4 Electricity and magnetism

4.1 Simple magnetism and magnetic fields

 Magnet

Two Poles:

N pole and S pole

Magnetic materials:

Magnetic materials are materials that can be attracted to a magnet.

Examples of materials:

1. Steel
2. Iron
Non-magnetic materials:

Non-magnetic materials are materials that cannot be attracted to a magnet.

Examples of materials:

1. Copper
2. Wood
3. Plastic
4. Brass
Magnetised material:

Magnetic Material which has become

magnet.
Example: Magnetic compass needle.
Attractive and
repulsive forces:
Induced magnetism:
The process of
induction does not
require physical
contact.
 The N pole of the bar magnet
induces a S pole in the nearer
end of the iron bar and N pole
in its farther end.

❖ Always opposite poles

❖ First induction then

attraction
The pointed tips of the
iron nails point away
from each other. Why?
Temporary magnets:

Magnetic materials such as iron that magnetise easily but readily lose their
magnetism (are easily demagnetised) are said to be soft magnetic materials.
Temporary magnets made of soft iron, lose their magnetism easily.
Easy to magnetise and easy to demagnetise.
Electromagnet.
Permanent magnets:

Those such as steel that are harder to magnetise than iron but stay
magnetised are hard.
Permanent magnets made of steel, retain their magnetism.
Difficult to magnetize and demagnetize
A bar magnet
Magnetic field:
The direction of the magnetic field at a point is the direction of
the force on the N pole of a magnet at that point.
The relative strength of a magnetic field is represented
by the spacing of the magnetic field lines.

Less space between two lines stronger magnetic field.

Plotting of magnetic field lines with a compass:
4.2 Electrical quantities
4.2.1 Electrical charge
When you rub a balloon
against your hair, the
balloon attracts your hair.
Why?

Static: not moving

 Simple electron model

To understand how objects become

charged by rubbing, we must first
understand that all objects are
made up of tiny particles called
atoms.
● Unit of charge is coulomb (C)
● The charge on 1 proton is 1.6 x 10-19 C
● The charge of an electron is -1.6 x 10-19 C
● Neutron has no charge
● An atom has an equal number of electrons and protons - it is electrically
neutral
● An atom becomes charged when the number of electrons and protons is not
equal
● If the number of protons exceeds the number of electrons, the atom will be
positively charged
● If the number of electrons exceeds the number of protons, the atom will be
negatively charged.
Interactions between charges:
 Electrostatic charging by friction

When insulating materials rub against each other, they may become
electrically charged. Electrons, which are negatively charged, may
be ‘rubbed off’ one material and on to the other. The material that
gains electrons becomes negatively charged. The material that loses
electrons is left with a positive charge.
When a polythene rod is rubbed with a
duster, the friction causes electrons to
gain energy. Electrons gain enough energy
to leave the atom and ‘rub off’ onto the
polythene rod.
● the polythene rod has gained
electrons, giving it a negative charge
● the duster has lost electrons, giving it
a positive charge
Charging of solids by friction involves only
a transfer of negative charge (electrons)
An experiments to show electrostatic charging by friction
 Electric field
It is a region in which an electric charge
experiences a force.
Electric field lines:

● Electric field lines are used to represent an electric field.

● The direction of the electric field at a point is the direction of the
force on a positive charge placed at that point.
● Electric field strength is greatest where the lines are closest
together and weakest where lines are furthest apart.
Electric field patterns around a point charge
Electric field patterns around a charged conducting sphere
 Electric field patterns between two oppositely
charged parallel conducting plates (end effects will
not be examined)

● Field lines are straight,

parallel and equally
spaced
● Uniform field
 Electrical conductors and insulators

● Materials in which electrons are free to move about are

electrical conductors.
Examples: All metals are conductors.
● Materials in which electrons are not free to move about
are electrical insulators.
Examples: Non-metals, such as glass, plastic and amber.
Simple electron model to explain the difference between
electrical conductors and insulators:

❖ In insulators, the electrons are tightly bound to their atoms and not easily
removed.
❖ In conductors some of the electrons are free to move between atoms
(these electrons are sometimes referred to as free electrons)
An experiment to distinguish between electrical
conductors and insulators
4.2.2 Electrical current
 Electric Current:

Electric current is the charge

passing a point per unit time.
The unit of current is amperes, shortened to amps (A)

1 A = 1C/1s
One ampere is the electric current produced when one coulomb of
charge passes a point in a conductor in one second.
Question:
Electrical conduction in metals in terms of the
movement of free electrons:

