CRACKS IN CONCRETE:

i. Shrinkage – concrete shrinks when it dries/harden.

Formation of cracks occur if concrete is restrained from

CHAPTER 1 :
shrinking freely.
ii. Thermal expansion & contraction – Caused by changes in
temperature. If expansion & contraction isnt

INTRODUCTION iii.
accommodated, cracks occur.
Overloading – crack caused by loads greater than the
TYPE OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS structure able to withstand.
iv. Settlement – if the soil beneath the structure settles
unevenly, structure will crack.
v. Corrosion of reinforcement – cracks caused by corrosion of
the steel reinforcement in structure.
CEMENT & CONCRETE vi. Poor construction practice - improper curing, inadequate
 A mixing of aggregates, sand & water compaction/ poor mix design may lead to cracking.
 Cement + water = hydration process
 Aggregates contribute 70% total strength of concrete
FACTORS OF CONCRETE FAILURES :
i. Improper mix – incorrect proportions of concrete mix
TYPE OF CEMENT: ii. Insufficient curing – concrete that dried out too quickly is
weak & brittle.
i. Portland cement (OPC)
iii. Poor workmanship – concrete not properly placed,
ii. Blended cement
compacted, & finished, lead to voids & weak spots in
(intergrading OPC w’ other material/ combine of
concrete.
intergrading & blending)
iv. Structural overload – failures when structure subjected to
load greater than it can withstand.
v. Corrosion – steel reinforcement within structures corrodes.
vi. Environmental factors - freeze-thaw cycles, exposure to
chemical, & aggressive environmental conditions.
STEEL
 REBAR =reinforcement bar DISADVANTAGES :
 Use as a tension device in reinforced concrete/ to
i. Susceptibility to corrosion
strengthen & hold the concrete in compaction.
ii. Costly than other types of structure
 Surface is patterned to form better bond w' concrete.
iii. Low fire resistant – loss of strength in fire
iv. Buckling & high deformation due to small sizes of members

CATEGORY :
i. High yield steel TIMBER & WOOD
ii. Mild yield steel
CATEGORIES :
i. Hardwood – chengal, kapur, jelutong.
CHARACTERISTICS : ii. Softwood – dmar minyak, podo, sempilor.

i. High stiffness
ii. High tensile strength
iii. Ability to form into plate, sections & wire DIFFERENCE :
iv. Weldability SOFTWOOD HARDWOOD
v. Electrical conductivity & thermal
Lighter color Darker color
Faster growth Slower growth
ADVANTAGES : Light in weight Heavier
i. Very strong in tension Distinct annual rings Indistinct
ii. Ductility – can undergo large plastic deformation before Resinous materials No resinous materials
failure (provide large reserve strength) exist in pores
iii. Highly suitable for prefabrication & mass production.
iv. Can be reused after structure disassembled.
STRUCTURE OF WOOD :
i. Bark STRUCTURAL CLAY BRICKS (MASONRY UNITS)
ii. Cambium
iii. Sap wood BRICKS :
iv. Heart wood  Block of clay baked by sun or in kiln until hard
v. Pith  Used as a building/paving material
 Refer as small unit of building & bonded each other with
mortar
ADVANTAGES :  Mortar is bonding agents comprising of cement, aggregates
i. Provides for flexibility of design, allow modifications & & water
tweaks to layout during construction.  Categories :
ii. Lower cost of raw material than steel. ~ Solid – brick
iii. 400 times better as thermal insulator than steel, 14 times ~ Hollow – concrete block
better than concrete.
iv. Acts as humidity regulator, absorb moisture when humid,
desorb moisture when air is dry. FACTORS OF CHOOSING CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
 Durability – highly durable material reduces maintenance/
replacement requirements & extend the life of the building.
DISADVANTAGES :  Cost – cost consideration includes the initial cost of the
i. Shrinkage & swelling – absorb surrounding condensable purchase & the life cycle costs of materials.
vapours & loses moisture to air below the fibre saturation  Time – select materials & systems for ease of construction,
points. complicated installations will result in wastage/rework/more
ii. Fungi – fungi leads to wood deterioration. time being required.
iii. Fire – easily catches it.  Material properties – ensure each material chosen has
iv. Insects – they cause to lumber and wood in service. fulfilled the entire requirements.
 Availability – Long delivery lead-in-times must be allowed,
bcs delays may cause projects hold-ups.
PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES :
i. Specific gravity – relative density w' respect to water.
ii. Density – degree of compactness of a substance.
iii. Permeability – ability of a material to transmit fluids.
iv. Structure (macro/micro)
v. Porosity – empty spaces in materials.
vi. Void content – ratio of void volume to solid volume.
vii. Moisture content – quantity of water contained in material.
viii. Hardness – resistant to pressure/scratch.
ix. Soundness – ability to resist change of volume due to physical conditions.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES :
i. Strength – ability to withstand an applied stress w'o failure.
ii. Tension – force related to stretching of an object.
iii. Compression – capacity of material to withstand loads tending to reduce size.
iv. Shear – deformation in which parallel internal surfaces slide past one another.
v. Flexure – ability to resist deformation under load.
vi. Torsion – twisting of an object due to applied torque.
vii. Ductility & brittleness - stress-strain relations of materials.
viii. Toughness – ability to absorb energy until fracture.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES :
i. The composition & potential reaction of material.
ii. The compound of composition describe the nature of the material & the way it
would behave in certain environment.

