) Adverb clauses of condition
Adverbial clauses of condition give the conditions under which certain things can be done.
Examples:

 If you need my help do not hesitate to call me.
Modifying a verb ‘do not hesitate’
 If I see him, I will warn him.

Modifying a verb ‘will warn’
 Should the rain fall during the night, we shall not leave tomorrow.
Modifying a verb ‘shall not leave’
 If our team wins the match, we shall celebrate.

Modifying a verb ‘shall celebrate’
G) Adverbial clauses of concession
These clauses are introduced by though and although.
Examples:
 Though he was late, he came at last.
Modifying a verb ‘came’
 She partook in the dances although she had a cold.

Modifying a verb ‘partook’
 Although her parents are very rich, she dresses simply.

Modifying a verb ‘dresses’
 Although you have been unkind to me, I still regard you as a friend.
Modifying a verb ‘regard’
H) Adverb clauses of purpose
Examples:
 We are studying hard so that we may pass the examination.
Modifying a verb ‘are studying’

 I called you so that we may discuss the matter fully.
Modifying a verb ‘called’
 I have bought a car so that I can visit my parents more often.

Modifying a verb ‘have bought’
 She is training as a teacher so that she can support herself in future.

Modifying a verb ‘is training’
I) Adverb clauses of comparison or degree
Examples:
 You like milk more than I do.
Modifying adverb 'more'
 Sekani is playing better than he did last year.

Modifying adverb 'better'
 My brother is taller than I am.

Modifying an adjective ‘taller’
 Zikomo is as old as I am.

Modifying an adjective ‘old’
3. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
An adjective clause may be defined as a group of words which includes a finite verb and which does the
work of an adjective.
An adjective clause qualifies a noun and is normally introduced by a relative pronoun (who, whose whom,
which, that)

For example:
- The woman who is wearing a red dress is my mother.
Qualifying a noun ‘woman’
- The bridge that was built across the river was washed away during the flood.
Qualifying a noun ‘bridge’
- The police questioned the man whom they suspected to be the thief.
Qualifying a noun ‘man’
- The girl whose arm was broken yesterday is my sister.

Qualifying a noun ‘girl’
- The house which I built has fallen down.

Qualifying a noun ‘house’
ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES WITH RELATIVE PRONOUNS
It was pointed out earlier that adjectival clauses are usually introduced by relative pronouns (who, which,
whom, whose and that).
Adjectival clauses are sometimes introduced by the words: when, where and why.
For example:
- The book which she gave me was a novel.
- The man whom you met is my brother.
- The girl whose father was injured left school.
- The boy who found the lost bag was given some money.
- That is the place where I saw him.
- She did not tell us the reason why she was late.
- This is the season when we enjoy ourselves.
- The car that she bought last year has been stolen.
You will notice that each of the adjectival clauses is introduced by a relative pronoun or by an adverb
used as a relative pronoun.

The noun which is qualified by the adjectival clause is called the antecedent.
ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES WITH RELATIVE PRONOUNS UNDERSTOOD (NOT EXPRESSED)
In sentences containing adjectival clauses introduced by which and whom, the relative pronoun may be
omitted.
This is also true for sentences where that replaces which in the adjectival clause.
For example:
(a) The book which she borrowed from the library is lost.
The book she borrowed from the library is lost.
(b) The salesman submitted the report that he had prepared.

The salesman submitted the report he had prepared.
(c) The bicycle which he bought last week has been stolen.
The bicycle he bought last week has been stolen.
(d) The man whom you met is my brother.

The man you met is my brother.
(e) The man whom I saw was fierce.

The man I saw was fierce.
(f) One should not believe everything that one hears.

One should not believe everything one hears.
Note that it is only in defining or restrictive adjectival clauses that the above relative pronouns may be
omitted.
Defining clauses are discussed in the next section.

DEFINING ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES
A defining or restrictive adjectival clause is one that tells us precisely who or what the noun is.
The defining adjectival clause is essential to the meaning of the word it qualifies.
It ‘restricts’ the meaning of the word it qualifies.
For example:
(a) The man who is in the house is my father. (The adjectival clauses identifies the particular man
concerned, if it were omitted the sentence would read “The man is my father” and it would not be
clear to whoever read the sentence which man was meant.)
(b) The teacher who taught us last year has retired. (A particular teacher is identified.)
(c) The book which you lost was not mine. (We know precisely which book is meant.)
(d) She does not like children who eat sweets. (A particular group of children is identified.)
(e) The boy who sat on the floor took my book. (A particular boy has been identified.)
(f) This is the boat which sailed down the Shire River. (We are told precisely which boat it is.)
NON-DEFINING ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES
A non-defining or restrictive adjectival clause is one that is not essential to the word it qualifies.
A non-defining adjectival clause merely gives information about the noun it qualifies, and is normally
separated from the rest of the sentence by the use of commas.
For example:
 Mr. Phiri, who is in the house, was once a teacher. (The man spoken of is already identified by
name, and the adjectival clause who is in the house merely gives information.)
 Our geography teacher, who is English, has lived in Malawi for ten years.
 This book, which I bought last week, has proved to be useful.
 Our headmaster, whom you met recently, has invited you to dinner.
 My father, who is nearly sixty, is still energetic.
 My uncle, who works in Blantyre, has come to visit us.
In each of the above sentences the non-defining adjectival clause merely gives information.

