NAME: …………………………………………………………………… BIOLOGY FOR YEAR 10, THIRD TERM

THE CELL AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

CONTENT
- Environment of the Cell
- Diffusion and Osmosis
- Cell Division

Environment of the Cell

Living cells are known to be surrounded by a watery environment. This may include fresh/salt water in
which the unicellular organisms live, Intercellular fluid that bath the bodies of cells of higher animals. The
nature of states of matter makes diffusion and osmosis possible.

DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the process by which molecules of substances move from a region of higher concentration to a
region of lower concentration through the medium of air or liquid. The difference in the concentration of
the substances in the two regions before diffusion occurs is called concentration/diffusion gradient, e.g. If
KMnO4 (Potassium tetraoxomanganate VII) is placed in a beaker of water and allowed to stand, the
purple colour of the KMnO4 start to spread outward from the crystal. Eventually, the colour spread
evenly throughout the water medium.
Diffusion is also observed in the spread of odour of perfume, insecticide which is used to spray a room
and in the release of gases from the anus.
Diffusion is affected by the following factors:
I. Change in temperature: The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of diffusion.
II. Molecular size: Diffusion increases with decreasing size of molecule.
III. State of matter: Diffusion of gases is much faster than that of liquid.
IV. Difference in concentration: The greater the difference in concentration of molecules, the faster
the rate of diffusion.

Importance of diffusion in living organisms

1. The movement of carbon (IV) oxide through the stomata of leaves during the process of
photosynthesis.
2. Movement of oxygen into the leaves during respiration.
3. Movement of water vapour out of the leaf in the process of transpiration
4. Gaseous exchange in the lungs of mammals
5. Intake of oxygen and nutrients and the removal of waste product by the foetus from its mother
through placenta.
6. Movement of digested and soluble food from the villi of small intestine to the blood stream.
7. Removal of waste product in small organisms such as amoeba

OSMOSIS
Osmosis can be defined as the movement of water molecules from a solution with a high concentration of
water molecules to a solution with a lower concentration of water molecules, through a semi-permeable
membrane.
A permeable membrane allows molecules to pass through it freely while a selectively permeable
membrane only allows certain molecules to pass through it. Osmosis will only occur when a semi-
permeable membrane separates weak and strong solutions.
NAME: …………………………………………………………………… BIOLOGY FOR YEAR 10, THIRD TERM
Living cells may find themselves in any of the following situation:
 When the fluid surrounding the cell is more concentrated than the inside of the cell, the
surrounding fluid is said to be hypertonic to the content of the cells. A net movement of water
molecules out of the cell into the surrounding fluid occurs and causes the cell to shrink. This
process is known as Exosmosis.
 When the fluid surrounding the cell is less concentrated than the inside of the cell, the surrounding
fluid is said to be hypotonic to the content of the cell. There is a net movement of water molecules
from the surrounding fluid into the cells. This process is known as Endosmosis.
 When the surrounding fluid and the cell concentration have the same concentration, they are said
to be Isotonic. A net movement of water molecule in and out of the cells does not occur.

IMPORTANCE OF OSMOSIS
1. It aids the absorption of water from the soil into the vacuole of the root hairs.
2. It aids the movement of water from the root hairs into the cells of other parts of the plants.
3. It helps to control the opening and closing of the stomata pores.
4. It gives turgidity to the plant cells i.e., it gives support.
5. It aids intracellular movement of water in animals.
6. It aids reabsorption of water from the kidney tubules into the blood.
7. It causes haemolysis of red blood cells.

PLASMOLYSIS
Plasmolysis is the shrinkage of the vacuole and pulling away of the cytoplasmic lining from the cell wall
when placed in hypertonic solution. When a plant cell is surrounded or place in hypertonic solution,
exosmosis will occur i.e., water moves out of the cell into the surrounding fluid leading to the shrinking of
the vacuole and pulling the cytoplasm away from the cell wall. When cells are plasmolysed, it eventually
leads to wilting or death of the plant.

HAEMOLYSIS
This is the process whereby red blood cells (corpuscles) splits and burst as a result of too much water
passing into it. Red blood cells and blood plasma are always isotonic i.e., having the same osmotic
concentration, if for some reasons the concentration of blood plasma falls; endosmosis will occur (water
moves from the plasma into the red blood cells). Continuous absorption of water into the cell makes it
turgid and when fully stretched, it burst.

