10/3/2022

Announcements
• Memory quiz due Thursday
• Writing assignment 2 (if you choose to do it) is due Friday
• REP reminder
• Exams are graded
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THE ADAPTIVE
MIND
Chapter 8: Learning
Pages: 277-317

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In this chapter, we will…

• Discuss the role of learning in behavior.
• Describe the different types of learning and identify the
components involved in each of them.
• Apply learning principles to real-life scenarios, including our own
lives!

Agenda
• Reflexes, instincts, and learning
• Nonassociative learning
• Habituation
• Sensitization
• Associative learning
• Classical conditioning
• Operant conditioning
• Observational Learning

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What is learning?

What is learning?
• Learning: A relatively permanent change in
behavior due to experience
• We can now do something that we couldn’t
do before!

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What is not learning?

• Not all behavior is due to learning!
• Reflexes: inevitable, involuntary responses to stimuli
•Controlled by nervous system circuits
•Fast, reliable, inflexible

What is not learning?

• Not all behavior is due to learning!
• Instincts: inborn patterns of behavior elicited by environmental stimuli
•More complex behaviors than reflexes
•Once begun, they run to completion

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Agenda
Reflexes, instincts, and learning
Nonassociative learning
Habituation
Sensitization
Associative learning
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Observational Learning

Non-associative learning
• Non-associative learning: learning that involves changes in the
magnitude of responses to a stimulus
• There are two major types: habituation and sensitization

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Habituation
• Habituation: a simple form of learning in which reactions to
repeated stimuli that are unchanging and harmless decrease
 Typically occurs for milder stimuli

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Sensitization
• Sensitization: an increased reaction to many stimuli following
exposure to one strong stimulus
 Occurs after stronger stimuli

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Agenda
Reflexes, instincts, and learning
Nonassociative learning
Habituation
Sensitization
Associative learning
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Observational Learning

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Associative learning
• Associative learning: the formation of associations or connections
among stimuli and behaviors
• Two types: classical and operant conditioning

Stimulus: anything that Response: the behavior that occurs in

elicits a response the presence of a stimulus

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Agenda
Reflexes, instincts, and learning
Nonassociative learning
Habituation
Sensitization
Associative learning
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Observational Learning

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What is classical conditioning?

• Classical conditioning: A type of learning in which associations
are formed between two stimuli that occur sequentially in time

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Let’s break down what went on…

Before conditioning:

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR)

Has innate, built-in meaning; Does not need to be learned;
elicits a response without any occurs as a response to a UCS
prior experience. without any prior experience

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Let’s break down what went on…

During conditioning:

Unconditioned
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned
An environmental event
response (UCR)
whose significance is
learned

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Let’s break down what went on…

After conditioning:

Conditioned stimulus Conditioned response (CR)

(CS) A response that is learned
through classical
conditioning

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Let’s look at the classic example

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Let’s look at the classic example…

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Let’s look at the classic example…

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Let’s try one…

At a party one night, you eat a lot of spinach dip and end up getting
sick. Now, whenever you even smell spinach dip, you start to feel
nauseous.

What is the…
 Unconditioned stimulus?
 Unconditioned response?
 Conditioned stimulus?
 Conditioned response?

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Let’s try one…

At a party one night, you eat a lot of spinach dip and end up getting
sick. Now, whenever you even smell spinach dip, you start to feel
nauseous.

What is the…
 Unconditioned stimulus? - Spinach dip
 Unconditioned response? - Getting sick
 Conditioned stimulus? - The smell of spinach dip
 Conditioned response? - Feeling nauseous

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Classical conditioning phenomena

• Acquisition: the development of a learned response
This requires:
 Contiguity: the amount of time between the CS and the UCS is
important!
 The CS MUST occur before the UCS!!
 But not too much before…

 Contingency: the signal should be reliable

 If the CS and the UCS always occur together, learning is faster than if
they only sometimes occur together

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Classical conditioning phenomena

• Extinction – the reduction of a learned response
 In classical conditioning, this happens when the unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) stops following the conditioned stimulus (CS)
 It’s not the same as forgetting!

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Classical conditioning phenomena

• Spontaneous recovery: during extinction training, the
reappearance of conditioned responses after periods of rest

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Classical conditioning phenomena

• Inhibition: a feature of classical conditioning in which a
conditioned stimulus predicts the nonoccurrence of an
unconditioned stimulus

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Classical conditioning phenomena

• Generalization: the tendency to respond to stimuli that are
similar to an original conditioned stimulus

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Classical conditioning phenomena

• Discrimination: a learned ability to distinguish between stimuli

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Classical conditioning phenomena

• Higher order conditioning: learning in which stimuli associated
with a conditioned stimulus also elicit conditioned responses

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Classical conditioning phenomena

• Latent inhibition: the slower learning that occurs when a
conditioned stimulus (CS) is already familiar compared to when
the CS is unfamiliar

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Conditioning fear

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Was it ethical?
• Were the Little Albert experiments ethical? Why or why not?
• Could an experiment like this be run today?

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Applications of classical conditioning

• Overcoming fear:
• Flooding (aka exposure therapy)
• Counterconditioning: substituting one CR for another, opposite
response
• Aversion therapy: CS is paired with an unpleasant UCS
• Systematic desensitization: relax while being exposed to stimuli
that elicit fear

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Applications of classical conditioning

• Advertising
• Prejudice

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Agenda
Reflexes, instincts, and learning
Nonassociative learning
Habituation
Sensitization
Associative learning
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Observational Learning

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What is Operant Conditioning?

• Operant conditioning: a type of learning in which associations are
formed between behaviors and their outcomes
 The consequences of a behavior determine whether or not it will be
repeated

How is this different from classical conditioning?

Classical conditioning
• Based on an association
between 2 stimuli
• Behaviors that are reflexive
and not voluntary
Operant conditioning
• A behavior is associated with
its consequences
• Behaviors that are active,
intentional, and voluntary

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What is Operant Conditioning?

The Law of Effect
 Behaviors followed by desirable
outcomes/consequences are likely to be
repeated
 Behaviors followed by undesirable
outcomes/consequences are less likely to be
repeated

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Types of consequences
Before we get into this… Think like you’re in math

Positive means ADDING Negative means TAKING

something! something AWAY!
(It doesn’t mean good) (It doesn’t mean bad)

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Types of consequences
• Reinforcement: a consequence that increases the likelihood/frequency
of a behavior
 Positive reinforcement: adding something desirable to increase the frequency
of a behavior
 Negative reinforcement: taking away something undesirable to increase the
frequency of a behavior (Escape or Avoidance of something unpleasant)

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REINFORCEMENT
INCREASES BEHAVIOR

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A little more on reinforcers

• Primary reinforcers are reinforcing for biological reasons – they play a
role in survival
 ex. Food
• Conditioned reinforcers only become reinforcing through their
association with other things we value (secondary reinforcer)
 ex. Money, praise

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Types of consequences
• Punishment: a consequence that decreases or reduces the frequency
of a behavior
 Positive punishment: adding something undesirable or aversive to decrease
behavior
 Negative punishment: taking away something desirable to decrease behavior

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PUNISHMENT
DECREASES BEHAVIOR

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A little more on punishment

• For punishment to be effective, we need…
Significance
Immediacy
Consistency

These requirements are often not met!

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Putting it all together…

Adding something Removing something

Negative
Increase Behavior Positive Reinforcement
Reinforcement

Decrease Behavior Positive Punishment Negative Punishment

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What type of consequence?

Ask yourself:
1. What is the behavior that the person (or animal) is engaging in?
2. What happens immediately after the behavior is performed?
a. This is the consequence!
b. Ask yourself:
i. Was something added or taken away?
ii. Next time the person is in this situation, are they more or
less likely to perform the behavior from Step 1 again?

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Announcements

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TopHat: 508861
Let’s practice!
Jake comes in late after curfew and his parents take away his car keys.
He comes back on time next time he goes out.
Mariah has a bad habit of biting her fingernails. In an attempt to stop
this, she starts snapping her wrist with a rubberband every time she
bites her nails.
Sam’s husband has been nagging him about taking out the garbage.
When he finally takes out the garbage, the nagging stops.
Coop is outside. I call him to come back to the house and give him a
treat when he’s inside. Next time I call for him to come inside, he
comes running.

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Let’s practice!
Kelsey is very anxious about going to a party she said she would go to
tonight. She doesn’t think she will know a lot of people there. She calls
her friend and tells him that she can’t go to the party, and Kelsey
immediately feels better.
What type of consequence is Kelsey receiving here?

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Let’s practice!
A child at the grocery store wants his mom to buy candy. When she
says no, he begins throwing a tantrum. After a few minutes of this, his
mom breaks down and lets him get candy.
What type of consequence is the child receiving here?
What type of consequence is the mom receiving here?

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A note on reinforcers…
• Premack Principle: a preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less
preferred activity
 Increases the likelihood that the less-preferred activity will be
completed
 First/Then statements
 Could be very different from person to person!

