Data Flow Diagram

Analysis Process
• introduced and popularized for structured
 Data Flow Diagram
analysis and design in the late 1970s (Gane
 Entity Relationship
Diagram and Sarson 1979)
 Types of Data Flow
Diagram  Determine Hardware and • invented by Larry Constantine, the original
 Data Dictionary Software Needs
developer of structured design, based on
 Structured English  Identifying and Forecasting
 Decision Tables Costs and Benefits Martin and Estrin’s “data flow graph”
 Decision Trees  Comparing Cost and Benefits model of computation
 HIPO Charts
 Guidelines for Analysis
 Pareto Charts
 Systems Proposal
 Fishbone Diagram

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Data Flow Diagram Data Flow Diagram

• enables analyst to model all of the main • DFD Conventions
requirements for an information system in
one diagram: inputs and outputs, processes,
Process Source/sink
and data storage
• shows the processes that change or
transform data
Data flow Data store

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 Data Flow Diagram
• Steps in developing DFDs
1. Make a list of business activities and use it to
determine various data flows, processes, data
stores, and sources/sinks.
2. Create a context diagram that shows
sources/sinks and data flows to and from the
system.
3. Draw Diagram 0, the next level. Show
processes, but keep them general
Data Flow Diagram
4. Create a child diagram for each of the
processes in Diagram 0.
5. Check for errors and make sure the labels you
assign to each process and data flow are
meaningful.
6. Develop a physical data flow diagram from
the logical data flow diagram.

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Data Flow Diagram Data Flow Diagram

• Context Diagram
7. Partition the physical data flow diagram by
separating or grouping parts of the diagram in
order to facilitate programming and
implementation.

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 Data Flow Diagram Data Flow Diagram
• Context Diagram • Diagram 0

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Data Flow Diagram Data Flow Diagram

• Child Diagram • Data Flow Rules
• Process
• No process can have only outputs. It is making data
from nothing. If an object has only outputs, then it
must be a source.
• No process can have only inputs. If an object has
only inputs, then it must be a sink.
• A process has a verb phrase label.

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 Data Flow Diagram Data Flow Diagram
• Data Store
• Data cannot move directly from one data store to • Data cannot move directly to an outside sink from a
another data store. Data must be moved by a data store. Data must be moved by a process.
process. • A data store has a noun phrase label.
• Data cannot move directly from an outside source to
a data store. Data must be moved by a process that
receives data from the source and places the data
into the data store.

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Data Flow Diagram Data Flow Diagram

• Source/Sink
• Data cannot move directly from a source to a sink.
It must be moved by a process if the data are of any
concern to our system. Otherwise, the data flow is
not shown on the DFD.
• A source/sink has a noun phrase label.
• Data Flow
• It has only one direction of flow between symbols.
It may flow in both directions between a process and
a data store to show a read before an update. The
latter is usually indicated, however, by two separate
arrows since these happen at different times.

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 Data Flow Diagram Data Flow Diagram

• A fork in a data flow means that exactly the same
data goes from a common location to two or more
different processes, data stores, or sources/sinks.
• A join in a data flow means that exactly the same
data come from any of two or more different
processes, data stores, or sources/sinks to a common
location.
• It cannot go directly back to the same process it
leaves. There must be at least one other process that
handles the data flow, produces some other data
flow, and returns the original data flow to the
beginning process.
• A data flow to a data store means update (delete or
change).

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Data Flow Diagram Data Flow Diagram

• DFD Guidelines
• A data flow from a data store means retrieve or use. • Completeness
• Consistency
• A data flow has a noun phrase label. More than one
data flow noun phrase can appear on a single arrow • Timing
as long as all of the flows on the same arrow move • Iterative Development
together as one package.

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 Types of Data Flow Diagram Types of Data Flow Diagram
Derive the logical DFD for the current
Current Logical
DFD
system by examining the physical DFD and
isolating unique business activities.
• Benefits of using logical model:
• Better communication with users
• More stable systems
Create the logical DFD for the new system
New Logical by adding the input, output, and processes • Better understanding of the business by analysts
DFD required in the new system to the logical
DFD for the current system. • Flexibility and maintenance
• Elimination of redundancies and easier creation
Derive the physical DFD by examining of the physical model
processes on the new logical diagram.
New Physical
Determine where the user interfaces should
DFD
exist, the nature of the processes, and
necessary data stores.