TURGIDITY AND BIOLOGY SIGNIFICANCE

Turgidity is the condition in which cell absorbs plenty of water up to a point where the cell is fully
stretched. Turgidity is observed in plants where it makes them erect and support the stem, leaves and
flowers.

FLACCIDITY AND BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Flaccidity is the condition in which plant lose water to their surrounding faster than they can absorb.
When a plant loses more water than it absorbs, it becomes flaccid. Flaccidity usually occurs when there is
no water in the soil, especially where there is drought. The continuous loss of water can result in the
death of the plant.
NAME: …………………………………………………………………… BIOLOGY FOR YEAR 10, THIRD TERM

TYPES OF CELL DIVISION

There are two types of cell division: (a) Mitosis (b) Meiosis

Mitosis
Mitosis is a cell division to produce two daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes and
characteristics as those of the parent cell. This cell division takes place only in somatic cells (i.e. body cells
that are not involved in the production of gametes) such as skin, bone marrow and meristematic tissues
in plants.
Mitotic cell division involve five main stages
1. Interphase: This is the stage in life cycle of a cell between two mitotic divisions when replication of
DNA takes place.
2. Prophase: in early prophase chromosomes become visible, nucleolus shrinks, centrioles start moving
away from each other in opposite direction and the formation of spindle fibres begins. During the late
prophase, chromosomes become shorter, thicker, and visible. Each chromosome now forms two
distinct chromatids joined by a centromere. Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear entirely.
3. Metaphase: paired chromatids arrange themselves along the equator of the spindle and are attached
to the spindle at the centromere.
4. Anaphase: sister chromatids separate and start migrating to the opposite poles of the cell and
eventually reach the poles.
5. Telophase: the cell starts dividing into two by constricting at the equator, nucleolus and nuclear
membrane are reform in each daughter cell, spindle fibres degenerates and chromosomes eventually
regain their threadlike form

Importance of mitosis
a. It brings about growth, development and specialization especially in multicellular organisms.
b. Asexual reproduction binary and multiple fissions in protozoa, budding in yeasts are result of
mitosis.
c. It ensures the diploid condition of the cells is retained from generation to generation
d. It aids the repair of damaged cells

Life processes involved in mitosis

1. Formation of new cells in malpighian layer of the skin
2. Production of red and white blood cells in the bone marrow
3. Healing of wounds
4. Growth in meristem
5. Binary fission

MEIOSIS
Meiosis is the reduction division that leads to the formation of four daughter cells that are haploids.
Meiosis differs from mitosis; in that it involves two consecutive cell divisions instead of one and the
genetic material contained in chromosomes is not copied during the second meiotic division. Whereas
mitosis produces identical daughter cells, meiosis randomly mixes the chromosomes, resulting in unique
combinations of chromosomes in each daughter cell. Meiosis ensures the chromosome number of an
individual remain the same from generation to generation.
NAME: …………………………………………………………………… BIOLOGY FOR YEAR 10, THIRD TERM

Meiosis consists of two successive divisions:

First meiotic division
1. Interphase: resting phase, chromosomes are not seen
2. Prophase I: At early prophase, chromosomes contract and become clearly visible. At middle prophase,
homologous chromosomes come together and spindle is formed. At late prophase crossing over takes
place between homologous chromosomes at a place called chiasma
3. Metaphase I: Nuclear membrane disappear, the bivalent s chromosomes assemble at the equator and
are attached to the spindle by their centromere
4. Anaphase I: Bivalent chromosomes separate completely and move to the opposite pole of the cell
5. Telophase I: bivalent chromosomes arrived at the pole, nuclear membrane are formed around the
chromosomes at the two poles, two daughter cells result with half the number of chromosomes in the
parent cell.
Second meiotic division
It consists of four stages similar to mitosis, no resting stage and no replication of chromosomes. At the
end, four daughter cells are formed.
Importance of meiosis
Meiosis aids the formation of
a. Spermatozoa
b. Ova or egg cells
c. Pollen grains in flowering plants
d. Ovules in flowering plants

