Unit – I (Ordinary Differential Equation)

1. ODE with constant coefficients: Solution y = C.F + P.I

Complementary functions:

Sl.No. Nature of Roots C.F

1. m1 = m2 ( Ax + B )e mx
2. m1 = m2 = m3 ( Ax 2
+ Bx + c ) e mx
3. m1 ≠ m2 Ae m1 x + Be m2 x
4. m1 ≠ m2 ≠ m3 Ae m1 x + Be m2 x + Ce m3 x
5. m1 = m2 , m3 ( Ax + B )e mx + Ce m3 x
6. m = α ± iβ eα x ( A cos β x + B sin β x )
7. m = ±iβ A cos β x + B sin β x

Particular Integral:

Type-I
If f ( x ) = 0

then P . I = 0

Type-II
If f ( x ) = e ax
1 ax
P .I = e
φ ( D)
 Replace D by a . If φ ( D ) ≠ 0 , then it is P.I. If φ ( D ) = 0 , then diff. denominator
w.r.t D and multiply x in numerator. Again replace D by a . If you get denominator
again zero then do the same procedure.

Type-III

Case: i If f ( x ) = sin ax (or ) cos ax

1
P .I = sin ax (or) cos ax
φ ( D)
Here you have to replace only for D 2 not for D . D 2 is replaced by − a 2 . If the
denominator is equal to zero, then apply same procedure as in Type – I.

Case: ii If f ( x ) = Sin 2 x (or) cos 2 x (or) sin 3 x (or) cos 3 x

1 − cos 2 x 1 + cos 2 x
Use the following formulas Sin 2 x = , cos 2 x = ,
2 2
3 1 3 1
sin 3 x = sin x − sin 3 x , cos 3 x = cos x + cos 3 x and separate P . I1 & P . I 2
4 4 4 4

Case: iii If f ( x ) = sin A cos B (or ) cos A sin B (or ) cos A cos B (or ) sin A sin B
Use the following formulas:
1
( i ) s in A cos B = ( sin( A + B ) + sin( A − B ) )
2
1
(ii) cos A sin B = ( Sin( A + B ) − sin( A − B ) )
2
1
( iii ) cos A cos B = ( cos( A + B ) + cos( A − B ) )
2
1
( iv ) sin A sin B = ( cos( A − B ) − cos( A + B ) )
2

Type-IV
If f ( x) = x m
1
P.I = xm
φ ( D)
1
= xm
1 + g ( D)
 = (1 + g ( D) ) x m
−1

Here we can use Binomial formula as follows:

i) (1 + x ) = 1 − x + x 2 − x 3 + ...
−1

ii) (1 − x ) = 1 + x + x 2 + x3 + ...
−1

iii) (1 + x ) = 1 − 2 x + 3x 2 − 4 x3 + ...
−2

iv) (1 − x ) = 1 + 2 x + 3 x 2 + 4 x 3 + ...
−2

v) (1 + x) −3 = 1 − 3 x + 6 x 2 − 10 x3 + ...
vi) (1 − x) −3 = 1 + 3 x + 6 x 2 + 10 x3 + ...

Type-V
If f ( x) = e axV where V = sin ax, cos ax, x m
1 ax
P.I = e V
φ ( D)

First operate e ax by replacing D by D+a.

1
= e ax V
φ ( D + a)

Type-VI
If f ( x) = x nV where V = sin ax, cos ax

sin ax = I.P of eiax

cos ax = R.P of eiax

Type-VII (Special Type Problems)

If f ( x) = sec ax (or) cosecax (or) tan ax

1
P.I = f ( x) = e ax ∫ e − ax f ( x)dx
D−a

1. ODE with variable co-efficient: (Euler’s Method)

d2y dy
The equation is of the form x 2 2
+ x + y = f ( x)
dx dx
 Implies that ( x 2 D 2 + xD + 1) y = f ( x)
To convert the variable coefficients into the constant coefficients
Put z = log x implies x = e z
xD = D′
d d
x 2 D 2 = D′( D′ − 1) where D = and D′ =
dx dz
x3 D 3 = D′( D′ − 1)( D′ − 2)

The above equation implies that ( D′( D′ − 1) + D′ + 1) y = f ( x) which is O.D.E

with constant coefficients.