UNIT 4 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
DIRECT SPEECH
When a sentence contains the actual words spoken by someone, the words quoted are written within
inverted commas or quotation marks and are said to be in direct speech.
For example:
(a) Joseph said, 'I am going home today.' (The words I am going home today are the actual words
spoken by Joseph and are therefore in direct speech)
(b) 'How far is it to your village?' the driver asked.
(c) 'If she comes early,' said Mr. Phiri, 'she will catch the bus.'
POINTS TO NOTE
1. Only the words actually spoken are placed within inverted commas
2. A comma is placed either just before the actual words as in (a) or just after as in (c)
3. The actual words spoken should begin with a capital letter.
4. When a direct quotation is broken into two parts, separated by words not spoken, as in (c), there
is a comma before and after the words not spoken. The second part of a broken quotation does
not start with a capital letter.
5. The punctuation mark at the end of the sentence is usually within the inverted commas. However,
quotation marks and exclamation marks may sometimes be placed outside the inverted commas.
Look at the following sentences:
(a) Mrs. Gondwe asked, "Who is hungry?" (Only the words within the inverted commas form a question.
the question mark is, therefore, placed within the inverted commas.)
(b) Did she really say, "I am not hungry"? (The question mark applies to the whole sentence and is,
therefore, placed outside the inverted commas.)
(c) Takondwa shouted, "Hurray!" (Only the word within the inverted commas is an exclamation. The
exclamation mark should, therefore, be within the inverted commas.)

(d) How annoyed I was when he said, "I won't help you"! (In this sentence the exclamation mark applies
to the entire sentence. It is, therefore, placed outside the inverted commas.)
INDIRECT SPEECH
When a speech has not been directly quoted, but has been reported by the person who heard it, it is
called indirect speech.
Look at the following example:
DIRECT: Zikomo said, "I am going home today."
INDIRECT: Zikomo said that he was going home on that day.
DIRECT: "The match will start at 4 o'clock," the referee declared.
INDIRECT: The referee declared that the match would start at 4 o'clock.
DIRECT: Zalimba said, "I hit the boy in the face."
INDIRECT: Zalimba admitted that he had hit the boy in the face.
POINTS TO NOTE
1. You will have noticed from the examples given above that indirect speech begins with an
introductory clause and a conjunction.
2. A sentence in indirect speech does not contain inverted commas.
Here are some of the verbs which are used in the introductory clause when a direct statement is changed
into an indirect statement.
He said that _______ He declared that ______
He reported that _______ He admitted that _____
He stated that ________ He explained that ______
He announced that _____

SEQUENCE OF TENSES
When a sentence is changed from direct speech to indirect speech, the tense of the verb in the
introductory clause controls the tense of the verbs in the other clauses.
For Example:
DIRECT: "I am washing my shirt."
INDIRECT: He says that he is washing his shirt.
He has just said that he is washing his shirt.
He said that he was washing his shirt.
DIRECT: "I wrote a letter."
INDIRECT: She said that she had written a letter.
She says that she wrote a letter.
DIRECT: "I have written a letter."
INDIRECT: She says she has written a letter.
She said she had written a letter.
DIRECT: "I shall write a letter."
INDIRECT: She says that she will write a letter.
She said that she would write a letter.
POINTS TO NOTE
1. When the reporting verb (i.e. the verb in the introductory clause) is in present, present perfect, or
future tense, there is no change of tense in the indirect statement.

2. When the reporting verb is in the past tense the verb in the indirect statement changes its tense. It is
changed into its corresponding past form.
For example:
shall, will become should, would
has, have become had
can becomes could
may becomes might
was, were become had been
are becomes were
is becomes was
PRONOUNS AND POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
If, in indirect speech, the speech is reported by an independent person, all pronouns should be in the
third person.
For example:
DIRECT: "I have lost my money," Zikomo said.
INDIRECT: Zikomo said that he had lost his money.
DIRECT: "We are glad that we have come."
INDIRECT: He said that they were glad that they had come.
DIRECT: "I found your book outside," Zikomo told Chimwemwe.
INDIRECT: Zikomo told Chimwemwe that he had found her book outside.
If the speech is reported by the person to whom it was addressed, the first person replaces the second
person.

For example:
DIRECT: "You have missed your bus."
INDIRECT: He said that I had missed my bus.
DIRECT: "You have had your last chance."
INDIRECT: He said that I had had my last chance.
DIRECT: "Your pen is in your pocket."
INDIRECT: She said that my pen was in my pocket.
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
When the reporting verb is in the past tense, adjectives and adverbs in the direct statement denoting
nearness in time or place are changed into corresponding adjectives and adverbs denoting remoteness in
time or place.
For example:
DIRECT: "You will have this book tomorrow."
INDIRECT: He said that I would have that book the following day.
DIRECT: "You will find me here tomorrow."
INDIRECT: She said that I would find her there the next day.
DIRECT: "This boy came to see me yesterday."
INDIRECT: He said that that boy had come to see him the day before.

The following list shows the form some adjectives and adverbs take when they appear in indirect speech.
this becomes that
these becomes those
here becomes there
now becomes then
today becomes that day
tomorrow becomes the next day/the following day
yesterday becomes the day before/the previous day
ago becomes before
last night becomes the night before/the previous night
COMMANDS AND REQUESTS
When the verb in direct speech denotes a command or request it takes the form of an infinitive in indirect
speech.
For example:
DIRECT: "Close the door, Ndaleka," said Thokozani.
INDIRECT: Thokozani told Ndaleka to close the door.
DIRECT: "Go home at once," the teacher said.
INDIRECT: The teacher ordered me to go home at once.
DIRECT: "Please come to my house, Sekani," Chikondi said.
INDIRECT: Chikondi requested Sekani to come to his house.

DIRECT: "Please don't throw it away, Pempho,” Mphatso said.
INDIRECT: Mphatso asked Pempho not to throw it away.
Here are some of the verbs which are used in the introductory clause when commands and requests are
changed to indirect speech.
For requests use the following:
He asked _____
He requested ______
He begged ______
He pleaded ______
He advised ______
For commands use the following:
He commanded _____
He ordered ________
He told ________
He directed _______
He urged _______
He reminded _______
He demanded ______
QUESTIONS
When changing a question from direct to indirect speech you must be careful with the word order. It is
usually the same as in statements.

