Ecological Imperialism pertains to a phenomenon of colonization of the environment, aimed at

altering the environment in a form and way which suits the needs of the mother country. Most
forms of colonization also have an ecological component as one of the major motivating factors for
colonizers is exploiting the natural resources of a region. Altering of the environment in a way which
benefits the colonizing country is one of the chief ways in which imperialism manifests. Ecological
colonization occurs through a web of networks within the imperial framework. Biological exchanges
take place not only between the colonizer and the colonized but also between the colonies
themselves which are connected through an overarching imperial framework. Regardless the
decision making power to transform ecology rests with the colonising nations who alter it to suit
their own needs.

CROSBY AND NEO EUROPES

The term ecological imperialism has been popularised by Alfred Crosby who introduces the concept
of neo-Europe to illustrate this idea. This idea gained widespread currency among historians of
environment and since then has been applied to a number of biological exchanges within the
imperial framework.

The spread of the Europeans: The pattern of the spread of Europeans across the globe according to
Crosby is a case of peculiarity. This is because unlike the peoples of other cultures who expanded
adjacently or within similar or neighbouring geographical zones, Europeans chose to migrate to
geographically disparate regions of the world. The extent of European colonization of these areas is
also astonishing for in regions such as Americas, Australia and New Zealand they form the base of
population. It is because of the fact that these territories were made to replicate the Old World,
completely exterminating traces of indegenous cultures and populations, that Crosby terms them as
Neo-Europes.

The push from Europe: Ecological colonization of the New World was nessisated to some degree by
conditions in Europe. An expanding population led to increased pressure on land which resulted in
its scarcity. This also led to inflation and widespread starvation. Among the chief reasons for people
to migrate to the New World was its capacity to be ecologically transformed and to produce vast
amounts of food products. Those who came in the second wave in particular as indentured
labourers did so by risking their freedom only because they wanted a recluse from starvation.

Characteristics of Neo Europe: Neo Europes according to Crosby usually had the same environment
temperament as that of Europe. Geographically, they are located in similar latitudes and have a
temperate climate. This meant that it was largely conducive to the growth of goods that were grown
in Europe. This made them a lucrative destination for colonization. However, the ecology would have
to be altered to facilitate the growth of European items for at the eve of Columbian voyages, the
region was largely covered with forests and the only kind of food available was that which was eaten
by indegenous peoples such as cocoa and maize. In order to sustain European populations in these
regions and to make them profitable, the ecology of the region had to subjugate just as much as
peoples. Within a hundred years of colonization, the entire ecology of these regions was
transformed and they really were tailored to become neo-Europes.

Importance of Neo-Europes: The importance of these Neo-Europes according to Crosby is

exemplary. This is primarily owing to its prominence in production of foodgrains and the
dependence of the world on its export. In 1981, the Neo Europes accounted for as much as 30% of
food trade globally with their dominance in the most important foodstuff that is wheat. The rather
sudden nature of transformation of these ecologies is evidenced by this very fact that the production
of these grains is now dominated by regions in which these grains were introduced not very long
ago. The incentive as well as the result of European intervention in these lands then resulted in
ecological imperialism.

EUCALYPTUS TRADE BETWEEN INDIA AND AUSTRALIA

Colony-Colony Transfer: Ecological Imperialism however occurs not only through the linear channel
of the colonizer and the colonized. Sometimes, biological exchanges happen between colonized
zones, who come in contact only through their imperial association. Such biological exchanges are
willed by the colonizing masters and are an attempt at ecological imperialism to transform the
ecology of one colony through biological imports from another colony. One of the most significant
instances of such a transfer pertains to that of the eucalyptus plant from the colony of Australia to
that of India orchestrated by the British Empire.

Need for Eucalyptus: James Beatellie demonstrates how the biological exchange of eucalyptus
between Australia and India was a direct product of attempt by the colonizers to alter the ecology of
the latter. India’s warm and humid climate was believed to be ridden with pathogens and disease
which was believed to be ill suited for the whites. Its drastic difference from the temperate and frigid
climate of Europe made the Europeans uncomfortable who guised it in the pseudo-scientific notion
of tropical climate being disease-ridden. Regardless, there were anxieties among the colonizers
particularly with regards to diseases such as malaria. To this end, there were attempts by them to
alter the ecology of India so as to make it more hospitable for the Europeans. One of the ways which
was believed to improve the environment was through the planting of the Eucalyptus tree,
particularly its Australian variety E. Globulus which was believed to suck excess moisture from the
soil thus making the climate relatively drier and cleaner. Its thick wood was also a source of timber.
Genuinine efforts were made by the colonizers to plant these trees in India. Many were planted in
the Nilgiri ranges particularly in the hill station of Ooty.