CAUSES OF DETERIORATION OF CONCRETE STRUTURE

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION PHYSICAL ACTIONS
MECHANICAL
CHEMICAL ACTIONS
ACTIONS
TYPE OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS  Exposure to  Abrasion.  Sulphate attack
extreme  Impact  Alkali aggregate
temperature (handling, reaction
(fire damage/ construction/  Carbonation
CEMENT & CONCRETE frost action). vehicular)  Chloride attack
 Volume  Erosion.  Corrosion of
 A mixing of aggregates, sand & changes due to  Cavitation reinforcement
temperature &  Overloading &  Acid attack
water humidity fatigue (cycling (surface erosion
gradient. loading). by acid rain/
 Differences in  Blast aggressive
thermal chemicals in
coefficients industrial
between environment)
aggregate &
cement paste
mix.
 Cement + water = hydration process
 Aggregates contribute 70% total strength of concrete

TYPE OF CEMENT:
i. Portland cement (OPC)
ii. Blended cement
(intergrading OPC w’ other material/ combine of intergrading & blending)

CRACKS IN CONCRETE:
i. Shrinkage – concrete shrinks when it dries/harden. Formation of
cracks occur if concrete is restrained from shrinking freely.
ii. Thermal expansion & contraction – Caused by changes in
temperature. If expansion & contraction isnt accommodated, cracks
occur.
iii. Overloading – crack caused by loads greater than the structure able
to withstand.
iv. Settlement – if the soil beneath the structure settles unevenly,
structure will crack.
v. Corrosion of reinforcement – cracks caused by corrosion of the
steel reinforcement in structure.
vi. Poor construction practice - improper curing, inadequate
compaction/ poor mix design may lead to cracking.

FACTORS OF CONCRETE FAILURES :

i. Improper mix – incorrect proportions of concrete mix
ii. Insufficient curing – concrete that dried out too quickly is weak &
brittle.
iii. Poor workmanship – concrete not properly placed, compacted, &
finished, lead to voids & weak spots in concrete.

6
iv. Structural overload – failures when structure subjected to load
greater than it can withstand.
v. Corrosion – steel reinforcement within structures corrodes.
vi. Environmental factors - freeze-thaw cycles, exposure to chemical, &
aggressive environmental conditions.

STEEL
 REBAR =reinforcement bar
 Use as a tension device in reinforced concrete/ to strengthen &
hold the concrete in compaction.
 Surface is patterned to form better bond w' concrete.

CATEGORY :
i. High yield steel
ii. Mild yield steel

CHARACTERISTICS :
i. High stiffness
ii. High tensile strength
iii. Ability to form into plate, sections & wire
iv. Weldability
v. Electrical conductivity & thermal

ADVANTAGES :
i. Very strong in tension
ii. Ductility – can undergo large plastic deformation before failure
(provide large reserve strength)

7
iii. Highly suitable for prefabrication & mass production.
iv. Can be reused after structure disassembled.