For example:
DIRECT: "What are you doing, Benjamin?" Thokozani asked.
INDIRECT: Thokozani asked Benjamin what he was doing.
DIRECT: "What is your name?" the teacher asked.
INDIRECT: The teacher asked him what his name was.
DIRECT: "Why did you lock the door?" the man asked.
INDIRECT: The man asked me why I had locked the door.
When you are changing a question from indirect to direct speech you may use the following verbs and
conjunctions:
She asked if _____
She wanted to know whether _____
She inquired where _______
He asked what _____
She asked why _______

UNIT 5 QUESTION TAGS
Question tags are the short questions that we put on the end of sentences.
Making a tag is very mechanical.
To make a tag, use the first auxiliary.
If there is no auxiliary, use do, does or did.
With a positive sentence, make a negative tag and with a negative sentence, make a positive tag.
Notice that the question tag repeats the auxiliary verb (or main verb) from the statement and changes it
to negative or positive.
There are five ways in which we normally use question tags and they are easily explained here:
1. Positive or negative
If the main part of the sentence is positive, the question tag is negative.
For example:
- He is a doctor, isn’t he?
- You work in a bank, don’t you?
(Note that if there is not an auxiliary verb, use do, does or did at the end of the sentence)
If the main part of the sentence is negative, the question tag is positive.
For example:
- You haven’t met him, have you?
- She isn’t coming, is she?
2. With auxiliary verbs
The question tag uses the same verb as the main part of the sentence.
If this is an auxiliary verb (‘have’, ‘be’) then the question tag is made with the auxiliary verb.

For example:
- They weren’t here, were they?
- They have gone away for a few days, haven’t they?
- He had met him before, hadn’t he?
- This isn’t working, is it?
3. Without auxiliary verbs
If the main part of the sentence doesn’t have an auxiliary verb, the question tag uses an appropriate form
of “do”.
For example:
- I said that, didn’t I?
- You don’t recognize me, do you?
- She eats meat, doesn’t she?
4. With modal verbs
If there is a modal verb in the main part of the sentence, the question tag uses the same modal verb.
For example:
- They couldn’t hear me, could they?
- You won’t tell anyone, will you?
5. With “I am”
Be careful with question tags with sentences that start with “I am”.
The question tag for ‘I am’ is “aren’t I”.
For example:
- I’m a teacher, aren’t I?
Or in a negative form we use the same “am” form at the end as in the positive form of the sentence.
For example:
- I’m not fat, am I?

RULES TO FOLLOW
1) Question tag = auxiliary + personal pronoun
For example:
- Tony can run really fast, can’t he?
- The twins are very nice, aren’t they?
2) If there is no auxiliary in the sentence, use a form of do in the question tag.
For example:
- Victoria cooks fantastic meals, doesn’t she?
- They went home yesterday, didn’t they?
- They cars move fast, don’t they?
3) Positive statements = negative question tag

Negative statements = positive question tag
For example:
- That’s your workbook, isn’t it?
- That’s not true, is it?
- They will help us, won’t they?
4) Orders and commands are followed by “will you”
For example:
- Don’t open the door, will you?
- Help your dad in the garage, will you?
5) “Let’s” is followed by “shall we”
For example:
- Let’s start homework now, shall we?
- Let’s go shopping, shall we?

6) And don’t forget
The question tag ‘I am not’ is totally incorrect.
Always say ‘aren’t I’
For example:
- I am late, aren’t I?
The statements and the question tags take the same tenses:
For example:
- Bob helped you a lot, didn’t he?

- You will help me tomorrow, won’t you?
MORE EXAMPLES ON QUESTION TAGS
- He is excellent at languages, isn’t he?

- You were late, weren’t you?
- They are working on a new project, aren’t they?
- She writes good poems, doesn’t she?
- We have worked hard to earn this money, haven’t we?
- He called her, didn’t he?
- You should see a doctor, shouldn’t you?
- He can drive, can’t he?
- You will help us, won’t you?
- He isn’t an athlete, is he?
- They weren’t early, were they?
- You aren’t writing a new book, are you?
- She doesn’t work in a hospital, does she?
- He hasn’t found the solution, has he?
- You didn’t visit the museum, did you?
- We shouldn’t sleep late, should we?
- You won’t tell her, will you?
- Keep quiet, will you?

UNIT 6 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE VERB
Verbs may be used to refer to actions in the past, in the present, or in the future.
Tenses are the names given to the times in which the action expressed by the verb is done.
The action which the verb expresses may take place at three different times in relation to the time of
speaking or writing: in the past, in the present and in the future.
The tense of the verb may also serve to indicate whether the action expressed by the verb is thought of as
being complete or continuous.
Verbs change their form to show past time and future time.
A verb has three principal parts: the present tense, the past tense, and the past participle.
Note how the verbs below form their past tense and past participle.
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE

eat ate eaten
break broke broken
run ran run
stand stood stood
write wrote written
swing swung swung
put put put
choose chose chosen
lose lost lost
begin began begun
catch caught caught
ring rang rung
grow grew grown
fly flew flown

Weak verbs
(a) All verbs which form their past tense and past participle by adding ed, d or t to the present tense
are known as weak verbs.
For example:

hope hoped hoped
want wanted wanted
walk walked walked
keep kept kept
flee fled fled
(b) All verbs whose past tense is formed by shortening the vowel of the present tense are weak verbs.

shoot shot shot
bleed bled bled
lead led led
light lit lit
(c) All verbs whose past tense is the same as the present tense are weak verbs.