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Types of Data Flow Diagram Types of Data Flow Diagram

• Benefits of using physical DFDs:
• Identifying temporary data stores
• Clarifying which processes are manual and • Specifying actual names of files and printouts
which are automated • Adding controls to ensure the processes are
• Describing processes in more detail than logical done properly
DFDs
• Sequencing processes that have to be done in a
particular order

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 Types of Data Flow Diagram Types of Data Flow Diagram
• Items contained in the physical DFDs that
are not found in logical DFDs: • Sequencing processes to rearrange the order of
• Manual processes records
• Processes for adding, deleting, changing, and • Processes to produce every unique system
updating records output
• Data entry and verifying processes • Intermediate data stores
• Validation processes for ensuring accurate data • Actual file names used to store data
input • Controls to signify completion of tasks or error
conditions

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Data Dictionary Data Dictionary

• repository for definitions of data processes,
data flows, data stores, and data elements
• compiled by systems analysts to guide them
through analysis and design
• collects and coordinates specific data terms,
and it confirms what each term means to
different people in the organization
• can be used to:
• validate the data flow diagram for completeness
and accuracy
• provide a starting point for developing screens
and reports
• determine the contents of data stored in files
• develop the logic for data flow diagram
processes

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 Data Dictionary Data Dictionary
• Data Dictionary Notation • Examples:
= is composed of • Name = Courtesy Title + First Name + (Middle
+ and Initial) + Last Name
( ) optional (may be present or absent) Courtesy Title = [Mr. | Miss | Mrs. | Ms. | Dr. |
{ } iteration Professor]
[ ] select one of several alternative choices
First Name = {Legal Character}
** comment
Middle Initial = {Legal Character}
@ identifier (key field) for a store
| separates alternative choices in the [ ] construct Last Name = {Legal Character}
Legal Character = [A-Z|a-z|0-9|'|-| | ]

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Data Dictionary Structured English

• Order Picking Slip = Order Number + Order
Date + Customer Number + Customer Name +
Customer Address + Customer Tel + {Order
Item Selection} + Number of Items
• Item Master = Item Number + Price + Quantity
on Hand
• modified form of English that is used to
specify the contents of process boxes in a
DFD
• uses action verbs and noun phrases
• its main purpose is to represent processes in
a shorthand manner that is rather easy for
users and programmers to read and
understand

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 Structured English
• does not involve declaration, initialization,
or linking
• it uses some of the logical constructs of
structured programming to overcome the
lack of structure and precision in the
English language
• its general structure is built using the
fundamental constructs, such as sequential,
decision, and iteration
Structured English
• Five conventions followed when using
structured English:
1. Express all logic in terms of sequential
structures, decision structures, or iterations.
2. Use and capitalize accepted keywords, such as
IF, THEN, ELSE, DO, DO WHILE, DO
UNTIL, and PERFORM.
3. Indent blocks of statements to show their
hierarchy (nesting) clearly.

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Structured English Structured English

4. When words or phrases have been defined in • Examples:
the Data Dictionary, underline those words or • Sequential structure Action #1
phrases to indicate that these have a Action #2
specialized, reserved meaning. Action #3

5. Be careful when using “and” and “or” as well • Decision structure IF Condition A is TRUE

as “greater than” and “greater than or equal THEN implement Action A

ELSE implement Action B
to” and other logical comparisons. “A and B”
• Iteration DO WHILE there are
means both A and B; “A or B” means either A customers.
or B, but not both. Action #1
ENDDO

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 Structured English
• Advantages:
• clarify the logic and relationships found in
human languages
• it is a communication tool
• A structured English is used when:
• There are many repetitious actions, or
• Communication to end users is important.
Decision Table
• matrix representation of processing logic,
which specifies the possible conditions for
the decision and the resulting actions
• useful when complex combinations of
conditions, actions, and rules are found or if
it requires a method that effectively avoid
impossible situations, redundancies, and
contradictions

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Decision Table Decision Table

• Three components of a simple decision • In creating decision tables, analysts should:
table are:
• Conditions – describe the factors that will affect • determine the maximum size of the table
the decision or policy • eliminate any impossible situations,
• Actions – describe the possible policy actions inconsistencies, or redundancies, and
or decisions • simplify the tables as much as possible
• Rules – describe which actions are to be taken
under a specific combination of conditions

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 Decision Table Decision Table
• Steps in constructing decision tables: 4. in the decision table by multiplying the
number of alternatives for each condition.
1. Determine the number of conditions that may
affect the decision. 5. Fill in the condition alternatives.
2. Determine the number possible actions that 6. Complete the table by inserting an X where
can be taken. rules suggest certain actions.
3. Determine the number of condition 7. Combine rules where it is apparent that an
alternatives for each condition. alternative does not make a difference in the
outcome.

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Decision Table Decision Table

8. Check the table for any impossible situations,

contradictions, and redundancies.
9. Rearrange the conditions and actions (or even
rules) if it makes the decision table more
understandable.

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 Decision Table
• A decision table is used when:
• Complex combinations of conditions, actions,
and rules are found, or
• A method is required that effectively avoids
impossible situations, redundancies, and
contradictions.
Decision Trees
• graphical representation of a decision or
choice situation as a connected series of
nodes and branches
• useful when the sequence of conditions and
actions is critical or not every condition is
relevant to every action
• designed to make it easier for analysts to
communicate with users

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Decision Trees Decision Trees

• Four major steps in drawing a decision tree:
• Two main components:
• decision points – represented by nodes • Identify the conditions
• actions – represented by ovals • Identify the outcomes (condition alternatives)
for each decision
• Identify the actions
• Identify the rules

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 Decision Trees Decision Trees
• A decision tree is used when: Sunday
Sleep two more
2 Weekday
• The sequence of conditions and actions is hours
Saturday
critical, or YES Time to get up

• Not every condition is relevant to every action

(the branches are different). 1 Sleep one more
hour
NO
Go back to sleep
Legend:

1) Sun up?
2) What day is it?

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Decision Trees Decision Trees

• Three main advantages of decision tree over
a decision table:
• It takes advantage of the sequential structure of
decision tree branches so that the order of
checking conditions and executing actions is
immediately noticeable.
• Conditions and actions of decision trees are
found on some branches but not on others,
which contrasts with decision tables, wherein
they are all part of the same table. Those
conditions and actions that are critical are
connected directly to other conditions and
actions, whereas those conditions that do not
matter are not present.

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 Decision Trees
• Compared with decision tables, decision trees
are more readily understood by others in the
organization.
HIPO Charts
• stands for Hierarchy Input Process Output
• was developed by IBM as a tool and
documentation technique that attempts to:
• provide a structure by which the function of a
system can be understood
• state the functions to be accomplished
• provide a visual description of the input,
process, and output for each function

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HIPO Charts HIPO Charts

• A HIPO package is consists of:
• its main purpose is to define procedures and • hierarchy chart
operations in a hierarchical manner, • IPO overview diagram
correlating input, processing, and output • IPO detail diagram
steps

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 HIPO Charts HIPO Charts
• Example of a Hierarchy Chart • Example of an IPO Overview Diagram

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HIPO Charts Pareto Charts

• Example of an IPO Detail Diagram
• used to graphically summarize and display
the relative importance of the differences
between groups of data
• special form of a bar graph and is used to
display the relative importance of problems
or conditions
• named after Vilfredo Pareto, and its use in
quality assurance was popularized by
Joseph Juran and Kaoru Ishikawa

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 Pareto Charts
• Uses of Pareto Chart:
• Focus on critical issues by ranking them in
terms of importance and frequency.
• Prioritize problems or causes to efficiently
initiate problem solving.
Pareto Charts
• Analyze problems or causes by different
groupings of data (e.g., by program, by teacher,
by school building, by machine, by team).
• Analyze the before and after impact of changes
made in a process.

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Pareto Charts Pareto Charts

• Steps in creating a Pareto chart: 3. Collect and summarize the data. Create a
three-column table with the following
headings:
1. Determine the categories of problems or
• Error/Problem Category
causes to be compared.
• Frequency
2. Select a Standard Unit of Measurement and
the Time Period to be studied. • Percent of Total
Error Category Frequency Percent of Total
Punctuation 22 44%
Grammar 15 30%
Spelling 10 20%
Typing 3 6%
TOTAL 50 100%

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 Pareto Charts Pareto Charts
4. Create the framework for the horizontal and 5. Plot the bars on the Pareto chart.
vertical axes of the Pareto Chart.

6. Interpret the Pareto chart.

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Pareto Charts Fishbone Diagram

• Some questions that Pareto chart answers:
• What are the largest issues facing our team or
business?
• What 20% of sources are causing 80% of the
problems (80/20 Rule)?
• Where should we focus our efforts to achieve
the greatest improvements?
• invented by Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa
• problem analysis tool that provides a
systematic way of looking at effects and the
causes that create or contribute to those
effects
• referred to as a cause-and-effect diagram
because of its function

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 Fishbone Diagram Fishbone Diagram
• The fishbone diagram is used if the project
• its main purpose is to assist project teams in team:
categorizing the many potential causes of • Need to study a problem/issue to determine the
problems or issues in an orderly manner and root cause
in identifying root causes • Want to study all the possible reasons why a
process is beginning to have difficulties,
problems, or breakdowns

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Fishbone Diagram Fishbone Diagram

• Example of Fishbone Diagram
• Need to identify areas for data collection

• Want to study why a process is not performing

properly or producing the desired results

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 Fishbone Diagram Fishbone Diagram
• Steps in constructing fishbone diagram: • 4 S’s – Surroundings, Suppliers, Systems, Skills
Take note that one of the four categories suggested can
be used or can be combined in any fashion. These
1. List the problem/issue to be studied in the categories are helpful in organizing ideas.
head of the fish.
2. Label each bone of the fish. The major
3. Use an idea-generating technique to identify
categories typically used are:
the factors within each category that may be
• 4 M’s – Methods, Machines, Materials, Manpower
affecting the problem/issue and/or effect
• 4 P’s – Place, Procedure, People, Policies being studied.
• 4 S’s – Surroundings, Suppliers, Systems, Skills

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Fishbone Diagram Fishbone Diagram

4. Repeat this step with each factor under the
category to be produce sub-factors. Continue
asking the question: “Why is this happening?”
and put additional segments on each factor
and subsequently under each sub-factor.
5. Continue until you no longer get useful
information as you ask the question: “Why is
that happening?”
6. Analyze the results of the fishbone diagram
after team members agree to an adequate
amount of detail has been provided under
each major category.
7. Those items identified as the “most likely”
causes should reach the consensus of the team
on listing those items in priority order with
the first item being the “most probable” cause.

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 Entity-Relationship Diagram Entity-Relationship Diagram
• graphical representation of an E-R model

• notations used:
• Entities
• Attributes
• Candidate keys and identifiers
• Relationships

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Determine Hardware and

Entity-Relationship Diagram
Software Needs
• Steps in determining hardware and software
needs:

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 Determine Hardware and
Software Needs
• Inventory Computer Hardware
• If an updated computer hardware is
unavailable, the systems analyst needs to set up
one quickly and carry through on it by
identifying the following:
1. The type of equipment: model number,
manufacturer.
2. The operation status of the equipment: on order,
operating, in storage, in need of repair.
3. The estimated age of the equipment.
Determine Hardware and
Software Needs
4. The projected life of the equipment.
5. The physical location of the equipment.
6. The department or person considered responsible
for the equipment.
7. The financial arrangement for the equipment:
owned, leased, rented.

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Determine Hardware and Determine Hardware and

Software Needs Software Needs
• Estimate Workloads
• Systems analysts formulate numbers that
represent both current and projected workloads • Out of necessity, workloads are sampled rather
for the system so that any hardware obtained than actually put through several computer
will possess the capability to handle current and systems.
future workloads.
• If estimates are accomplished properly, the
business should not have to replace hardware
solely due to unforeseen growth in system use.

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 Determine Hardware and
Software Needs
• Evaluate Computer Hardware
• Evaluation of computer hardware is the shared
responsibility of management, users, and
systems analysts.
• Systems analysts may have to educate users and
management about the general advantages and
disadvantages if hardware before they can
capably evaluate it.
Determine Hardware and
Software Needs
• Criteria used by systems analysts and users
in evaluating performance of different
systems hardware:
• The time required for average transactions
(including how long it takes to input data and
how long it takes to receive output).

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Determine Hardware and Determine Hardware and

Software Needs Software Needs
• Determine Computer Equipment
• The total volume capacity of the system (how • Three main options for determining computer
much can be processed at the same time before equipment:
a problem arises). • Buying
• the business itself will own the equipment
• The idle time of the central processing unit. • Leasing
• from vendor or from third-party leasing company
• The size of the memory provided. • Renting
• makes it easier to change system hardware

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 Determine Hardware and Determine Hardware and
Software Needs Software Needs
Advantages Disadvantages • Evaluate Software
Purchasing - Cheaper than leasing or renting over the - Initial cost is high
long run
- Ability to change system
- Risk of obsolescence
- Risk of being stuck if choice was
• Analysts and organizations are increasingly
- Provides tax advantages of accelerated
depreciation
wrong
- Full responsibility
faced with a make, buy, or outsource decision
- Full control when assessing software for information
Leasing - No capital is tied up
- No financing is required
- Company doesn’t own the system
when lease expires
systems projects, particularly when
- Leases are lower than rental payments - Usually a heavy penalty for terminating
the lease
contemplating upgrades to existing or legacy
- Leases are more expensive than buying systems.
Renting - No capital is tied up - Company doesn’t own the computer
- No financing is required - Cost is very high because vendor
- Easy to change systems assumes the risk (most expensive option)
- Maintenance and insurance are usually
included`

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Determine Hardware and Determine Hardware and

Software Needs Software Needs
Advantages Disadvantages

• Analysts decide whether to purchase COTS Creating Custom Software - Specific response to specialized
business needs
Innovation may give firm a
software, rent software from an application competitive advantage
- In-house staff available to maintain
service provider (ASP), or create custom software
- Pride of ownership
software for the project. Purchasing COTS Packages - Refined in the commercial world
- Increased reliability
- Increased functionality
- Often lower initial cost
- Already in use by other firms
- Help and training comes with
software
- May be significantly higher initial
cost compared to COTS software
of ASP
- Necessity of hiring or working
with a development team
- On-going maintenance
- Programming focused; not
business focused
- Must live with the existing
features
- Limited customization
- Uncertain financial future of
vendor
- Less ownership and commitment

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 Determine Hardware and
Software Needs
Advantages
Using an ASP - Organizations that do not specialize in
information systems can focus on what they
do best (their strategic mission)
- There is no need to hire, train, or retain a
large IT staff
- There is no expenditure of employee time
on non-essential IT tasks
Identifying and Forecasting
Costs and Benefits
• Systems analysts are required to predict
Disadvantages certain key variables before the proposal is
- Loss of control of data, systems, IT
employees, and schedules submitted to the client.
- Concern over the financial viability
and long-run stability of the ASP
- Security, confidentiality, and
privacy concerns
- Loss of potential strategic corporate
advantage regarding innovativeness
• The systems analysts uses forecasting
of applications
models and the main condition for choosing
a model is the availability of historical data.

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Identifying and Forecasting Identifying and Forecasting

Costs and Benefits Costs and Benefits
• Conditional methods:
• If historical data are available, the next • Correlation
differentiation between classes of • Regression
techniques involves whether the forecast is • Leading indicators
conditional or unconditional. • Econometrics
• Input/Output models

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 Identifying and Forecasting Identifying and Forecasting
Costs and Benefits Costs and Benefits
• If historical data are unavailable, the analyst
• Unconditional methods: must turn to one of the judgment methods:
• Graphical judgment • Estimates from the sales force
• Moving averages • Surveys to estimate customer demand
• Analysis of time series data • Delphi studies
• Creating scenarios
• Drawing historical analogies

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Identifying and Forecasting Identifying and Forecasting

Costs and Benefits Costs and Benefits
• Tangible Benefits
• an advantage measurable in dollars that accrue
• The advantage of the computer’s superior
to the organization through the use of
calculating power
information system
• examples: • Decreases in the amount of employee time needed to
• An increase in the speed of processing complete specific tasks
• Access to otherwise inaccessible information
• Access to information on a more timely basis than
was possible before

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 Identifying and Forecasting Identifying and Forecasting
Costs and Benefits Costs and Benefits
• Intangible Benefits • Tangible Costs
• difficult to measure but are important • can be accurately projected by the system
nonetheless analyst and the business’ accounting personnel
• examples: • examples:
• Improving decision-making process • The cost of equipment such as computers and
• Enhancing accuracy terminals
• Becoming more competitive in customer service • The cost of resources
• Maintaining a good business image • The cost of systems analysts’ time
• Increasing job satisfaction for employees by • The cost of programmers’ time
eliminating tedious tasks • Other employees’ salaries

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Identifying and Forecasting

Comparing Costs and Benefits
Costs and Benefits
• Intangible Costs • Techniques for comparing the costs and
• difficult to estimate and may not be known benefits of the proposed system:
• examples:
• Losing a competitive edge • Break-Even Analysis
• Losing the reputation for being first with an • Payback Period
innovation or the leader in a field • Cash-Flow Analysis
• Declining company image due to increased • Present Value Analysis
customer dissatisfaction
• Ineffective decision making due to untimely or
inaccessible information

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 Guidelines for Analysis
1. Use break-even analysis if the project
needs to be justified in terms of cost, not
benefits, or if benefits do not substantially
improve with the proposed system.
2. Use payback when the improved tangible
benefits form a convincing argument for
the proposed system.
Guidelines for Analysis
3. Use cash-flow analysis when the project is
expensive relative to the size of the
company or when the business would be
significantly affected by a large drain on
funds.
4. Use present value analysis when the
payback period is long or when the cost of
borrowing money is high.

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Systems Proposal Systems Proposal

• Ten main sections comprise the written 5. Outline of systems study with appropriate
systems proposal and should be arranged in documentation
the following order: 6. Detailed results of the systems study
1. Cover letter 7. Systems alternatives (three or four possible
solutions)
2. Title page of project
8. Systems analysts’ recommendations
3. Table of contents
9. Proposal summary
4. Executive summary (including
recommendations) 10. Appendices (assorted documentation,
summary of phases, correspondence, and so
on)

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 Systems Proposal
• Integrating figures into your proposal helps
demonstrate that you are responsive to the
different ways people absorb information.
• Figures in the report supplement written
information and must always be interpreted
in words – these should never stand alone.
Systems Proposal
• Effective use of tables provide a different
way of grouping and presenting analyzed
data that the analyst wants to communicate
to the proposal reader.
• Tables use labeled columns and rows to
present statistical or alphabetical data in an
organized manner.

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Systems Proposal Systems Proposal

• Some guidelines for tables are the 3. Number and title the table at the top of the
following: page. Make the title descriptive and relevant.
4. Label each row and column. Use more than
1. Incorporate tables into the body of the one line for a title, if necessary.
proposal. Do not refer them to the
appendices. 5. Use a boxed table if room permits. Vertically
ruled columns will enhance the readability.
2. Try to fit the entire table vertically on a single 6. If necessary, use footnotes to explain detailed
page, if possible. information contained in the table.

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 Systems Proposal Systems Proposal
• The different kinds of graphs used in • Column Charts
systems proposal are:
14000
• Line graphs 12000
6 10000
5 8000
Axis Title

4 Series 1 North America

3 Series 2 6000 Europe
2 Series 3 4000
1 South America
0 2000
0
Quarter Quarter Quarter Quarter
1 2 3 4
Axis Title

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Systems Proposal Systems Proposal

• Bar Charts • Pie Charts

Subsidiary A CEM
15% Medical
20%
Appliance
Vending
5% POS
20%
3% Transportation
2% Military
5%
Telecom
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 5%
15% Industrial
Vendor A Vendor B Vendor C 10%
Process Control
Vendor D Vendor E Vendor F

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