Classwork
Illustrate with diagram, the stages in mitosis.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Which structures must be present in a cell D. Windy weather
for osmosis to take place? 4. Osmosis occurs through a membrane that
A. cell (sap) vacuole and cell wall is _____ permeable
B. cell wall and cell membrane A. Fully B. slowly C. differentially
C. chloroplast and cytoplasm D. freely
D. cytoplasm and cell membrane 5. Which of the following processes takes
2. The scent from a bunch of flowers spreads place when a plant cell is put in a
throughout a room. How does the scent hypotonic solution?
spread? A. water moves into the cell and the cell
A. by conduction bursts
B. by diffusion B. water leaves the cell and the cell
C. by osmosis becomes flabby
D. by transpiration C. water moves into the cell and the cell
3. Which of the following environmental becomes turgid
conditions is ideal for plant cells to D. the cell becomes plasmolysed
remain turgid? 6. Active transport is the movement of
A. Hot, dry weather A. molecules from a region of their
B. Cold, dry weather higher concentration to a region of
C. Cool, humid weather their lower concentration.
NAME: …………………………………………………………………… BIOLOGY FOR YEAR 10, THIRD TERM
B. particles from a region of lower 9. The diagram shows water and sugar
concentration to a region of higher molecules on either side of a partially
concentration using energy from permeable membrane.
respiration.
C. urine by relaxation of a sphincter
muscle in the bladder.
D. water through a partially
permeable membrane from a more
dilute to a more concentrated
solution. What happens during osmosis?
A. More sugar molecules pass through the
7. The diagram shows an experiment to membrane from X to Y than from Y to X.
demonstrate the movement of molecules. B. More sugar molecules pass through the
membrane from Y to X than from X to Y.
C. More water molecules pass through the
membrane from X to Y than from Y to X.
D. More water molecules pass through the
membrane from Y to X than from X to Y.

10. A jar of air was placed upside down on

top of a jar containing a brown gas as
After one hour, the water in the beaker
shown.
turned red. What is the most likely reason
for this colour change?
A. Molecules of red ink move through
the membrane by diffusion.
B. Molecules of red ink move through
the membrane by osmosis.
C. Molecules of water move through
the membrane by diffusion. Which process has taken place?

D. Molecules of water move through A. diffusion both upwards and

the membrane by osmosis. downwards

B. diffusion downwards only

8. Why does oxygen diffuse into the blood C. diffusion upwards only

from an alveolus in the lungs? D. diffusion and osmosis

A. The oxygen concentration in the

alveolus is greater than the carbon
dioxide concentration in the blood. 11. Which statement describes how young

B. The oxygen concentration in the plants are supported?

alveolus is greater than in the A. the pressure of water inside the cells

blood. pressing outwards on the cell membranes

C. The oxygen concentration in the B. the pressure of water inside the cells

blood is greater than in the pressing outwards on the cell walls

alveolus. C. the pressure of water passing from the

D. The oxygen concentration in the roots through the phloem

blood is greater than the carbon D. the pressure of water passing from the

dioxide concentration in the roots through the xylem

alveolus.
12. The diagram shows a fish in a pond.
NAME: …………………………………………………………………… BIOLOGY FOR YEAR 10, THIRD TERM
B. osmosis
C. translocation
D. transpiration

Why does oxygen diffuse from the air into

17. How does oxygen move from the alveoli
the water before reaching the fish?
into the blood?
A. Oxygen is more concentrated in
A. by diffusion
the air than in the water.
B. by evaporation
B. Oxygen is more concentrated in
C. by osmosis
the water than in the air.
D. by transpiration
C. Oxygen is needed by the fish for
aerobic respiration.
18. Which process occurs by osmosis?
D. Oxygen is needed by the fish for
A. plant roots absorbing mineral ions
anaerobic respiration.
from the soil
B. plant roots absorbing water from
13. Which process in humans does not use
the soil
energy released from respiration?
C. the small intestine absorbing fatty
A. cell division
acids into the blood
B. diffusion of oxygen
D. the small intestine absorbing
C. muscle contraction
glucose into the blood
D. protein synthesis

19. Osmosis is defined as the diffusion of

14. Which statements are correct for both
water molecules
diffusion and osmosis?
A. down their concentration gradient
through a partially permeable membrane.
B. down their concentration gradient
through a permeable membrane.
C. up their concentration gradient
through a partially permeable membrane.
15.The diagram shows a plant shoot and the D. up their concentration gradient
same shoot six hours later. through a permeable membrane.

20. The diagram shows part of a section

through a leaf.
Which arrow shows the direction of
movement of water by osmosis in a leaf?

Which change in environmental conditions

could cause this change in the shoot?
A. a decrease in available water
B. a decrease in light intensity
C. a decrease in wind speed
D. an increase in humidity

16. By which process does oxygen pass out of

a leaf? 21. A red blood cell is placed in a
A. diffusion concentrated sugar solution.
NAME: …………………………………………………………………… BIOLOGY FOR YEAR 10, THIRD TERM
What happens and why? C. The cell shrinks because sugar
A. The cell bursts as sugar molecules molecules leave it.
diffuse into it. D. The cell shrinks because water
B. The cell bursts because the leaves it.
concentrated sugar solution enters
it.