Metals are electrical conductors. This is because the

electrons in a piece of metal can leave their atoms and move
about in the metal as free electrons. When connected to an
energy source, these free electrons will be drove around the
conducting path and a current is formed.
 Conventional current:
● The movement of positive charges is
called conventional current.
● Conventional current is from positive
to negative and that the flow of free
electrons is from negative to positive.
Ammeter:

An ammeter is used to
measure the magnitude
and direction of an
electric current in an
electric circuit.
The ammeter should
be connected in series
with the component
whose current is to be
measured.
Importance of correct
range:
 Importance of correct
range:

❖ When the current flowing through the ammeter is beyond the

range of the ammeter, i.e. current is too large, the ammeter will
be damaged. Therefore, ammeters have current ratings in
which largest current can be safely read.
❖ When the ammeter chosen has a rating that is too large for the
current, the ammeter will not detect the current accurately.
 Direct current (d.c.)

● Direct current flows in a single

direction only.
● It is supplied by batteries, cells.
 Alternating current (a.c.)

● Alternating current changes

direction frequently.
● The source of alternating
current is generator.
4.2.3 Electromotive force and potential difference
 Electromotive force:

It is the electrical work done by a source in moving a unit charge

around a complete circuit.

Unit: J/C or V

1V = 1J/1C
Other form of energy Electrical energy
What is the meaning of emf 2V of a cell?

As the emf of cell is the energy gained by 1 C of charge, as it

passes through it. So, the emf of a cell is 2 V if 2 J of work is
done by the cell to drive 1C of charge round the circuit.
Question:
 Potential Difference (p.d.):

It is the work done by a unit charge passing through a component.

Unit: J/C or V

1V = 1J/1C
Electrical energy Other form of energy
What is the meaning of p.d. 2V?

It is the potential difference between the two ends of the conductor

when 2 J of work is done in moving 1 C of charge from end to
another end of the conductor
Voltmeter:

A voltmeter is used to
measure the e.m.f. of a
dry cell or the p.d.
across a component.
It should always be
placed in parallel with
the component across
which the p.d. Is to be
measured.
Importance of correct
range:
 Importance of correct
range:

❖ When the voltage is beyond the range of the voltmeter, i.e.

voltage is too large, the voltmeter will be damaged. Therefore,
voltmeters have voltage ratings in which largest voltage can be
safely read.
❖ When the voltmeter chosen has a rating that is too large for
the voltage, the voltmeter will not detect the voltage
accurately.
Total e.m.f. where several sources are arranged in
series:
For achieving the required voltage,
the desired numbers of cells are
combined in series.
The e.m.f of identical sources connected in parallel is
equal to the e.m.f. of one of the sources:

❖ If one of the cells in the system fails

to operate, the remaining cells can
still provide power.

❖ Long lasting
4.2.4 Resistance
Resistance:

The resistance R of a component is the potential difference

V across it divided by the current I flowing through it.
Question:
An experiment to determine resistance using a voltmeter and
an ammeter and do the appropriate calculations:
Resistance depends on
1. Length of the conductor.
Resistance directly proportional to the length of the conductor.
2. Cross-sectional area of the conductor.
Resistance inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the
conductor.
3. Material of the conductor
4. Temperature
Ohm’s law:

If resistance is constant, and

to keep resistance constant
temperature must remain
constant
The current–voltage graphs for a resistor of constant
resistance:
The current–voltage graphs for a filament lamp:
The current–voltage graphs for a diode:
 The effect of temperature increase on the resistance of a
resistor:
4.3 Electric circuits
4.3.1 Circuit diagrams and circuit components
4.3.2 Series and parallel circuits
The current at every point in a series circuit is the
same:
The sum of the currents entering a junction in a parallel
circuit is equal to the sum of the currents that leave the
junction:
The total p.d. across the components in a series circuit is
equal to the sum of the individual p.d.s across each
component:
The p.d. across an arrangement of parallel resistances is the
same as the p.d. across one branch in the arrangement of the
parallel resistances:
The combined resistance of two or more resistors in series:

Where R is the combined

resistance
The combined resistance of two resistors in parallel

Where R is the combined

resistance
Calculate current, voltage and resistance in parts of a
circuit or in the whole circuit:
Question:
Question:
Question:
Question:
4.3.3 Action and use of circuit components
 Thermistors:

A thermistor is a resistor whose

resistance varies with temperature.

When temperature increases the

resistance of the thermistor decreases.