2. Legendre’s Linear differential equation:
d2y dy
The equation if of the form (ax + b) 2 2 + (ax + b) + y = f ( x)
dx dx
Put z = log(ax + b) implies (ax + b) = e z
(ax + b) D = aD′
d d
(ax + b) 2 D 2 = a 2 D′( D′ − 1) where D = and D′ =
dx dz
(ax + b)3 D 3 = a 3 D′( D′ − 1)( D′ − 2)

3. Method of Variation of Parameters:

d2y dy
The equation is of the form a 2
+ b + cy = f ( x )
dx dx
C.F = Ay1 + By2 and

P.I = Py1 + Qy2

y2 f ( x )
where P = − ∫ dx and
y1 y2′ − y1′ y2
y1 f ( x)
Q=∫ dx
y1 y2′ − y1′ y2
Unit – II (Vector Calculus)




1. Vector differential operator is∇ = i ∂ / ∂x + j ∂ / ∂y + k ∂ / ∂z




2. Gradient of φ = ∇φ = i ∂φ / ∂x + j ∂φ / ∂y + k ∂φ / ∂z



3. Divergence of F = ∇ • F




i j k



4. Curl of F = ∇XF = ∂ / ∂x ∂ / ∂y ∂ / ∂z
F1 F2 F3



5. If F is Solenoidal vector then ∇i F = 0
6.



7. If F is Irrotational vector the ∇XF = 0
8. Maximum Directional derivative = ∇φ

∇φ i a


9. Directional derivative of φ in the direction of a =

a



n in
10. Angle between two normals to the surface cos θ =
1
2
n1 n2

Where n1 = ( ∇φ1 )at ( x , y , z ) & n2 = ( ∇φ2 )at ( x

1 1 1 2 , y2 , z2 )

∇φ
11. Unit Normal vector, n̂ =
∇φ

12. Equation of tangent plane l ( x − x1 ) + m( y − y1 ) + n( z − z1 ) = 0

Where l, m,n are coefficient of i , j , k in ∇φ .
13. Equation of normal line
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = , ,
l m n






14. Work Done = ∫ F idr , where dr = dxi + dyj + dzk


C

15. If ∫ F .dr be independent of the path is that curlF = 0
C

dxdy dydz dzdx

16. In the surface integral dS =
dS =
dS =
& dS = ndS
ˆ
nˆ.k nˆ.i nˆ. j
17. Green’s Theorem:
∂u ∂v
If u , v, , are continuous and one-valued functions in the region R enclosed
∂y ∂x

 ∂v ∂u 
by the curve C, then ∫ udx + vdy = ∫∫  − dxdy .
C R 
∂x ∂y 

18. Stoke’s Theorem:

Let F be the vector point function, around a simple closed curve C and over the

( )




open surface S having as its boundary, then ∫ F idr = ∫∫ ∇xF inds
ˆ
C S

19. Gauss Divergence Theorem:

Let F be a vector point function in a region R bounded by a closed surface S,



then ∫∫ F inds
ˆ = ∫∫∫ ∇i Fdv
S V
Unit – III (Analytic Function)

1. Necessary condition for f(z) is analytic function

∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
Cauchy – Riemann Equations: = & =− (C-R equations)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

∂u 1 ∂v ∂v 1 ∂u
2. Polar form of Cauchy-Riemann Equations: = & =−
∂r r ∂θ ∂r r ∂θ
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
3. Condition for Harmonic function: + =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2
4. If the function is harmonic then it should be either real or imaginary part of a
analytic function.
5. Milne – Thomson method: (To find the analytic function f(z))

i) If u is given f ( z ) = ∫ u x ( z , 0) − iu y ( z , 0)  dz

ii) If v is given f ( z ) = ∫ v y ( z , 0) + ivx ( z , 0)  dz

6. To find the analytic function

i) f ( z ) = u + iv ; if ( z ) = iu − v adding these two
We have (u − v) + i (u + v) = (1 + i ) f ( z )
then F ( z ) = U + iV where U = u − v, V = u + v & F ( z ) = (1 + i ) f ( z )
Here we can apply Milne – Thomson method for F(z).

7. Bilinear transformation:
( w − w1 )( w2 − w3 ) = ( z − z1 )( z2 − z3 )
( w1 − w2 )( w3 − w ) ( z1 − z2 )( z3 − z )
Unit – IV (Complex Integration)
1. Cauchy’s Integral Theorem:
If f(z) is analytic and f ′( z ) is continuous inside and on a simple closed curve C,

then ∫ f ( z )dz = 0 .
c

2. Cauchy’s Integral Formula:

If f(z) is analytic within and on a simple closed curve C and z0 is any point inside

f ( z)
C, then ∫ z − a dz = 2π if (a)
C

3. Cauchy’s Integral Formula for derivatives:

If a function f(z) is analytic within and on a simple closed curve C and a is any
1 f ( z)
point lying in it, then f ′(a) = ∫ dz
2π i C ( z − a )2

2! f ( z) n! f ( z)
Similarly f ′′(a) = ∫ dz , In general f ( n ) (a) = ∫ dz
2π i C ( z − a ) 3
2π i C ( z − a )n +1

4. Cauchy’s Residue theorem:

If f(z) be analytic at all points inside and on a simple closed cuve c, except for a
finite number of isolated singularities z1 , z2 , z3 ,...zn inside c, then

∫ f ( z )dz = 2π i(sum of the residues of f ( z )) .

C

5. Critical point:
The point, at which the mapping w = f(z) is not conformal, (i.e) f ′( z ) = 0 is called
a critical point of the mapping.
6. Fixed points (or) Invariant points:
az + b
The fixed points of the transformation w = is obtained by putting w = z in
cz + d
the above transformation, the point z = a is called fixed point.
7. Re s{ f ( z )} = Lt ( z − a ) f ( z ) (Simple pole)
z →a

8. Re s{ f ( z )} =
1 d m −1
Lt m −1
(m − 1)! z →a dz
(( z − a ) m
f ( z) ) (Multi Pole (or) Pole of order m)
 P( z )
9. Re s{ f ( z )} = Lt
z → a Q′( z )

10. Taylor Series:

A function f ( z ) , analytic inside a circle C with centre at a, can be expanded in
the series
( z − a) ( z − a)2 ( z − a )3 ( z − a)n ( n)
f ( z ) = f (a) + f ′(a ) + f ′′(a ) + f ′′′(a ) + ... + f (a ) + ...
1! 2! 3! n!
Maclaurin’s Series:
Taking a = 0, Taylor’s series reduce to

z z2 z3
f ( z ) = f (0) + f ′(0) + f ′′(0) + f ′′′(0) + ...
1! 2! 3!
∞ ∞
bn
11. Laurent’s Series: f ( z ) = ∑ an ( z − a ) n + ∑
n =1 ( z − a )
n
n=0

1 f ( z) 1 f ( z)
where an = ∫
2π i C1 ( z − a ) n +1
dz & bn = ∫
2π i C2 ( z − a )1− n
dz , the integrals being

taken anticlockwise.
12. Isolated Singularity:
A point z = z0 is said to be isolated singularity of f ( z ) if f ( z ) is not analytic at

z = z0 and there exists a neighborhood of z = z0 containing no other singularity.

1
Example: f ( z) = . This function is analytic everywhere except at z = 0 .
z
∴ z = 0 is an isolated singularity.
13. Removable Singularity:
lim f ( z)
A singular point z = z0 is called a removable singularity of f ( z ) if
z → z0

exists finitely.
sin z
lim f ( z ) = lim =1
Example: z (finite) ∴ z = 0 is a removable
z→0 z→0
singularity.
 14. Essential Singularity:
If the principal part contains an infinite number of non zero terms, then z = z0 is

known as a essential singularity.

1/ z (1/ z )
1 2

Example: f ( z) = e = 1 +
z
+ + ... has z = 0 as an essential
1! 2!
singularity.