cut cut cut
put put put
hit hit hit
cost cost cost
hurt hurt hurt

Strong verbs
All verbs which form the past tense without adding a final d or t are strong verbs.

write wrote written
drink drank drunk
bind bound bound
fall fell fallen
blow blew blown
arise arose arisen
MORE EXAMPLES OF PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE VERBS
am was been
are were been
arrive arrived arrived
bear bore born
bind bound bound
blow blew blown
bring brought brought
burn burnt burnt
buy bought bought
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
come came come
dig dug dug

do did done
draw drew drawn
dream dreamed/dreamt dreamed/dreamt
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
feed fed fed
feel felt felt
fight fought fought
find found found
forbid forbade forbidden
forget forgot forgotten
give gave given
go went gone
has had had
have had had
hear heard heard
hide hid hidden
hold held held
keep kept kept
know knew known
lay laid laid
learn learned/learnt learned/learnt
leave left left
lend lent lent
lie lay lain

lie lied lied
make made made
pay paid paid
read read read
reply replied replied
say said said
see saw seen
seek sought sought
sell sold sold
send sent sent
set set set
sew sewed sewn
shake shook shaken
shine shone/shined shone/shined
shrink shrank shrunk
shut shut shut
sing sang sung
sit sat sat
sow sowed sown
speak spoke spoken
strike struck struck
study studied studied
sweep swept swept
swim swam swum
take took taken

teach taught taught
tell told told
think thought thought
turn turned turned
wake woke woken
wear wore worn
weep wept wept
win won won
withdraw withdrew withdrawn
PAST TENSES
The past tense is one of the three main tenses; the other two are the present tense and the future tense.
The simple past tense

This tense is used to express actions which took place in the past.
For example:
- I bought this watch last year.
- I lived here a long time ago.
- I saw him yesterday.
- The Second World War began in 1939.
- My father was born in 1957.
It is also used in polite requests and to express wishes.
For example:
- I wish I knew where he is.
- I wanted to speak to you.
- Did you want to see me?
It may also be used in conditional clauses (unlikely or improbable conditions).

For example:
- If I wrote to my father today, he would receive the letter tomorrow.
- I would write to him if I knew his address.
- If he came he would find me.
The past continuous tense

This tense is used to show that an activity was happening at the time when another activity occurred.
For example:
- When I was going to church, I met Mr. Banda.
- Was it raining when the accident occurred?
- Mr. Masese ran after me as I was crossing the street.
The past continuous tense may also be used to indicate that a number of activities were taking place at
the same time.
For example:
- While Mr. Phiri was milking the cows, Mr. Soko was ploughing.
- Pempho was cleaning the windows and Mphatso was cutting the grass.
- Chimwemwe was reading while Sean was sewing.
The past perfect tense

This tense is used to show that of two activities which took place in the past, one happened before the
other.
For example:
- He had already left when I arrived.
- When they arrived at the stadium, the match had already started.
- At six o’clock, he had finished writing letter.
- They had got everything ready for him before he arrived.
- We came to Malawi because we had heard so much about it.
The past perfect tense is also used to indicate the continuation of an activity up to a certain time in the
past.
For example:
- I had been in government service for ten year by the time Mr. Theu retired.
- In 1960 Mr. Chinseu had been married for twenty years.
- When I first met him, he had lived in Malawi for five years.

The past perfect continuous tense
This tense is used to indicate that a continuous activity had not been completed before another activity
took place at some later period in the past.
For example:
- When I came to the school in 2012, Mr. Psyerera had been teaching for five years.
- When I first met him, he had been studying for a degree.
PRESENT TENSE
The four tenses which refer to the present time are the simple present, the present continuous, the
present perfect, and the present perfect progressive.
The simple present tense

This tense is used to express habitual actions.
For example:
- They live in Blantyre.
- My son goes to school.
- His father works in the factory.
- Tadala always walks to school.
- The newspaper appears once a week.
It is also used to express general truths.
For example:
- The rises in the east.
- Water boils at 100o celsius.
- Oil floats on water.
- Cows eat grass.
- Birds fly.
It is used also to express future actions which have been decided upon.
For example:
- School starts on Tuesday.

- Frank goes to Lusaka tomorrow.
- He leaves for London next week.
- We dine with the Tembos on Saturday.
- I start work tomorrow.
It may also be used to express a present activity immediately completed.
For example:
- I pronounce you man and wife.
- I declare the meeting open.
- I name this road Kenyatta Drive.
The present continuous tense

The continuous tenses indicate duration. The present continuous tense shows that the activity is still
going on at the time of speaking.
For example:
- I am going to school.
- She is drinking milk.
- They are talking to each other.
- The children are singing and dancing.
This tense is also used to express actions which are happening in the near future.
For example:
- I am going home this afternoon.
- We are going to Zomba next week.
- What are you doing tomorrow?
- Where are you spending your next holidays?
The present perfect tense

This tense is used to express an action that has just been completed but which still has current relevance.
For example:
- I have written a letter to my sister.
- I have just locked the car.
- Ndaleka has bought a car.

- I have finished my work.
- He has lived in Malawi for ten years.
- He has cut his finger.
The present perfect progressive tense

This tense may be used to indicate the duration of an activity which is still considered incomplete.
For example:
- I have been reading this book for two weeks. (I still have not finished.)
- We have been studying French for two years. (We are still studying it.)
- It has been raining since yesterday. (It is still raining.)
- I have been wanting to see you for some time. (I still want to.)
This tense may also be used to indicate an activity which is regarded as only recently completed.
For example:
- I have been spending a few days at home.
- These teachers have been attending a refresher course.
- The team has been training hard for the competition.
The present perfect progressive tense may be used where the resulting state of an activity is being
emphasized.
For example:
- You have been playing with mud. (You look dirty.)
- I have been working in the garden. (This is why my shoes are dirty.)
- Someone has been moving my books. (There are visible signs of this. The books are not as I left
them.)
FUTURE TENSE
Apart from several other constructions which are used to refer to future time, there are four future
tenses, namely; the simple future tense, the future continuous tense, the future perfect tense and the
future perfect progressive tense.

The simple future tense
This tense is used to indicate future activities, especially where the events referred are not influenced by
such factors as willingness, intention, or likelihood.
For example:
- I shall be thirty tomorrow.
- The goods will be here in a few days.
- When shall we know the results of this examination?
- Shall I get to Lilongwe by midday if I go by this bus?
- We shall all die one day.
The simple future tense is used also in the main clause of a conditional sentence (open condition).
For example:
- If you go out in the rain, you will get wet.
- He will lend it to you if you ask him.
- I am sure they will come if you ask them.
- If it rains, the match will be cancelled.
The future continuous tense

This tense is used to express an activity which will begin before and continue after a given period of time
in the future.
For example:
- His friends will be waiting at the bus stop to welcome him.
- I wonder what they will be doing at this time tomorrow.
- We shall be travelling all night.
- After the rains we shall be enjoying the beautiful sunshine.
- They will be expecting us home soon.
The future perfect tense

This tense is used to express an activity which will have been completed by a certain time in the future.
For example:
- In 2084 Malawi will have been independent for one hundred and twenty years.
- I shall have finished this work by four o’clock.
- I shall have read this book by next week.
- By this time next year, Sekani will have taken his university degree.

- My uncle will have gone by the time you arrive.
The future perfect progressive tense

This tense is used to refer to an activity which extends from the past, through the present into the future.
The activity is represented as being continuous over a period of time which will end in the future.
For example:
- When Dalitso gets his degree, he will have been studying at Chancellor College for four years.
- By the time we arrive, he will have been waiting for many hours.

UNIT 7 PHRASES
A phrase is a group of related words which does not include a finite verb.
For example:
- Everyone in our class took part.
- The man walked along the street.
- Ndaleka swam across the river.
- My books are in the house.
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
A prepositional phrase is a group of words which begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or
pronoun.
For example:
- The dancers will travel by bus.
- The cat slept under the table.
- The dog ran into the house.
- I received a letter from my brother.
A prepositional phrase usually does the work of an adjective or an adverb. When prepositional phrase
does the work of an adjective, it is called an adjectival phrase, and when it does the work of an adverb it is
called an adverbial phrase.
ADJECTIVAL PHRASES
Phrases which qualify nouns in sentences are called adjectival phrases.
Adjectival phrases qualify nouns.
For example:
- The man with a wooden leg is my uncle.

Adjectival phrase qualifying noun “man”
- The thief was a man of frightening appearance.

Adjectival phrase qualifying noun “thief/man”

- The hostess was a woman of great beauty.
Adjectival phrase qualifying noun “hostess”
- We slept at the hotel near the lake.

Adjectival phrase qualifying noun “hotel”
- The man running down the steps seems to be in a hurry.

Adjectival phrase qualifying noun “man”
- The picture hanging on the wall was taken last year.

Adjectival phrase qualifying noun “picture”
- The house with the tiled roof is ours.

Adjectival phrase qualifying noun “house”
- The books on the shelves should be given away.

Adjectival phrase qualifying noun “books”
- The hat with a hole in it was thrown away.

Adjectival phrase qualifying noun “hat”
ADVERBIAL PHRASES
An adverbial phrase is a group of words, without a finite verb, which does the work of an adverb.
An adverbial phrase modifies a verb.
For example:
- The accident occurred on a lonely road.

Adverbial phrase of place modifying a verb “occurred”
- The bus will arrive in the afternoon.

Adverbial phrase of time modifying a verb “will arrive”
- He left the place in a hurry.

Adverbial phrase of manner modifying a verb “left”

VERBAL PHRASES
A verbal phrase is a group of related words that contains a participle, a gerund, or an infinitive.
Here are some examples of verbal phrases:
- Writing poems is my hobby. (the underlined phrase is a gerund phrase)

- We saw something floating in the water. (a participle phrase)
- I need something to wear to the dance. (an infinitive phrase)
You must not confuse a verbal phrase with a verb phrase.
A verb phrase is a phrase which contains a main verb and one or more auxiliary verbs.
For example:
 Mr. Phiri has written a letter.
 The book was written by my father.
 Your trip must have been interesting.
INFINITIVE PHRASES
Infinitive phrases can be used noun phrases, adjectives or adverbs, as shown in the following examples:
Infinitives as noun phrases in subject positions

- To come with you would be my pleasure.
- To succeed in life is his ambition.
- To remain free is our goal.
- To withdraw is the only solution.
Infinitive phrases used as noun phrases in object positions

- This student want to become a teacher.
- I would like to know the truth.
- Tinenenji wants to be a doctor.

Infinitive phrases used as noun phrases in apposition to a noun
- Your desire to help Chimwemwe is a good thing.
- His ambition to become a doctor will soon be realized.
- Her request to serve the country was granted.
Infinitive phrases used as adjectives

- This is the way to draw a picture.
- His ability to play a fast game was limited.
- He gave me money to spend freely.
Infinitive phrases used as adverbs

- Sekani went to Blantyre to visit his uncle.
- He was very eager to please everyone.
- Mr. Banda went to England to study medicine.
- We came to have a talk with you.
You must remember that when a phrase is used as an adverb, it functions like an adverb. The infinitive
phrase will, in this case, either modify a verb or an adjective.
PARTICIPLE PHRASES
A participle phrase is a group of related words that contains a participle.
Participle phrases can be used as adjectival phrases.
For example:
- Singing happily, the boys marched along the road.
- The student smiling at us is my friend.
- The man announcing the results is the chairperson.
- The guest brought by Mrs. Banda was rude.