Ecological Effects of Eucalyptus: Brett M Benett has demonstrated the 4 stages of the planting of the
eucalyptus tree in India. Phases: first, an enthusiastic expansion and planting from 1850-1900;
secondly, failure in the tropics from 1850-1960; thirdly, increased planting and success rates in the
tropics from 1960-2000, and fourthly, a growing criticism of eucalypts that began in the late
nineteenth centuries. The eucalyptus plantation was a failure in many ways. Firstly it failed to grow
in humid areas of north India and was limited only in the Southern hill ranges such as the Nilgiri.
Apart from that, the wholesale altering of the environment to facilitate its planting also had
ecological costs. Soon enough, it was realised by the Madras government that the drying properties
of these trees can prove detrimental to the water table and water bodies and it therefore issued an
order in 1881 forbidding its planting near important sources of water. The planting of eucalyptus
tree also presupposed widespread deforestation. It also resulted in the wholesale displacement of
tribal communities who had till then depended on the now depleted forest resources for their
livelihood. Many tribes in the Nilgiri hills, for instance, were displaced.

Movement of Humans: Ecological Imperialism also happened in terms of migration of humans which
altered the balance of environment in some regions. To escape from the heat of the plains, many
British officials moved in the hot season to the hill stations of India such as Oooty and Mount Abu
which resulted in widespread ecological changes in these regions. Movement of humans also
occurred between India and Australia as a result of the anxieties over Indian climate. In 1858, a
military sanatorium was proposed to be created in Tasmania owing to the conduciveness of its
climate. This was followed by the attempts by the Australian government to induce more officials to
settle in Australia owing to its capacity of its ecology being more conducive to transformation.
BRITISH IN ANDAMAN

Another case study of ecological imperialism would entail the colonization of the Andaman Islands
whose colonization, as has been shown by scholars such as Vipul Singh, was motivated as much by
environmental considerations as by political factors. He demonstrates how the colonization of the
Andaman happened in two stages; the latter of which was motivated primarily by environmental
anxieties which in turn also facilitated biological exchanges of many kinds.

First Phase (1789-96): The first phase of British colonization of the Andaman Islands was motivated
by primarily by political factors. It was envisioned to be a penal settlement for Indian prisoners and
was a convenient choice for it was seperated from the Indian mainland but was also rather
proximally located to it. Secondly, control over these islands would allow it to check Denmark’s
influence in the region for it already controlled the nearby Nicobar Islands. Geopolitical strategy
therefore was the primary motivation for controlling the Andaman during this phase. Port Blair was
established during this phase. However, the colony was all but deserted in a few decades owing to
its disease ridden environment and high mortality rates.

Second Phase (1858-1900): Renewed interest in the colony post its desertion had several reasons.
Firstly, a penal settlement was needed for the convicts of the 1857 revolt and as a result a penal
colony project began in Port Blair. However, more important were environmental anxieties which
have only recently explored by scholars such as Singh. He argues that the British ships which were a
part of the Indian Ocean trade often became victims of cyclones in the region and faced devastating
wrecks around the Andaman Islands between 1844-49. These shipwrecks contradicted British self-
fashioning as masters of the sea. Particularly costly was the loss of ships ‘Runnymede’ and ‘Briton’ in
1844 and ‘Emily’ and ‘Flying Fish’ in 1849. The British thus colonized the islands once again
particularly to provide shelter for ships travelling from Australia and Southeast Asia to Calcutta.

Ecological Changes: The colonization of the Andamans resulted in the colonization of its
environment as well. A large number of foregin elements: humans, plants, animals, diseases now
entered the landscape of the Andamans, thoroughly disbalancing its ecology. Foremost, post the
British colonization of the Andamans for the second time, a new drive to increase acreage was taken
place which resulted in large scale deforestation so much so that timber became the main source of
government’s revenue. Reclaimations also led to the death of mangrove forests which made the
land suitable for cultivation of European crops. Coconut and Tea were planted in large quantities.
Diseases were also transferred along a pattern that Crosby labels as the Columbian Exchange.
Malaria, Cholera, Measles, Pneumonia, Leukoma, Ulcer Dermatites and Syphillis were introduced by
the British and was another way in which the environment was colonized. New varieties of animals
were also bought in, some of whom causes diseases. Sheep and Cattle for instance carried
tuberculosis bacteria. Indegenous populations were almost wiped out by these diseases and new
labour was bought in from India which led to ecological colonization owing to a change in
demography.

CONCLUSION

The concept of ecological imperialism therefore is an indispensable dimension of understanding

imperialism as a whole. It demonstrates how colonialism functions not only in the political realm but
is very much a product of and is sustained by changes bought in the ecology of a region.
Transformation of ecology in fact is one of the primary markers of colonisation, for it takes place on
the belief that unadulterated regions can be transformed to produce profitable commodities.
Deliberate attempts at ecological include introducing cash crops, deforestation and demographic
alteration. However, with it also come the unforeseen forms of ecological colonization such as
disease. Regardless, ecological imperialism remains a motivation, symptom and one of the primary
goals of colonialism.