Thermistor is used in a circuit as

temperature operated switch.
 Light-dependent resistors (LDR):

An LDR is a resistor whose

resistance varies with light.
When light intensity increases the
resistance of the LDR decreases.
LDR is used in a circuit as light
operated switch. Circuit symbol
Potential Divider:

A potential divider is a line of resistors connected in series.

It is used to provide a fraction of the available p.d. From a
source to another part of the circuit.
Question:
Action of a variable potential divider:

Potential dividers that are used to vary the output voltage from
a source are called variable potential dividers.
Variable potential divider using rheostat:
Variable potential divider using thermistor:
Variable potential divider using LDR:
Potentiometer:
Question:
4.4 Practical electricity
4.4.1 Uses of electricity
Common uses of electricity:

We use electricity in heating, lighting, battery charging and

powering motors and electronic systems.
 Advantages of connecting lamps in parallel in a
lighting circuit:

● Voltage across each lamp in parallel

circuit is double that of voltage across
each lamp in series circuit. Therefore,
lamps connected in parallel glow more
brightly than when connected in series.
● When a lamp in a parallel circuit blows,
the other lamps in the circuit will still
work.
Electrical Power:
Electrical Energy:
kilowatt-hour (kWh):

It is unit of Energy.
1 kWh is the electrical energy transferred by a 1 kW appliance
used for 1 hour.

The kilowatt-hour (kWh) is used as a unit of energy for

calculating electricity bills.
Question:
Question:
Solution:
Question:
Solution:
4.4.2 Electrical safety
Electrical hazards:

(a) damaged insulation

(b) overheating cables
(c) damp conditions
(d) excess current from overloading of plugs, extension leads, single
and multiple sockets when using a mains supply.
Damaged insulation:
Overheating cables:
 Damp conditions:

A hair dryer on a wet sink

can cause electric shocks if
the conducting wires are
exposed or have damaged
insulation.
Water in contact with the
uninsulated electrical wires
provides a conducting path
for current.
Excess current from overloading of plugs, extension leads,
single and multiple sockets when using a mains supply:
The number of electrical appliances people use in their homes is increasing. The safest option
is to have more wall sockets fitted. The alternative is to use multi-plug adaptors that allow us
to plug more than one device into the same wall socket. Multi-plug adaptors come in two
main varieties.
(1) The safer option is to use a multi-way bar extension, which comes as a bank of sockets
on the end of an extension lead that can be plugged into a wall socket. These are
generally fitted with a fuse to match the wall socket (13 A in the UK).
(2) Be wary of block adaptors, which are plugged directly into wall socket. These are less
likely to contain a fuse so there is an increased danger that a current will exceed the
rating of the wall socket. Overloading the socket in this way increases the chance that it,
and the plug, will heat up and catch fire.
Use and operation of trip switches:
● Trip switches are safety devices that can switch off the electrical supply in a
circuit when a large currents flow through them. Without trip switches, a
surge of current can damage home appliances or even start a fire.
● The trip switches are labelled with various cut-off currents, such as 10 A
and 16 A.
● Trip switches are connected to live wires. Should there be a current surge
due to a fault, the trip switches will trip and cut off the current to the
appliances. This ensures that the appliances are isolated from the mains,
and the users do not get electric shocks.
● Trip switches can be reset by switching them on again. This should be done
only after the fault in the circuit has been corrected.
Fuses:
● A fuse is a safety device added to an electric circuit to prevent excessive
current flow. It has the same function as a trip switch. However, a fuse must
be replaced after it blows, where as a trip switch can be reset after it trips.
● All fuses have a rated value. This value indicates the maximum current that
can flow through a fuse before it blows.
● The fuse on an electrical appliance should have a rated value that is slightly
higher than the current the electrical appliance draws under normal
operating conditions.
● The fuse should be connected to the live wire. This is done so that the
current to the appliance will be cut off immediately after a large current
melts the fuse wire inside the cartridge. This ensures that the appliances are
isolated from the mains, and the users do not get electric shocks.
● The mains power supply must be switched off before replacing a fuse.
Question:
Question:
 Switches:

● Switches are designed to break or complete an electric circuit.