DISADVANTAGES :
i. Susceptibility to corrosion
ii. Costly than other types of structure
iii. Low fire resistant – loss of strength in fire
iv. Buckling & high deformation due to small sizes of members

TIMBER & WOOD

CATEGORIES :
i. Hardwood – chengal, kapur, jelutong.
ii. Softwood – dmar minyak, podo, sempilor.

DIFFERENCE :
SOFTWOOD HARDWOOD
Lighter color Darker color
Faster growth Slower growth
Light in weight Heavier
Distinct annual rings Indistinct
Resinous materials exist in pores No resinous materials

STRUCTURE OF WOOD :
i. Bark
ii. Cambium
iii. Sap wood
iv. Heart wood

8
v. Pith

ADVANTAGES :
i. Provides for flexibility of design, allow modifications & tweaks to
layout during construction.
ii. Lower cost of raw material than steel.
iii. 400 times better as thermal insulator than steel, 14 times better
than concrete.
iv. Acts as humidity regulator, absorb moisture when humid, desorb
moisture when air is dry.

DISADVANTAGES :
i. Shrinkage & swelling – absorb surrounding condensable vapours &
loses moisture to air below the fibre saturation points.
ii. Fungi – fungi leads to wood deterioration.
iii. Fire – easily catches it.
iv. Insects – they cause to lumber and wood in service.

STRUCTURAL CLAY BRICKS (MASONRY UNITS)

BRICKS :
 Block of clay baked by sun or in kiln until hard
 Used as a building/paving material
 Refer as small unit of building & bonded each other with mortar
 Mortar is bonding agents comprising of cement, aggregates &
water
 Categories :
~ Solid – brick
~ Hollow – concrete block

9
FACTORS OF CHOOSING CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
 Durability – highly durable material reduces maintenance/
replacement requirements & extend the life of the building.
 Cost – cost consideration includes the initial cost of the purchase &
the life cycle costs of materials.
 Time – select materials & systems for ease of construction,
complicated installations will result in wastage/rework/more time being
required.
 Material properties – ensure each material chosen has fulfilled the
entire requirements.
 Availability – Long delivery lead-in-times must be allowed, bcs
delays may cause projects hold-ups.

PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES :
i. Specific gravity – relative density w' respect to water.
ii. Density – degree of compactness of a substance.
iii. Permeability – ability of a material to transmit fluids.
iv. Structure (macro/micro)
v. Porosity – empty spaces in materials.
vi. Void content – ratio of void volume to solid volume.
vii. Moisture content – quantity of water contained in material.
viii. Hardness – resistant to pressure/scratch.
ix. Soundness – ability to resist change of volume due to physical
conditions.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES :
i. Strength – ability to withstand an applied stress w'o failure.

10
ii. Tension – force related to stretching of an object.
iii. Compression – capacity of material to withstand loads tending to
reduce size.
iv. Shear – deformation in which parallel internal surfaces slide past
one another.
v. Flexure – ability to resist deformation under load.
vi. Torsion – twisting of an object due to applied torque.
vii. Ductility & brittleness - stress-strain relations of materials.
viii. Toughness – ability to absorb energy until fracture.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES :
i. The composition & potential reaction of material.
ii. The compound of composition describe the nature of the material
& the way it would behave in certain environment.

CAUSES OF DETERIORATION OF CONCRETE STRUTURE

PHYSICAL ACTIONS MECHANICAL
ACTIONS CHEMICAL ACTIONS
• Exposure to extreme temperature (fire damage/
frost action).
• Volume changes due to temperature & humidity gradient.
• Differences in thermal coefficients between aggregate & cement
paste mix. • Abrasion.
• Impact (handling, construction/ vehicular)
• Erosion.
• Cavitation
• Overloading & fatigue (cycling loading).
• Blast • Sulphate attack
• Alkali aggregate reaction

11
• Carbonation
• Chloride attack
• Corrosion of reinforcement
• Acid attack (surface erosion by acid rain/ aggressive chemicals in
industrial environment)

12