CONTOUR INTEGRATION:
15. Type: I
2π
The integrals of the form ∫ f (cos θ ,sin θ )dθ Here we shall choose the contour
0

z2 +1
as the unit circle C : z = 1 or z = e , 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π . On this type cos θ =
iθ
,
2z
z2 −1 1
sin θ = and dθ = dz .
2iz iz
16. Type: II
∞
P( x)
Improper integrals of the form ∫ Q( x) dx , where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials
−∞

in x such that the degree of Q exceeds that of P at least by two and Q(x) does not
R
vanish for any x. Here ∫ f ( z )dz = ∫
C R
f ( x)dx + ∫ f ( z )dz as R → ∞
Γ ∫ f ( z )dz = 0 .
Γ

17. Type: III

∞ ∞
The integrals of the form ∫ −∞
f ( x) cos mxdx (or) ∫
−∞
f ( x) sin mxdx where

f ( x) → 0 as x → ∞ .
Unit – V (Laplace Transform)
∞
1. Definition: L [ f (t )] = ∫ e− st f (t )dt
0

2.
Sl.No
L [1]
1
1.
s
n ! Γ(n + 1)
2. L t n  =
s n +1 s n +1
1
3. L  e at 
s−a
1
4. L  e − at 
s+a
L [sin at ]
a
5.
s + a2
2

L [ cos at ]
s
6.
s + a2
2

L [sinh at ]
a
7.
s − a2
2

L [ cosh at ]
s
8.
s − a2
2

3. Linear Property: L [ af (t ) ± bg (t )] = aL [ f (t )] ± bL [ g (t )]

4. First Shifting property:

If L [ f (t )] = F ( s ) , then

i) L  e at f (t )  = [ F ( s ) ]s → s − a

ii) L  e − at f (t )  = [ F ( s ) ]s → s + a
5. Second Shifting property:
 f (t − a ), t > a
If L [ f (t )] = F ( s ) , g (t ) =  then L [ g (t )] = e − as F ( s )
0, t<a

6. Change of scale:
1 s
If L [ f (t )] = F ( s ) , then L [ f (at ) ] = F 
a a
7. Transform of derivative:

d2
If L [ f (t )] = F ( s ) , then L [tf (t ) ] = −
d
F ( s ) , L t 2 f (t )  = 2 F ( s ) ,
ds ds
dn
In general L t n f (t )  = (−1) n n F ( s )
ds
8. Transform of Integral;
∞
1 
If L [ f (t )] = F ( s ) , then L  f (t )  = ∫ F ( s )ds
t  s

9. Initial value Theorem:

Lt f (t ) = Lt sF ( s)
If L [ f (t )] = F ( s ) , then
t →0 s→∞
10. Final value Theorem:
Lt f (t ) = Lt sF ( s)
If L [ f (t )] = F ( s ) , then
t →∞ s→0
11.
Sl.No
1 
1. L−1   1
s
 1 
2. L−1  e at
 s − a 
 1 
3. L−1  e − at
 s + a 
 s 
4. L−1  2 cos at
 s + a 
2

 1  1
5. L−1  2 sin at
 s + a 
2
a
  s 
6. L−1  2 cosh at
 s − a 
2

 1  1
7. L−1  2 sinh at
 s − a 
2
a
1 t n −1
8. L−1  n 
s  (n − 1)!

12. Deriative of inverse Laplace Transform:

− 1 −1
L−1 [ F ( s ) ] = L [ F ′( s ) ]
t
t

13. Colvolution of two functions: f (t ) ∗ g (t ) = ∫ f (u ) g (t − u ) du

0

14. Covolution theorem:

If f(t) & g(t) are functions defined for t ≥ 0 then L [ f (t ) ∗ g (t )] = L [ f (t )] L [ g (t )]

15. Convolution theorem of inverse Laplace Transform:

L−1 [ F ( s)G ( s )] = L−1 [ F ( s)] ∗ L−1 [G ( s)]

16. Solving ODE for second order differential equations using Laplace Transform
i) L [ y′(t )] = sL [ y (t )] − y (0)
ii) L [ y′′(t )] = s 2 L [ y (t )] − sy (0) − y′(0)

iii) L [ y′′′(t )] = s 3 L [ y (t )] − s 2 y (0) − sy′(0) − y′′(0) take y = L [ y (t )]

1
 y ( t ) dt  = L [ y ( t ) ]
t
17. Solving integral equation: L 
 ∫ 0  s
18. Inverse Laplace Transform by Contour Integral method
1
L−1 [ F ( s)] = ∫ F ( s)e st ds
2π i c

19. Periodic function in Laplace Transform:

If f(x+T) = f(x), then f(x) is periodic function with period T.
1
L [ f (t ) ] =
T
∫ e − st f (t ) dt
1 − e − sT 0