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Schedules of reinforcement
• Continuous reinforcement: reinforcing a behavior every time it
occurs
Good for teaching a behavior, but inconvenient
• Partial reinforcement: reinforcing a desired behavior on some
occasions but not on others
Ratio schedule: reinforcement depends on the number of times a
behavior occurs
Interval schedule: reinforcement depends on the passage of
some amount of time

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Schedules of reinforcement
• Ratio Schedules
Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedules: A schedule in which reinforcement
occurs following a set number of behaviors
Variable Ratio (VR) Schedules: A schedule in which reinforcement
occurs following a variable number of behaviors

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Schedules of reinforcement
Fixed ratio (FR) schedules: Factory or
assembly work is often paid “by the piece”
Plumbers, hairstylists, and others who get
paid per service; reward cards

Variable ratio (VR) schedules: Slot machines

at casinos
Participation points in this class

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Schedules of reinforcement
• Interval Schedules
Fixed Interval (FI) Schedules: A schedule in which the first response
following a set time interval is reinforced
Variable Interval (VI) Schedules: A schedule in which the first
response following a variable time interval is reinforced

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Schedules of reinforcement
Fixed interval (FI) schedules: A child in the
classroom is constantly out of his seat. You
create a system so that if he remains in his seat
for 5 minutes, he gets an M&M.

Variable interval (VI) schedules: Fishing

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Extinction in operant conditioning

• Partial reinforcement effect: more rapid extinction after
continuous reinforcement compared to partial

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What happens when a behavior

doesn’t exist?
• Method of successive approximation: a method of increasing the
frequency of behaviors that never or rarely occur; also known as
shaping
• Reinforce closer and closer approximations of the target behavior
• Chaining for teaching complex behaviors

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Shaping in action

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Is all learning reinforced?

• Latent Learning: learning that occurs in the absence of
reinforcement

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Applications of operant conditioning

• Token economy: an application of operant conditioning in which
tokens that can be exchanged for other reinforcers are used to
increase the frequency of desirable behaviors
 The integration of classical and operant conditioning
 You must first be classically conditioned to desire something
before it can be an effective reinforcement
 The “tokens,” or reinforcers, used here have no inherent or
objective worth

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Applications to your life

Identify a behavior or negative habit that you would like to change. It
could be your behavior, or your roommate’s, or your dog’s, etc. Develop a
plan using principles of operant conditioning that will allow you to change
this behavior. Identify whether you are using positive or negative
reinforcement or punishment (or, even better, a combination of these).

Take a few minutes to think about this and jot down some ideas. When
you are finished, discuss your ideas with a neighbor. Make sure they have
correctly identified the type of consequences used!

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Agenda
Reflexes, instincts, and learning
Nonassociative learning
Habituation
Sensitization
Associative learning
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Observational Learning

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Observational Learning
• Observational learning: Learning that occurs when one organism watches
the actions of another; also known as social learning or modeling
Involves 4 Processes:
 Attention
 Retention
 Reproduction
 Motivation
• Imitation: copying behavior that is unlikely to occur naturally and
spontaneously

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Aggressive Nonaggressive
model
No model
model
}
Control

Manipulation

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Agenda
Reflexes, instincts, and learning
Nonassociative learning
Habituation
Sensitization
Associative learning
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Observational Learning

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Review
What are the differences/similarities between reflexes, instincts, and
learned behaviors?
 Reflexes are inevitable, involuntary responses to stimuli – knee-
jerk reaction
 Instincts, or fixed action patterns, are inborn patterns of behavior
– contagious yawning
 Learning involves relatively permanent changes in behavior due to
experience

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Review
What are the components of classical conditioning and some of its applications?
 Unconditioned stimulus → Unconditioned response
 Add neutral stimulus
 Unconditioned stimulus + neutral stimulus → Unconditioned response
 Neutral stimulus alone → Unconditioned response
 Conditioned stimulus → Conditioned response

 Applications: Humans are conditioned to value money, heed sirens/lights

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Review
What are the major components of operational conditioning, and how does it differ
from classical conditioning?
 Reinforcement → Increases behavior
 Punishment → Decreases behavior
 Positive → Gives something good/bad
 Negative → Takes away something good/bad

 Operant differs from classical conditioning in that it involves voluntary, conscious

decisions/behavior; the law of effect leads us to do what is rewarded and not do what
is punished
 Classical conditioning is based on temporal association
 Operant conditioning is based on consequences

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Learning Questions
What are the four processes that result in observational learning?
 Attention: Children pay attention to authority figures/popular
figures
 Retention: Behavior must be stored as a memory
 Reproduction: Memory of behavior is reproduced as modeled
behavior
 Motivation: Reason to reproduce the behavior must be present

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Name That Stimulus/Response!

Every time someone flushes a toilet in your house, the shower becomes
very hot and causes you to jump back. Over time, you begin to
automatically jump back after hearing the flush, before the water
temperature changes.

Name The Following:

 Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

 Unconditioned Response (UCR)
 Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
 Conditioned Response (CR)

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Name That Stimulus/Response!

Every time someone flushes a toilet in your house, the shower becomes
very hot and causes you to jump back. Over time, you begin to
automatically jump back after hearing the flush, before the water
temperature changes.

Name The Following:

 Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) – Hot Water

 Unconditioned Response (UCR) – Jumping Back
 Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – Sound of Toilet Flushing
 Conditioned Response (CR) – Jumping Back

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Any questions?

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