● They should be fitted to the live wire of the appliance. If an electrical fault
causes the metal casing of an appliance to be at high voltage (live wire
touches the metal case of the appliance), a switch on the live wire can
disconnect the voltage supplied to the metal casing.
● If the switch is fitted to the neutral wire, the metal casing is still connected
to the live wire when the switch is open. If a person touches the metal
casing, a large current flows through the person to the earth - the person
gets an electric shock.
 The three wires in a home circuit:

Live wire:
It is connected to a high voltage and delivers current to the appliance. This
is the wire to which trip switches, fuses and switches are fitted.
Neutral wire:
It completes the circuit by providing a return path to the supply for the
current. It is usually at 0 V.
Earth wire:
It is usually connected to the metal casing of appliances. It is at 0 V.
The absence of earthing can cause electric shocks:
Earthing and fuse together prevent electric shock:
Double insulation:
Double insulation is a safety feature that can replace the earth wire. Appliances
that have double insulation usually use a two-pin plug.
4.5 Electromagnetic effects
4.5.1 Electromagnetic induction
 Electromagnetic Induction:

It is the process through which an induced e.m.f. is produced in a conductor due

to a changing magnetic field.
 An experiment to demonstrate electromagnetic
induction:
Bar magnet and coil:
Fleming’s right-hand rule:
 Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction:

The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to the rate of

change of magnetic flux linkage in the coil.
 Lenz’s law:

The direction of the induced e.m.f., and hence the induced current in a closed
circuit, is always such that its magnetic effect opposes the motion or change
producing it.
An experiment to demonstrate the Lenz’s law:
4.5.2 The a.c. generator
 The a.c. generator

When the coil is rotated in side the

magnetic field, there is a change in
magnetic flux linkage in the coil,
which induces an e.m.f. in the coil.

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generator_en.htm
 The use of slip rings and brushes:

Slip rings are used in generators to transfer electrical power between

stationary and rotating parts of the machine, equipment or device. Normally,
slip rings are used to transfer the electrical current from the rotating coil to
the stationary load through brushes that are in contact with the slip rings.
The function of slip rings is to provide a continuous electrical connection
between the rotating part and the stationary part of the generator. The slip
rings are usually made of copper or other conductive materials.
Without slip rings, cables and wires would be twisted and tangled, causing
damage to the electrical connection and limiting the range of motion of the
rotating part.
4.5.3 Magnetic effect of a current
A current carrying conductor produces a magnetic
field around it.

Or moving charge creates a magnetic field.

The pattern and direction of the magnetic field
due to currents in straight wires:
Direction of current reversed:

The direction of the magnetic field of a current carrying wire

is reversed when the direction of the current is reversed.
Magnitude of current increased

The strength of the magnetic field of a current carrying wire

increases when the current is increased.
The pattern and direction of the magnetic field
due to currents in solenoids:
We can use the right hand grip rule to deduce
which end of a solenoid the north pole is
Reversing the direction of current the direction
of magnetic field will be reversed.
The magnetic effect of a current is used in relays:

Symbol for a relay

The magnetic effect of a current is used in
loudspeakers:
● Current in the coil creates another magnetic field.
● This magnetic field will interact with the magnetic field of bar
magnet.
● Due to alternating current in the coil, the coil will be attracted then
repelled by the bar magnet.
● As the direction of force changes the coil vibrates backwards and
forwards.
● A paper cone attached to the coil moves with it and sets up sound
waves in the surrounding air
4.5.4 Forces on a current-carrying conductor
An experiment to show that a force acts on a
current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field:
The magnetic field patterns between currents in parallel
conductors and relate these to the forces on the conductors:
Like currents attract:
Unlike currents attract:
4.5.5 The d.c. motor
A current-carrying coil in a magnetic field may experience a
turning effect:
 How to increase the turning effect?

The turning effect is increased by increasing:

(a) the number of turns on the coil
(b) the current
(c) the strength of the magnetic field
The operation of an electric motor:
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hen/electricmotor_en.htm
The action of a split-ring commutator and brushes:

The split-ring commutator and the brushes form a

mechanism which enables the current to change
direction (as well as the directions of the forces on the
sides of the coil) through the coil every half turn so that
the coil continues rotating in the same direction.
4.5.6 The transformer
Transformer:
● Due to current in the primary coil, a magnetic field is created which will be
linked with the secondary coil via iron core.
● Due to alternating current, there is a change in magnetic flux linkage in the
secondary coil which induces an e.m.f. in the secondary coil.
There are two types of transformer.
1. Step-up transformer
2. Step-down transformer
Question:
Solution:
The advantages of high-voltage transmission and explain why
power losses in cables are smaller when the voltage is greater:
● Before transmission, increase the voltage using a step-up transformer.
● When voltage increases current decreases. P = VI
● Smaller current in the transmission cable reduces the power lost as thermal
energy in the power cable. P= I2R
Question: