Acid rain from burning coal

Sour taste in lemons is caused by citric acid.

Acids can ‘burn’ holes in metals or clothing.
Acids can damage skin & cause blindness in the eye.
Rain containing acid can very slowly dissolve cement,
concrete & stone buildings.

Acids & bases

The Arrhenius model
Arrhenius acids are regarded as substances that
liberate H+ ions when dissolved in water.
Hydrochloric acid: HCl → H+ + Cl-
Nitric acid: HNO3 → H+ + NO3-
Sulphuric acid: H2SO4 → 2H+ + SO42-
Acid
Phosphoric acid: H3PO4 → 3H+ + PO4 3-

Arrhenius model
Arrhenius bases are regarded as substances
that form OH- ions when dissolved in water.
Acid base song

Sodium hydroxide: NaOH → Na+ + OH-

Potassium hydroxide: KOH → K+ + OH-
Calcium hydroxide: Ca(OH)2 → Ca2+ + 2OH-

Although both acids, bases & water

contain covalent molecules, the
molecules are polar in nature & the
acids & bases dissolve in water to
form new ions in solution.
 ∂+ ∂- _
H Cl Cl Cl-

H
+
H O H 3O +
H O
H H Acids added to water

There is a polar covalent bond in the HCl molecule as

a result of the unequal sharing of the electron pair.
The bond in the HCl breaks and new Cl- and H3O+ ions
are formed.
These ions are then surrounded by the other water molecules.
When an acid reacts with a base there is an exchange of
ions:
H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 → CaSO4 + 2H2O

Expressed slightly differently – showing the ions in

each solution:
2H+ + SO42- + Ca2+ + 2OH- → CaSO4 + 2H2O

The - & + pairs in the solutions swop & we form a

salt & water.
This is called neutralisation.
Whenever we add an acid & a base we always
produce a salt & water.
We say the base has neutralised the acid – or vice-
versa.

HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2 → CaSO4 + H2O
Acid + base → salt + water
In order to tell if the one has neutralised the other, we
need to use an indicator to see when there is a change
in colour.. Acid and alkali reacting
 Besides the alkalis (metal hydroxides) there are many
other bases, such as metal oxides and metal
carbonates etc.
We thus need a wider definition of acids & bases.

N.B. In the Lowry-Brønsted model, an acid is a proton

donor and a base is a proton acceptor.
Lowry Bronsted theory for
acids and bases
Acid: HCl → H+ + Cl-
Acid → proton + ion
Base: NH3 + H+ → NH4+
base + proton → ion
An acid is ∴ any substance that can donate a
proton when reacting.
A base is any substance that receives a proton
when reacting.
The reaction between an acid and a base is the
donating and receiving of a proton.
The following reaction illustrates an acid-base reaction:
HCl + NH3 → Cl- + NH4+

Acid Base
donating receiving
Complete the following reactions
a proton a proton & identify the acids & bases:

H2SO4 + CaCO3 →
NH3 + H2O →
HCn + NH3 →
HNO3 + NaOH →
Conjugate acid base pairs
An acid forms a conjugate base and a base
forms a conjugate acid. Conjugate means
‘formed from.) Conjugate acids and bases

HCl → H+ + Cl-
Acid → proton + conjugate base
NH3 + H+ → NH4+
base + proton → conjugate acid
To differentiate between them we label them a1&
b1, a2 & b2 where the 1& 2 represent the pairs.
Conjugate acid base pairs The white and
red arrows
e.g. HCl + NH3 → NH4+ + Cl- indicate the
respective pairs.
a1 b2 a2 b1
Conjugates are
formed on the
right hand side
of the equation.
Similarly:
In each pair
NH4+ + Cl- → HC l + NH3 there must be an
acid & a base.
a2 + b1 a1 b2

Acid base pairs

The HA and A- is called an acid-base pair.
Examples:
Acid base pairs

(c) M & S Marketing 13

 Acids in solution

Take note that a strong acid has a

Weak acid & weak base
Weak conjugate base and a strong
base has a weak conjugate acid and vice versa.
HCl H+ + Cl-

strong acid weak conj. base

H2O H+ + OH-

weak acid strong conj. base

14
Strong acids & bases

Acid dissociation
 Water as an acid or as a base

1. H2O H+ + OH- Acid

H2O + H+ H3O+ Base
2.
HSO4- H+ + SO42- Acid
HSO4- + H+ H2SO4 Base

Substances such as H2O and HSO4- that can react as

both an acid and a base, are amphiprotic and are
called ampholytes.

16
Indicators are organic dyes that have a particular
colour in an acid and a different colour in an alkali
(soluble base). Introduction to indicators

The indicator litmus is red in an acid and blue in an

alkali. This indicator can be in a liquid or paper form.
Add litmus

HCl NaOH
 Name Colour Colour pH
of indicator acid base range

Methyl Orange Red Yellow 3-4

Bromothymol blue
Bromothymol Blue Yellow Blue 6-8
Phenolphthalein indicator

Phenolphthalein Clear Red/pink 8 - 10

An indicator is a weak acid that
is in equilibrium with its
conjugate base.

HIn + H2O In- + H3O+

acid conjugate base

Working of an indicator

Adding an acid, increases the H3O+ concentration,

shifting the equilibrium to the left & vice-versa.
19
 Concentrated & dilute acids
An acid which contains a lot of water is
called a dilute acid, if it contains very little
water it is called a concentrated acid.
Strong, weak, dilute & concentrated acids

Strong & weak acids

The strength of an acid does not depend on its

concentration but on its type & ionisation
equilibrium. (c) M & S Marketing 20
 1. Strong acids
Strong acids ionise almost completely
in solution and form a high concentration
of hydrogen ions, e.g.

HNO3(aq) H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

Equilibrium lies far to the right

(c) M & S Marketing 21
 2. Weak acids
Weak acids ionise partially
in solution and form a low
concentration of hydrogen ions, e.g.
CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)

Equilibrium lies far to the left

(c) M & S Marketing 22
Since strong acids ionise readily they will generally:
1. Have a high [H+] & thus a low pH.
2. Conduct electricity well
3. React more vigorously

Properties of acids and bases

Ka is the value of the equilibrium constant.
The stronger the acid, the higher the value of Ka.

The Ionisation of water

H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Equilibrium lies far to the left

Ka and Kb for acidic and basic reactions
(c) M & S Marketing
The equilibrium constant for water is labelled by Kw. It is
called the ionisation constant or Ionic product for water.

Kw = [H+][OH-]
[H+] means ‘concentration’ of the ion or substance in
the brackets.
The value of the ionic product is 1,0 x 10 -14 at 250C.
If we consider the ionisation reaction of water, it is clear
that there should be equal quantities of H+ and OH-.
For pure water: [H+] = [OH-] = 10-7
And Kw will thus be 10-14 Kw for water
(c) M & S Marketing 25
Water ionises automatically by itself to form H+ and
OH- ions according to the following equation:
H2O + H2O ⇆ 2[H+] + 2[OH-]
The one water molecule acts as an acid as it
donates a proton, while the other
acts as a base as it accepts a
proton to form the respective ions.
 Neutral Solution Acidic soln. Basic soln.
[H+] : 10-7 mol/dm3 > 10-7 mol/dm3 < 10-7 mol/dm3

[OH-] : 10-7 mol/dm3 < 10-7 mol/dm3 > 10-7 mol/dm3

Note that in all cases: [H+][OH-] = 10-14 at 250C.

Kw value
27
To establish whether an alkali has neutralised an
acid, add the indicator to the acid. Neutralising an acid
Now slowly add the alkali – when the indicator
changes colour – you have neutralised the acid &
have thus added enough alkali.
Burette
Adding more alkali just makes
the solution more alkaline & the
indicator will go to a darker blue.
Add alkali
Energy is released in process –
Acid with
exothermic reaction.
litmus
 Introduction to pH

The pH scale enables us to determine the degree of

acidity of an acid or a base & goes from 0 to 14.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
N
Increasing acidity Increasing basicity
strongly acid: pH = 0, 1 or 2
weakly acid: pH = 4, 5 or 6
neutral soln.: pH =7
weakly alkaline: pH = 8, 9 or 10
strongly alkaline: pH = 12, 13 or 14
 Comparing pH of samples of water

The pH scale is used in many instances – to ensure

that solutions are not too acidic or alkaline.
It is used in the following circumstances:
Doctors checking blood for diseases.
Safe drinking water should have a pH of 7.
Steam used in power stations should not be too
acidic or alkaline – will cause corrosion.
Farmers check pH of their soil before planting.
Swimming pools should have a pH of about 7,6 –
otherwise chemicals become dangerous.
pH of soil in garden or on a farm Maintaining pH of a swimming pool
Which indicator should be used depends upon which
acid and which base are being used.
Weak acid & weak base – pH
range of 3 – Methyl orange
Strong acid & strong base – pH
range of 10 – phenolphthalein. Which indicator to use?

Name Colour Colour pH range

of indicator acid base

Methyl Orange Red Yellow 3.1 – 4.4 3 -

4
Bromothymol Blue Yellow Blue 6 -7.6 - 8

Phenolphthalein Clear Red 8.3 – 10.0 -

 To calculate pH, the H+ concentration is needed.

pH = -log [H+]

Neutral Solution Acidic Basic

pH: 7 <7 >7

pOH: 7 >7 <7

pH is measured by using acid-base indicators or pH
meters.
pH stands for: ‘potential of hydrogen’ – one meaning at least
32
[H2SO4] = 0,02 mol/dm3

Find its pH = ?

Sulphuric acid is a strong acid that ionises completely

in water forming 2 mol of H+ ions per ion of H2SO4.

[H+] = 0,04 mol/dm3

pH = -log[H+]
= -log 0,04
=(c) 1,40
M & S Marketing 33
[CH3COOH] = 0,02 mol/dm3

Ka = 1,8 x 10-5 Find the pH = ?

CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+
-
Ka =
[H ][CH3COO ]
[CH3COOH]
2
=
[H ]
[CH3COOH]
(c) M & S Marketing 34
 2
1,8 x 10-5 =
[H ]
0,02
-5
[H+] =
1,8 x 10 x 0,02
= 0,0006 mol/dm3

pH = - log 0,0006
= 3,22
(c) M & S Marketing 35
 [NaOH] = 0,02 mol/dm3
Find the pH = ?
[H+][OH-] = 10 -14
-14
10
[H+] =
0,02
= 5 x 10-13

pH = - log 5 x 10-13
pH calculation
= 12,30
(c) M & S Marketing 36
 Hydrolysis of salts
Most salts, when dissolved in water to form a
solution, will produce solutions with a pH of 7, since
there are the same number of H3O+ & OH- ions.

However, certain salts can yield either acidic or

basic solutions when they dissolve in water. The
water molecules either donate or receive H+ ions,
thus making the solutions either acidic or basic.
CO32- + H20 → HCO3- + OH- ∴ solution basic
NH4+ + H2O → NH3 + H3O+ ∴ solution acidic
NH4+ - strong or weak acid?
An acid plus a base gives a
salt and water.
An acid plus a metal oxide gives a salt and
water.
An acid plus a metal gives a salt and
hydrogen.
An acid plus a carbonate gives a salt, CO2
and water. Reactions of acids Sulphuric acid - be careful!
 Conductivity during neutralisation
milli-ammeter
mA
Pour different liquids into a beaker
and then connect up the electrical
Carbon
rods
circuit as in sketch.

Since all acids & alkalis contain ions, they will

conduct electricity & there should be a reading every
time you use an acid or an alkali.
However the ability to conduct an electric current will
differ quite a lot and depends upon the ability of the
substance to form ions in solution.
Acids & bases are classified according to their ability
to donate/receive protons & thus form new ions.
Acids that donate protons completely to form new
ions are said to be strong acids.
Acids that only donate a few of their protons to form
new ions are called weak acids.
Strong acid: HCl + H2O → H3O+ + Cl- ionises 100%
Weak acid: HCOOH + H2O → H3O+ + COOH- only
ionises say 10%
The ‘strong’ & ‘weak’ refer to the type of the acid/base & their
ability to form ions. It does not refer to the concentration.
 Strong acids: HCl, HNO3, H2SO4 Ionise
completely
Strong bases: NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2
Weak acids: HCOOH, H2S, H2CO3 Ionise
partially
Weak bases: NO3-, HSO4-, SO42-

A lot of methanoic acid (HCOOH) in a little water

would be referred to as a concentrated, weak acid
solution.
Dissociation of strong and weak acids
Volumetric analysis is the process of establishing
the exact concentration of a solution by making
use of neutralisation of an acid of unknown
concentration with a base of known concentration
(or vice–versa).
A titration is the actual physical process
whereby a an amount of acid is added
from a burette into a 25 ml quantity of
base (of known concentration) in a
conical flask to exactly neutralise the
base.
Titration
Make up a standard solution (known concentration) of a base.
Pour the acid solution into the burette.
Using a pipette, measure off exactly 25 ml of the alkali into a
conical flask.
Add a few drops of a suitable indicator for this titration.
Add a carefully measured quantity of acid from the burette into
the conical flask – until the indicator changes colour – end point.
Repeat the whole titration a number of times & find average vol.
Do the necessary calculation to find the concentration of the acid.
The acid has now been standardised – since we now know its
concentration.
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 - the titration
 Add acid slowly to base – till
change of colour of indicator.
Acid in burette

Indicator
into flask. Making a standard
basic solution
Base into
flask
Mr for Na2CO3 = 2 X 23 +12 + 3 X 16 = 106 g.mol-1

∴ 0,1 mol has a mass of 10,6 g

m 10,6 Making up a standard solution
C= = = 0,1 mol.dm-3
MrV 106 x 1

Measure off 10,6 g (or close to that) of the Na2Co3

Using a wash-bottle – add to 1 dm3 measuring flask.
Add 50 cm3 water and swirl till dissolved.
Top up to mark on neck of flask – you now have a
standard solution of concentration 0,1 mol.dm3
Once you have completed your titration a number of
times (at least 3) & are confident you have accurate
volume readings, calculate the concentration of the
unknown solution using the following equation:
Simple calculation

Vol. acid x concentration acid a

=
Vol. base x concentration base b

VaCa a a & b = no. of moles of

=
VbCb b acid & base from balanced
equation for the reaction.
Titration Calculation
Titration graph

Strong acid & strong base

14

pH

7 End
point

Moles of base added

(c) M & S Marketing 47
The strong base is being added to the strong acid.
 Acids & bases in the Chlor-alkali industry
Sodium chloride is the basic raw material for many
chemical compounds such as NaOH, Na2CO3, Na2SO4,
HCl, Na2PO4, Sodium Chlorate, Sodium Chlorite and it
is source of many other products through its derivatives.
Practically all the chlorine products in the world are
manufactured by electrolysis of Sodium Chloride
(NaCl), a common salt that is manufactured in three
different ways; Electrolysis of NaCl
1. Solar evaporation of sea water
2. Mining of rock salt
3. From well brines (salty water)
 Acids & bases in the chemistry of hair.
When a weak acid, such as vinegar (pH of 2.4 - 3.4
{chemical name: acetic acid}) is applied to the hair, it
closes the cuticle, making it softer, and shinier.
Acid rinses are also good for returning the hair to its
natural shape, for instance, if you set your hair in
really tight curls or ringlets, (or if you heat style,
crimping) and even after having a
shower, there is still a little wave,
when your hair is usually stick
straight, this will help return your
hair back to normal.
Chemistry of hair Hair colourants
 Acids & bases in the chemistry of hair.
On the other hand when alkali/basic substances are
applied to the hair, it has the opposite effect.
It opens the cuticle, making it look dull, and feel rough.
Alkalis/bases are used in such products as
dyes/bleaches, to make it easier for colour to be
removed, or put into the medulla and cortex of the hair
shaft.
Alkalis/bases are also present in
relaxers and perm solutions.
Hair straightners

Risks of bleaching hair!