MICRO-ORGANISMS AROUND US

CONTENT
 Description and groups of microorganisms
 Concept of culturing
 Beneficial and harmful effects of microorganisms

DESCRIPTION AND GROUP OF MICROORGANISMS

Micro-organisms otherwise called microbes or germs can be defined as living things which
cannot be seen with unaided eye but by the use of microscopes.
They exist almost everywhere, in water, air, soil, surface of objects, as well as on and within
living organisms. They are carried by air currents from the earth’s surface to the upper
atmosphere. They occur most abundantly where there is food, moisture, and adequate
temperature for their growth.
It was the invention of microscope that opened the gateway to the world of these minute living
organisms. The first person to discover microbes was a Dutch man called Anthonie Leeuwenhoek
(1632-1723). Using a simple microscope, he was astonished to discover that rain water that
had been collected from pools was full of little organisms.

GROUPS OF MICRO-ORGANISMS
Micro-organisms include all viruses, bacteria and the protists. Others are the cyanobacteria,
certain fungi and algae.
1. BACTERIA: These are minute unicellular organisms or simple association of similar cells which multiply
by binary fission. Most bacteria cells range between 0.2 µ-2µ in diameter and 0.0005 mm-0.002
mm long. Each bacterium cell has a cell wall with cytoplasm. There is no well defined nucleus.
Consequently, they are prokaryotic organisms.
There are different kinds of bacteria showing a range of shapes. Certain kinds of bacteria have long

thread-like structures called flagella which assist in locomotion. Bacteria with spherical shape are

referred to as cocci (singular-coccus). There are several forms as shown on the next page.

Streptococci- These are arranged in chains. They cause sore throat.

Staphylococci- These stick together to form irregular bunches. They cause boils.
Diplococci- They occur in pairs. e.g. pneumococci which causes pneumonia.
Bacilli- They are rod-shaped. They cause typhoid fever.
Spirilla (singular = spirillum)- These are rod-shaped bacteria twisted into a spiral shape.
Spirochaetes- These are also spiral in shape but are more flexible and slender with
helically coiled structure e.g. Treponema pallidum which causes syphilis.
Vibrios- These are comma-shaped bacteria e.g. Vibrio cholera which causes cholera.
 NAME: …………………………………………………………………… BIOLOGY FOR YEAR 10, THIRD TERM
2. VIRUSES: Viruses are a large group of pathogens whose presence is felt only when they are in contact
with living cells. They are very small and vary between 0.1µ-0.25 µ in diameter. The largest virus is
less than one-fourth the size of typhoid bacterium.
A virus consists of a nuclear material either DNA or RNA, enclosed within a protein coat. Outside

living organisms they are like complex chemicals.

3. PROTISTS: These are single-celled animals, most of which are only visible by means of microscope.
They are common in fresh water and moist soils. Examples include Euglena, Paramecium,
Trypanosoma, Plasmodium, etc.
4. FUNGI: They are diversified in form. The blue and green growth on oranges, lemons, cheese and the
white/grey growth on bread are usually signs of fungal infections. Fungi feed saprophytically. Examples
of fungi include Mucor, Rhizopus, Penicillium, Aspergillus, etc.
5. ALGAE: Most algae are unicellular and very small. They have chlorophyll. They occur abundantly in
water, moist soils, bark of trees, stones, etc. Free floating microscopic algae are referred to as
phytoplanktons and they form the major food of aquatic animals. Examples of unicellular algae include
Chlamydomonas and Protococcus.

Shapes of bacteria

CONCEPT OF CULTURING
It is easier to grow bacteria, fungi, and algae in appropriate media. The material on or in
which microbes grow in the laboratory is called culture medium. Some media are prepared
from complex extracts of plant or animal tissues. A culture is the population of organisms
cultivated in a medium.
If a culture contains only one living species of organism regardless of the number of
individuals, it is said to be a pure or axenic culture. A culture which contains two or more
species growing together is called a mixed culture.
An important medium used for growing microbes is agar. It is a dried polysaccharide extract
of red algae which is used as a solidifying agent. It is not broken down by microbes.
NAME: …………………………………………………………………… BIOLOGY FOR YEAR 10, THIRD TERM
IDENTIFICATION OF MICRO-ORGANISMS
There are many ways of identifying micro-organisms around us. These include the use of microscopes
stains of different types, types of colonies formed by the microbes, their food requirement and oxygen
requirement of the organisms.
To determine the presence of microbes around us, suitable media are used to culture them in petri-
dishes which are first sterilized by heating them in a pressure cooker, autoclave or oven.
Micro-organisms are not capable of growing in the air. The exposure of nutrient agar to the air will
show the growth of different bacteria colonies in the air. Microbes commonly found in the air include
viruses, bacteria, fungi, etc.
Microbes in aquatic habitat may be grouped into natural water, soil and sewage microbes. Examples of
the first category include protists, algae, some fungi, bacteria, etc. Examples of the second group
include Rhizobium, Nitrosomonas, and Nitrobacter. Examples of sewage microbes are Entamoeba
histolytica, Escherichia coli, etc.
Microbes living in our bodies form normal population without causing any harm. However, under
certain conditions, they may become dangerous. Pathogenic organisms cause diseases when body
resistance is low or when normal microflora is de-established by the use of antibiotics. Any food item
left unpreserved for a long time will be spoilt by the activities of microbes.
Pathogens enter the body through four main ways, namely: air, food and water, contact (direct or
indirect), and insect bites/cuts.

CARRIERS OF MICROORGANISM
Any agent that carries microbes from one place to another is called a carrier. Carriers can be living or
non-living things. Non-living carriers include air, water, and food while animals (e.g. houseflies,
mosquitoes, rats, cats, etc) are the living carriers. Animal vectors carry pathogens either mechanically or
biologically. In mechanical method, animals carry the pathogens on their bodies where they cannot grow
or multiply. In biological method, the vector becomes infected by feeding on the body fluid of infected
persons or animals.

Vector or Carrier Micro-organisms Disease caused

(i) Anopheles (female) mosquito Plasmodium Malaria fever
(ii) Tse-tse fly Trypanosome Sleeping sickness
(iii) Housefly Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella typhi Cholera and typhoid fever
(iv) Aedes mosquito Virus Yellow fever

GROWTH OF MICRO-ORGANISMS
Bacteria reproduce by binary fission in which a single cell divides into two. This process is called asexual
reproduction. The time interval required for the cell to divide into two is called generation time. This
time varies from one organism to another. It strongly depends upon nutrient availability, temperature,
gaseous requirement and pH. There are different phases in the growth of bacteria. These include the (i)
lag phase (ii) logarithmic or exponential phase (iii) the stationary phase and (iv) decline or death. The
growth of micro-organisms can be measured by using any of these methods:
(a) Turbidity method
(b) Serial dilution method
(c) Squared transparent paper or cellophane method
NAME: …………………………………………………………………… BIOLOGY FOR YEAR 10, THIRD TERM
BENEFICIAL AND HARMFUL EFFECTS OF MICRO-ORGANISMS
BENEFICIAL EFFECTS
1. Bacteria help to digest cellulose in herbivores.
2. In man, they synthesize vitamin K and B12
3. Bacteria and fungi are widely used in the synthesis of antibiotics
4. They are used to manufacture amino acids and vinegar
5. Bacteria are used to process milk into different tastes and flavours.
6. They are used to decompose sewage into harmless inorganic compounds.
7. Microbial cultures are used to produce enzymes
8. Yeast is used as a leavening agent in baking industries.
9. Algae play important role in fertilizing the soil.
10. Bacteria are used to produce single-cells protein (SCP).
HARMFUL EFFECTS
1. Bacteria cause decay and spoilage of food items.
2. Materials like wood, paper, textiles, rubber and metals are destroyed by microbes.
3. They cause diseases of different types.

DISEASES CAUSED BY MICRO-ORGANISMS

CONTENT
 Disease, causative agent, symptoms
 Transmission, and control

DISEASE CAUSATIVE SYMPTOMS TRANSMISSION CONTROL

AGENT
Chickenpox Varicella Virus Fever, tiredness, and an Contact Isolate patient and
itchy, blistery rash. use appropriate
drugs.
Cholera Vibrio cholerae Watery diarrhea, vomiting, flies, food , Personal hygiene.
leg cramps. faeces,
carriers
Common Rhino Virus Cough, runny nose, shivering, Contact Take appropriate
Cold etc. medications and
avoid contact.
Dengue Dengue Virus Aedes Mosquito Drain the water
Severe headache, severe eye
(arbovirus) and clear the
pain (behind eyes), joint pain,
bushes around.
muscle and/or bone pain,
rash, mild bleeding (e.g., nose
or gum bleed, petechiae, or
easy bruising),l ow white cell
count.

Diarrhoea Giardia Frequent passing of watery contaminated Personal hygiene

intestinalis faeces, cramps and pains in stools
the abdomen (stomach),
nausea and vomiting.
NAME: …………………………………………………………………… BIOLOGY FOR YEAR 10, THIRD TERM
Diphtheria Corynebacteriu A sore throat, hoarseness, Contact Use antibiotics and
m diptheriae painful swallowing, swollen avoid contacts.
(Bacteria) glands (enlarged lymph
nodes) in your neck, thick,
difficulty breathing or rapid
breathing, nasal discharge,
fever and chills, & malaise.

Leprosy Mycobacterium Disfiguring skin sores, lumps, Long and close Use antibiotics and
leprae or bumps (that do not go contact avoid contacts.

away after several weeks or Patients should be

months), loss of feeling in the isolated.

arms and legs, muscle

weakness.

Measles Measles virus A high temperature, sore Contact Take appropriate

(ParaMyxoVirus) eyes (conjunctivitis), runny medication and
nose, small white spots, harsh avoid contact.
dry cough, going off food,
tiredness, aches, pains,
diarrhoea and/or vomiting.
Pneumonia Diplococcus High fever, shaking chills, bacteria Use of antibiotics
pneumonia cough with phlegm (a slimy transmission by and avoidance of

substance) which doesn't contact. contact.

improve or worsens,
shortness of breath, chest
pain when you breathe or
cough, suddenly feeling worse
after a cold, etc.

Poliomyelitis Polio Virus or Fever, sore throat, headache, houseflies, food Good hygiene and
Enterovirus vomiting, fatigue, back pain and appropriate
or stiffness, neck pain or water medication.
stiffness, pain or stiffness in
the arms or legs, muscle
weakness or tenderness, &
meningitis.

Rabies Rhabdovirus Fever, cough, sore throat, mad dog bites Treat dogs and
etc. seek urgent
medical attention
in cases of bites.
Septic Sore Streptococcus Fever, nasal drainage, sore Contact Use of antibiotics
Throat Bacteria throat, swollen glands, and avoidance of
difficulty swallowing, and contact.
irritability.
Sleeping Tryponosoma Anxiety, drowsiness during reaches lymph Clear vegetations
Sickness brucei the day, fever, headache, nodes via around, use
insomnia at night, mood transmission insecticides and
changes, sleepiness, thru fly bites take appropriate
NAME: …………………………………………………………………… BIOLOGY FOR YEAR 10, THIRD TERM
sweating, swollen lymph medication.
nodes all over the body,
swollen, red, painful nodule
at site of fly bite.

Smallpox Variola Virus High fever, vomiting, fatigue, Contact Take appropriate
backache, a raised spotted medication and
rash, etc. avoid contact.
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium Malaise, weight loss, and Bacteria Isolate patients
tuberculosis night sweats. transmission by and use
cough appropriate
antibiotics.
Tetanus Clostridium Muscle spasms and breathing bacteria in soil Treat wounds
tetani problems. thru urgently.
wounds
Typhoid Salmonella typhi Abdominal tenderness, Flies, food etc. Treat water before
agitation, bloody stools, chills, drinking. Maintain
confusion, difficulty paying personal hygiene.
attention, fluctuating mood, Use appropriate
nosebleeds, severe fatigue, antibiotics.
weakness, etc.

Whooping Hameophilius Cough, whooping sound coughing and Isolate patients

cough pertussis during breathing, etc. sneezing and use
appropriate
antibiotics.
Influenza Flu Orthomixovirus fever and muscle aches, cold, Contact Take appropriate
runny nose, sore throat, etc. medication and
avoid contact.
Malaria Plasmodium chills, headache, muscle Bite from Use of drugs,
aches, tiredness, nausea, female insecticides, etc.
vomiting and diarrhea. anophelex
mosquitoes

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

CONTENT
 Definition, mode of transmission, symptoms, prevention and control
 HIV and AIDS

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) or venereal diseases are the diseases that are contracted through
sexual intercourse. Examples include syphilis, gonorrhea, herpes, thrush, AIDS etc. The table below shows
a list of STIs, their symptoms, transmission, etc.

DISEASE CAUSATIVE SYMPTOMS PREVENTION/CONTROL

NAME: …………………………………………………………………… BIOLOGY FOR YEAR 10, THIRD TERM
ORGANISM

GONORRHOEA Bacterium (Neisseria − Burning sensation during − Discourage

gonorrhea) urination in males commercialized

− A thick yellowish discharge in prostitution
males − Avoid multiple sexual
− Pain on passing urine in partners
females − Get medical attention
− Vagina discharge and swelling and stop sexual
of the vulva intercourse with
− Redness around the urinary previous partner(s)
openings
− Sterility at advanced stage
SYPHILIS Bacterium (Treponema − A small painless sore appear As in gonorrhoea

pallidium) on the penis or vulva at the

initial stage
− Fever, skin rashes, mouth
ulcer, aching pains at the
lymph node regions at
secondary stage
− Nervous disorder, insanity,
repeated abortion etc.
Acquired Human − Fever, chronic diarrhea − Keep one faithful

immunue immunodeficiency virus − Excessive weight loss partner

− General skin irritation
deficiency (HIV)
− Swelling of the glands
syndrome
− Persistent cough
(AIDS)
− Persistent severe fatigued
Genital warts Human papillomavirus − Painless, flesh coloured
(HPV) bumps/warts develop on the
penis, in and around the
vagina and the anus and may
re-appear at different times.
− Cervical cancer
− Avoid sharing sharp
objects such as razor
blade,
− Screening of blood
before transfusion
− Avoid oral, anal sex
and kissing
− National mass
campaign to educate
people on the danger
of HIV
− Vaccine available for
women aged 9 -26.
− Not sharing personal
items, including
towels, razors, bars of
soap, foot wear, or
other objects

HIV AND AIDS

HIV (Acquired immune deficiency virus) is the pathogen that caused AIDS, a sexually transmitted disease.
AIDS is a disease in which the immune system of the human body is completely broken down, rendering
the body unable to fight against any pathogens that attack it. HIV belong to a group of RNA virus
NAME: …………………………………………………………………… BIOLOGY FOR YEAR 10, THIRD TERM
referred to as retro – viruses. They are capable of converting their RNA to DNA; they attack, infect and
destroy certain white blood cells called helper T cells or CD4 (lymphocytes).
HIV can remain dormant in the cell of the host for years and multiplying as the cells of the host divide,
eventually the virus becomes active producing many viruses causing the killing of the helper T cells. Once
the body loses too many helper T cells, the body’s defense against infections crumbles and the body
becomes vulnerable to various disease pathogens causing various opportunistic diseases.

MODE OF TRANSMISSION
Apart from sexual intercourse, HIV can be transmitted through
a. Receiving blood transfusion from an infected person
b. Infection through pregnancy, child birth and breast feeding
c. Using unsterilized infected needles and syringes
d. By practicing oral and anal sex
e. Open mouth kiss with an infected person

TOWARDS BETTER HEALTH

CONTENT
 Control of harmful microorganisms
 Definition and ways of controlling vectors
 Maintenance of good health
 Roles of health organizations

CONTROL OF HARMFUL MICRO-ORGANISMS

The control of harmful microbes include removal, inhibition of growth or killing by physical
agents/processes and chemical agents or antibiotics. Some common methods of controlling harmful
microorganisms in order to maintain good health include
1. High and low temperature: Boiling or heating of food, pasteurization of milk, sterilization of
medical instruments and freezing of food to reduce the activities of microbes to barest minimum.
2. Covering of food to prevent vectors and pathogens in the air from coming in contact with the
food.
3. Antibiotics such as amphiclox, ampicillin, penicillin, tetraclycline, are drugs used to kill many
bacteria causing diseases.
4. Antiseptic such as dettol, Milton, chlorine water, medicated soap and hydrogen peroxide destroy
micro-organisms while others prevent the multiplication of the micro-organisms.
5. Disinfectants are stronger antiseptic. Examples are sanitas, Lysol and izal. They are used to
disinfect hospitals warehouses and public buildings. Antiseptics and disinfectant have to be diluted
to render them gentle or mild to the skin
6. High salinity (salting): Salt is used to preserve food. When salt is applied to food items like fresh
meat or fish, the micro-organisms are destroyed. The bacterial cells are plasmolysed due to the
movement of water from the cells of the bacteria.
7. Dehydration: When foodstuffs such as fish and meat are dried, micro-organisms cannot thrive on
them. Bacteria need water to survive. So dehydration prevents the survival of micro-organisms.
8. Sanitation: Keeping the body and the environment clean.
9. Isolation of infected persons: Persons suffering from infectious diseases such as tuberculosis and
cholera must be isolated so as to prevent the spread of such diseases to other members of the
community.
NAME: …………………………………………………………………… BIOLOGY FOR YEAR 10, THIRD TERM
10.Balanced diet: Eating balanced diet everyday helps to promote good health and high body
resistance to diseases.

VECTORS AND WAYS OF CONTROLLING VECTORS

A vector is an animal which transmits disease-causing organisms (pathogens) from the victim of that
disease to another person.
Control of mosquitoes
- Draining of swamps
- Clearing of bushes around houses
- Sleeping in a room protected by mosquito net.
- Spray swamps or rooms with insecticides.
- Spray oil on stagnant water.
- Using insect repellant on body.
- Use of drugs
- Burying broken pots and cans.

Control of Houseflies
- Spraying with insecticides
- Destruction of breeding spots
- Use of poison baits
- Closing of pit toilets
- Covering of food
- Keeping environment clean.

MAINTAINANCE OF GOOD HEALTH

There are many ways of maintaining good health. These include:
a. Refuse disposal: Refuse are solid waste materials discharged through human activities from homes
and industries into the environment. Reckless refuse dump around dwelling places creates bad
odour, provides breeding grounds for insects and rodents that spread diseases. Refuse disposal can
be done through the following ways; Provision of dust bins in strategic locations, Burning of refuse
in incinerators, Dumping them in isolated areas far from human habitation, Burying refuse in
sanitary landfill.
b. Sewage disposal: Sewage are waste water materials discharged from laundries, kitchen, toilets,
bathrooms e.g. urine and faeces. Sewage disposal is done through the use of pit toilets where faeces
and urine are passed into deep pits, the use of septic tanks where water is used to flush faeces and
urine into a big tank dug in the ground, community treatment process where sewage from
various homes are collected and treated before being discharged into the oceans or rivers.
c. Protection of water: In view of various diseases which man contact because of drinking unclean
water, water should be protected through the following ways: addition of alum to water, boiling
of water before drinking, filtration of water on cooling, addition of chlorine to kill microscopic
germs, storage of water in clean containers.
d. Protection of food: The following methods of food protection are recommended: Keep food in
refrigerators or deep freezers, boil or cook raw food properly before eating, there should be
inspection of food meant for public consumption, washing of hands before and after eating of
food, food should be preserved through canning, keep the environment where the food is prepared
clean, avoid exposure of food to flies and other micro-organism.
NAME: …………………………………………………………………… BIOLOGY FOR YEAR 10, THIRD TERM
ROLES OF HEALTH ORGANIZATIONS
The administration of health services in Nigeria is achieved through the following approved organizations:
a. Ministry of Health
b. University Teaching Hospitals
Countries cooperate to tackle health issues. At international level, health control is organized top prevent
the spread of diseases and also to provide aid to needy areas. This can be in the form of drugs, medical
equipment, money, etc.

International Health Organizations include: World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations Children’s
Fund (UNICEF), International Red Cross (IRC), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO).

World Health Organization (WHO)

This is the world’s principal agency for dealing with health and nutritional problems. It was established in
1964 and became operational in 1948. The functions of WHO are as follows:
(i) It provides and assists national governments at their request to strengthen their health services.
(ii) It promotes and provides improved methods of training health, medical related professional
experts for member countries.
(iii) It promotes cooperation among scientific and professional bodies for the improvement of health.
(iv) It cooperates with other organizations in the improvement of nutrition, sanitation, housing
working conditions and other matters that relate to health.
(v) It helps and promotes material and children’s health care and welfare.
(vi) It produces medical publications.
(vii) It provides drugs and vaccines in cases of emergency

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)

This is a body set up by the U.N. It performs the following functions:
(i) It provides emergency needs for children in areas affected by diseases or famine.
(ii) It improves the nutritional condition of undernourished children.
(iii) It feeds and cares for disabled children.
(iv) It undertakes immunization programmes for children’s diseases like measles, whooping cough,
etc.
(v) It ensures the provision of clothing and other needs for children

International Red Cross

This is a humanitarian organization whose functions are to serve humanity during peace and war times.
During war, it performs the following functions:
(i) Care for the injured.
(ii) Provision of emergency aid.
(iii) Negotiating for the exchange of the prisoners of war.
(iv) Evacuation of refugees.
(v) Welfare of war prisoners.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

Although, this is not directly a health organization, it assists health services indirectly by raising the
educational standards of the people in developing countries.