GERUND PHRASES
A gerund phrase is a group of related words that contains a gerund.
A gerund phrase can be used as a noun and as an adjective.
For example:
- Catching grasshoppers is fun for children. (The gerund phrase, catching grasshoppers is used as a
noun phrase, subject of the verb is.)
- Children enjoy catching grasshoppers. (The gerund phrase, catching grasshoppers is used as a
noun phrase, object of the verb enjoy.)
- Caution in driving a car is essential for safety. (The gerund phrase, in driving a car is used as an
adjectival phrase, qualifying the noun caution.)

UNIT 8 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
a. Open conditions
For example:
- If Chimwemwe goes to school, he will learn English.
- Chimwemwe will learn English if he goes to school.
- If Mavuto goes away, Sekani will be upset.
- Zalimba will see Capital hotel if he goes to Lilongwe.
Open conditional sentences are usually of the following patterns:
(a) Main clause + Subordinate adverbial clause of condition

(future tense) (if + present tense)
(b) Subordinate adverbial clause of condition + Main clause

(if + present tense) (future tense)
b. Unlikely conditions
For example:
- If Tamara had time, she would come and see you.
- I would kill the snake if I saw it.
- If Zione went to school, she would learn English.
- He would come if you called him.
Unlikely conditional sentences are usually of the following patterns:

(would/should + stem) (if + simple past tense)

(if + simple past tense) (would/should + stem)

c. Unfulfilled conditions
For example:
- If Tsala had seen John, she would have been happy.
- He would have become a teacher if he had gone to secondary school.
- If I had known that you were coming, I would have met you.
- If my brother had worked hard, he would have passed the examinations.
Unfulfilled conditional sentences are usually of the following patterns:

(would/should + have + past participle) (if + past perfect tense)

(if + past perfect tense) (would/should + have + past participle)

UNIT 9 PUNCTUATION MARKS
1. The full stop
The full stop is used at the end of a sentence which is not a question or an exclamation mark.
For example:
- My name is Chimwemwe Banda.
- My father is a teacher.
- He lives at Area 25.
- I have three brothers and two sisters.
The full stop is also used to indicate an abbreviated or shortened word.
For example:
- Feb. (February)
- M.P. (Member of Parliament)
- Sept. (September)
- B.A (Bachelor of Arts)
- Dr. (Doctor)
- Mr. (Mister)
- Ltd. (Limited)
- H.E. (His Excellency)
- U.S.A. (United States of America)
When the abbreviation of a word begins with the first letter of the word and ends with the last letter of the
word, the use of the full stop is optional and may be omitted.
For example:
- Mr. and Mr
- Mrs. And Mrs
- Dr. and Dr
- Ltd and Ltd
2. The comma
There are three main uses of the comma which you need to know.
The comma is used to separate nouns, adjectives, and verbs that come together in a group or series.
For example:

- Thokozire was dressed in a neat, green, cotton dress.
- Thokozani’s suitcase was full of books, pencils, rulers and clothes.
If the last two nouns in a group form a unit the comma is omitted before and.
For example:
- For breakfast she had porridge, tea, biscuits and bread and butter.
The comma is used to separate words or phrases standing for the same person or thing.
For example:
- I met your uncle, Mr. Phiri, in Blantyre.
- The captain, Ndaleka Banda, did not play.
- My new fountain pen, a Parker, is working well.
- Zikomo Banda, a famous Malawian writer, received an award.
The comma is used to separate words or phrases at the beginning or end of a sentence.
For example:
- Will you lend me your pen, Sean?
- Having missed the bus, Pempho waved her hands excitedly.
- George, may I borrow your bicycle pump?
- Shouting at the top of their voices, they tried to drown the speaker.
3. The apostrophe
The apostrophe is used primarily for two purposes: to show possesseion, and to indicate that letters have
been omitted in a word.
Use of the apostrophe with a noun to indicate possession

- Anjella’s book
- Siyanda’ pencil
- Flynn’s house
- James’ tie
- Mr. Phiri’s car
For common nouns you will need to follow the following rules:
(a) If the word does not end in s, add apostrophe s (‘s).

For example:
- The boy’s book
- The men’s shirt
- Children’s shoes
- The girl’s dress
- The women’s gloves
- The lady’s hat
(b) If the word ends in the letter s, add the apostrophe only (‘)
For example:
- The ladies’ department
- The farmers’ ploughs
- Wolves’ cries
- The boys’ bicycle
- Their fathers’ farms
- Babies’ teeth
Use of apostrophe to indicate that a letter or letters have been omitted

did not becomes didn’t
do not becomes don’t
is not becomes isn’t
you have becomes you’ve
I am becomes I’m
The apostrophe is also used to form the plural of a letter, a figure, a symbol, or a word considered a word.
In forming the plural the apostrophe is followed by an s.
For example:
- There are two m’s in my name.
- You have written two 5’s instead of just one.
- There are too many and’s in your sentence.
4. Inverted commas
Inverted commas or quotation marks are punctuation marks used to enclose words quoted, or actually
spoken and directly reported.

Sentences containing inverted commas fall into the following four patterns:
(a) ‘I want to see you,’ he insisted.
‘I sorry I am late,’ he said.
‘Why are o many pupils absent today?’ she asked.
(b) He finally said, ‘I’ll do what I can.’

Kondwani shouted, ‘Hurray!’
Sekani said, ‘I’m cold too.’
(c) ‘Zikomo,’ said Mrs. Banda, ‘I want to see you’

‘I want you to know,’ he said angrily, ‘that I shall not tolerate such behaviour.’
‘Mr. Banda’ he said, ‘please forgive me.’
(d) ‘How silly!’ he replied. ‘Do you really expect me to help you?’
‘The lion looks angry and may attack them,’ said Mr. Gondwe. ‘Why are they not running away?’
‘Where is the headmaster?’ asked Mavuto, as he ran up. ‘One of the classroom is on fire!’
NOTE: If you can master the patterns given above, you will have no difficulty in learning how to use
inverted commas. You should pay special attention to the position of the commas which are used to mark
off the words not actually spoken.

UNIT 10 WORDS USED WITH PREPOSITIONS
 abide by (e.g. the school rules)  contrary to

 absent from school/duty  cope with
 addicted to  correspond to something
 adjust to  correspond with
 admit to  count on
 admitted to (e.g. hospital)  depend on/upon
 afraid of  devoid of
 agree to (a thing)  differ from
 agree with (people)  different from
 allocate to  disagree with (people)
 angry with (something/somebody)  disapprove of
 annoyed with  discharge from
 anxious about (something/somebody)  divide among (three or more people)
 apply for (e.g. a job)  divide between (two people)
 approve of (e.g. his friends)  dressed in
 arrive at  engaged to (something)
 ashamed of  familiar with
 ask for  filled with
 attend to  frightened of (e.g. a dog)
 bad at  full of
 beaten by  good at (e.g. English)
 believe in  improve on
 borrow from  interested in
 care about (e.g. the chicken)  irritated with
 caused by  leave for
 collide with  left for
 complain about  lend to
 comply with  liaise with
 confide in  liking for (something)
 consist of  look at something/someone

 look for  rely on
 married to (someone)  remember ....(esp. somebody) to (somebody)
 open (a book) at  reply to
 operate on  responsible for
 prefer to  scared of
 prepared for (something)  send to
 prohibit(ed) from  send for (invite) (for somebody)
 proud of  separate from
 provide with  similar to
 qualify for  suffer from
 ready for (e.g. school)  wait for
 refer to  walk into (e.g. a room)
 refrain from  worry about (something)
 related to (somebody)

UNIT 11 SOUNDS PRODUCED BY DIFFERENT ANIMALS
ANIMAL ITS SOUND Lion roars
Cock crows Snake hisses
Hen clucks/cackles/chuckles Serpent hisses
Goose cackles Owl hoots/screeches
Duck quacks Fly hums
Turkey gobbles Cat mews/purrs
Parrot chatters Bull bellows
Frog croaks Cow moos
Raven croaks Grasshopper chirrs
Dog barks/howls/growls/snarls Bee buzzes
Monkey chatters Pig grunts/squeals
Sparrow chirps/chatters Bat screeches
Cricket chirps Horse neighs
Robin chirps Donkey brays
Goat bleats Pigeon coos
Calf bleats Dove coos
Sheep bleats Hyena laughs
Elephant trumpets/rumbles

UNIT 12 PERSONS OR CREATURES WITH THEIR HOMES
Person/creature Home
Soldiers Barracks
Birds Nest
Students Hostel
Patients Ward
Cattle Kraal
Chickens Pens
Bees Hives
King Palace
Queen Palace
Man House
Nun Convert
Prisoner Cell
Cow Byre
Eagle Eyrie
Hare Dorm
Horse Stable
Lion Den
Wasp Nest
Mouse Hole/nest
Owl Barn/tree
Pig Sty
Rabbit Hutch
Sheep Pen
Spider Web
Tiger Lair

UNIT 13 ANTONYMS
An antonym is a word that is opposite in meaning to another word.
For example: Old new
Word opposite awake asleep
able unable beautiful ugly
accept reject begin end
accurate inaccurate big small
action inaction calm violent
active inactive capable incapable
after before complete incomplete
against for connect disconnect
aged youth convenient inconvenient
agree disagree cow bull
alive dead daring fear
ancient modern day night
answer question defend defeated
appear disappear definite indefinite
approve disapprove depart arrive
arrive leave desire aversion
ask answer different same
attack defend different indifferent
attention inattention different similar/indifferent
attractive plain difficult easy

do undo love hate
ever never make break
faithful unfaithful male female
false true many few
fortunate unfortunate maximum minimum
friend enemy modern old
full empty move immovable
gain lose narrow wide
generous greedy nephew niece
good bad noise quiet
happy unhappy now then
heal kill obedient disobedient
high low open shut
hope despair opposer proposer
innocent guilty over under
inside outside patient impatient
joy sorrow peace war
justice injustice plant uproot
kind unkind pleasant unpleasant
laugh cry please annoy
legible illegible polite impolite
light heavy positive negative
like unlike possible impossible
little more predecessor successor

present past start finish
profit loss strong weak
proper improper successful unsuccessful
quick slow sweet bitter
refuse accept tear mend
responsible irresponsible thick thin
rich poor timid brave
sad happy uncle aunt
safe unsafe understand misunderstand
selfish unselfish usual unusual
sense nonsense victory defeat
sensible insensible welcome unwelcome
sharp blunt willing unwilling
short long win lose
silent speak wise dull
soft hard worth unworthy
stand sit

UNIT 14 SYNONYMS
A synonym is a word that has the same or similar meaning to another word.
For example: modern new
Word synonym
Abundant Plentiful
Distinguish Differentiate
Accurate Correct
Elevate Raise
Agony Pain
Emblem Sign
Altitude Height
Fertile Fruitful
Appropriate Correct
Fortunate Lucky
Astonish Surprise
Gigantic Huge
Attempt Try
Goal Aim
Blank Empty
Imitate Copy
Broad Wide
Intention Purpose
Circular Round
Loyal Faithful
Conceal Hide
Mock Tease
Conquer Defeat
Notify Inform
Courage Brave
Obstruct Hinder
Custom Habit
Penalty Punishment
Deceive Cheat
Permit Allow
Demolish Destroy
Problem trouble
Profit Gain Prompt Quicken
Prohibit Forbid Quantity Amount

Queer Strange Transparent Clear
Rapid Quick Vigorous Strong
Sphere Round Weak Feeble
Terrify Frighten Youthful Young
Timid Shy

UNIT 15 SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
 The subject and verb of a sentence must agree in number.

 Agreement of a subject and verb means that those two parts of the sentence match.
 A verb must agree with (or match) its subject in number.
 That means that a singular subject must be matched to a singular verb.
 A plural subject must be matched to a plural verb.
THE 20 RULES OF SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT IN STANDARD ENGLISH
1. Subjects and verbs must agree in number.

This is the cornerstone rule that forms the background of the concept.
For example: The dog growls when he is angry.
The dogs growl when they are angry.
2. Don’t get confused by the words that come between the subject and verb; they do not affect
agreement.
For example: The dog, who is chewing on my jeans, is usually verb good.
3. Prepositional phrases between the subject and verb usually do not affect agreement.
For example: The colours of the rainbow are beautiful.
4. When sentences start with “there” or “here”, the subject will always be placed after the verb, so
care needs to be taken to identify it correctly.
For example: There is a problem with the balance sheet.
Here are the papers you requested.
5. Subjects don’t always come before verbs in questions.

Make sure you accurately identify the subject before deciding on the proper verb form to use.
For example: Does lefty usually eat grass?
Where are the pieces of puzzle?
6. If two subjects are joined by and, they typically require a plural verb form.

For example: The cow and the pig are jumping over the moon.
7. The verb is singular if the two subjects separated by and refer to the same person or thing.
For example: Red beans and rice is my mother’s favourite dish.
8. If the words each, every, or, no come before the subject, the verb is singular.
For example: No smoking and drinking is allowed.
Every man and woman is required to check in.
9. If the subjects are both singular and are connected by the words or, nor, neither/nor, either/or,
and not only/but also the verb is singular.
For example: Jessica or Christina is to blame for the accident.
10. The only time when the object of the preposition factors into the decision of popular or singular
verb forms is when noun and pronoun subjects like some, half, none, more, all, and so forth, are
followed by a prepositional phrase. In these sentences, the object of the preposition determines
the form of the verb.
For example: All of the chicken is gone.
All of the chickens are gone.
11. The singular verb form is usually used for units of measurement.
For example: Four quarts of oil was required to get the car running.
12. If the subjects are both plural and are connected by the words or, nor, neither/nor/ either/or, and
not only/but also, the verb is plural.
For example: Dogs and cats are both available at the pound.
13. If one subject is singular and one plural and the words are connected by the words or, nor,
neither/nor, either/or, not only/but also, you use the verb form of the subject that is nearest the
verb.
For example: Do your sisters or your girlfriend want any pizza?
14. Indefinite pronouns typically take singular verbs.

For example: Everybody wants to be loved.
15. *Except for the pronouns (few, many, several, both) that always take the plural form.
For example: Few were left alive after the flood.
16. If two infinitives are separated by and they take the plural form of the verb.
For example: To walk and to chew gum require great skill.
17. When gerunds are used as the subject of a sentence they take the singular verb form of the verb,
but when they are linked by and they take the plural form.
For example: Standing in the water was a bad idea.
Swimming in the ocean and playing drums are my hobbies
18. Collective nouns like herd, senate, class, crowd, and so forth, usually take a singular verb form.
For example: The herd is stampeding.
19. Titles of books, movies, novels, and so forth, are treated as singular and take a singular verb form.
For example: The burbs is a movie starring Tom Hanks.
20. Final Rule – Remember, only the subject affects the verb!
REFERENCES
English Grammar for Schools, Dzuka 1978.
Internet
BY ZIKOMO MASESE BANDA

English Grammar For Primary School Extended

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ENGLISH

COMPILED BY ZIKOMO MASESE BANDA

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UNIT 1 PARTS OF SPEECH 3

UNIT 2 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES 32

UNIT 4 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH 45

UNIT 5 QUESTION TAGS 53

UNIT 6 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE VERBS 57

UNIT 8 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 74

UNIT 9 PUNCTUATION MARKS 76

UNIT 10 WORDS USED WITH PREPOSITIONS 80

UNIT 11 SOUNDS PRODUCED BY DIFFERENT ANIMALS 82

UNIT 12 PERSONS OR CREATURES WITH THEIR HOMES 83

UNIT 15 SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT 89

First Edition 2019

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There are 9 parts of speech, namely;

A noun is a naming word

A noun is a name of anything

A noun names a person, an animal, a place, an object, an idea, a day

A proper noun must always begin with a capital letter.

b. Names of towns or cities

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A collective noun can take either a singular or plural verb.

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Nouns that are names of females are said to be faminine gender.

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Emphatic pronouns call attention to or are used to show emphasis.

b. Mrs. Phiri herself saved the child.

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Indefinite pronouns refer to people or things general.

The following are examples of singular indefinite pronouns;

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When the words pair

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A verb may be just one word or may consist of several words.

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The following is a list of primary auxiliary verbs in English:

INFINITIVE PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE

THE USES OF AUXILIARY VERBS

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NUMBER AND PERSON

A subject in the singular is followed by a verb in the singular.

Likewise a subject in the plural is followed by a verb in the plural.

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The word none is generally plural; no one is singular.

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An adjective qualifies a noun

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These adjectives ask questions which objective is meant.

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A proper adjective begins with capital letters.

Adverbs of place answer the question “where”