A teaching method is a set of

principles and methods used

by teachers to enable student learning.
These strategies are determined partly
by the subject matter to be taught, partly
by the relative expertise of the learners,
and partly by constraints caused by the
learning environment.[1] For a
particular teaching method to be
appropriate and efficient it has to take
into account the learner, the nature of
the subject matter, and the type of
learning it is supposed to bring about.[2]
The approaches for teaching can be
broadly classified into teacher-centered
and student-centered, although in
practice teachers will often adapt
instruction by moving back and forth
between these methodologies
depending on learner prior knowledge,
learner expertise, and the desired
learning objectives.[3] In a teacher-
centered approach to learning, teachers
are the main authority figure in this
model. Students are viewed as "empty
vessels" whose primary role is to
passively receive information (via
lectures and direct instruction) with the
end goal of testing and assessment. It is
the primary role of teachers to
pass knowledge and information on to
their students. In this model, teaching
and assessment are viewed as two
separate entities. Student learning is
measured through objectively scored
tests and assessments.[4] In the
Student-Centered Approach to Learning,
while teachers are the authority figure in
this model, teachers and students play
an equally active role in the learning
process. This approach is also called
authoritative.[5] The teacher's primary
role is to coach and facilitate student
learning and overall comprehension of
material. Student learning is measured
through both formal and informal forms
of assessment, including group projects,
student portfolios, and class
participation. Teaching and
assessments are connected; student
learning is continuously measured
during teacher instruction.[4]
Methods of teaching[edit]
Lecturing[edit]
Main article: Lecture
The lecture method is just one of several teaching methods, though in schools it's
usually considered the primary one. The lecture method is convenient for the institution
and cost-efficient, especially with larger classroom sizes. This is why lecturing is the
standard for most college courses when there can be several hundred students in the
classroom at once; lecturing lets professors address the most people at once, in the
most general manner, while still conveying the information that they feel is most
important, according to the lesson plan.[6] While the lecture method gives the instructor
or teacher chances to expose students to unpublished or not readily available material,
the students play a passive role which may hinder learning. While this method facilitates
large-class communication, the lecturer must make a constant and conscious effort to
become aware of student problems and engage the students to give verbal feedback. It
can be used to arouse interest in a subject provided the instructor has effective writing
and speaking skills.[7]

Peer Instruction[edit]
Main article: Peer instruction
Developed by Eric Mazur, peer instruction is a teaching method designed to improve
the lecture. It includes both pre-class and in-class workflows. The in-class workflow
intersperses teacher presentations with conceptual questions, called Concept Tests.
These are designed to expose common student misconceptions in understanding the
material, and lead to student discussion then reteaching if required.[8]

Explaining[edit]
While under-researched, both student and teacher explanations remain one of the most
utilized teaching methods in teacher practice. Explaining has many sub-categories
including the use of analogies to build conceptual understanding.[9] Some modes of
explaining include the ‘thinking together’ style where teachers connect student ideas to
scientific models. There are also more narrative styles using examples, and learner
explanations which require students to give an explanation of the concept to be learned
allowing the teacher to give precise feedback on the quality of the explanation. [10]

Demonstrating[edit]
Main article: Demonstration (teaching)
Demonstrating, which is also called the coaching style or the Lecture-cum-
Demonstration method,[11] is the process of teaching through examples
or experiments.[12] The framework mixes the instructional strategies of information
imparting and showing how.[11] For example, a science teacher may teach an idea by
experimenting with students. A demonstration may be used to prove a fact through a
combination of visual evidence and associated reasoning.

Demonstrations are similar to written storytelling and examples in that they allow
students to personally relate to the presented information. Memorization of a list of facts
is a detached and impersonal experience, whereas the same information, conveyed
through demonstration, becomes personally relatable. Demonstrations help to raise
student interest and reinforce memory retention because they provide connections
between facts and real-world applications of those facts. Lectures, on the other hand,
are often geared more towards factual presentation than connective learning.[13]

One of the advantages of the demonstration method involves the capability to include
different formats and instruction materials to make the learning process
engaging.[14] This leads to the activation of several of the learners' senses, creating more
learning opportunities.[15] The approach is also beneficial on the part of the teacher
because it is adaptable to both group and individual teaching.[16] While demonstration
teaching, however, can be effective in teaching Math, Science, and Art, it can prove
ineffective in a classroom setting that calls for the accommodation of the learners'
individual needs.[12]

Collaborating[edit]
Main article: Collaboration
Collaboration allows student to actively participate in the learning process by talking
with each other and listening to others opinions. Collaboration establishes a personal
connection between students and the topic of study and it helps students think in a less
personally biased way. Group projects and discussions are examples of this teaching
method. Teachers may employ collaboration to assess student's abilities to work as a
team, leadership skills, or presentation abilities.[17]

Collaborative discussions can take a variety of forms, such as fishbowl discussions. It is

important for teachers to provide students with instruction on how to collaborate. This
includes teaching them rules to conversation, such as listening, and how to use
argumentation versus arguing.[18] After some preparation and with clearly defined roles,
a discussion may constitute most of a lesson, with the teacher only giving short
feedback at the end or in the following lesson.

Some examples of collaborative learning tips and strategies for teachers are; to build
trust, establish group interactions, keeps in mind the critics, include different types of
learning, use real-world problems, consider assessment, create a pre-test, and post-test,
use different strategies, help students use inquiry and use technology for easier learning.

Classroom discussion[edit]
The most common type of collaborative method of teaching in a class is classroom
discussion. It is also a democratic way of handling a class, where each student is given
equal opportunity to interact and put forth their views. A discussion taking place in a
classroom can be either facilitated by a teacher or by a student. A discussion could also
follow a presentation or a demonstration. Class discussions can enhance student
understanding, add context to academic content, broaden student perspectives,
highlight opposing viewpoints, reinforce knowledge, build confidence, and support
community in learning. The opportunities for meaningful and engaging in-class
discussion may vary widely, depending on the subject matter and format of the course.
Motivations for holding planned classroom discussion, however, remain consistent. [19] An
effective classroom discussion can be achieved by probing more questions among the
students, paraphrasing the information received, using questions to develop critical
thinking with questions like "Can we take this one step further?;" "What solutions do you
think might solve this problem?;" "How does this relate to what we have learned
about..?;" "What are the differences between ... ?;" "How does this relate to your own
experience?;" "What do you think causes .... ?;" "What are the implications of .... ?"[20]

It is clear from "the impact of teaching strategies on learning strategies in first-year

higher education cannot be overlooked nor over interpreted, due to the importance of
students' personality and academic motivation which also partly explain why students
learn the way they do"[21] that Donche agrees with the previous points made in the above
headings but he also believes that student's personalities contribute to their learning
style. The way a student interprets and executes the instruction given by a teacher
allows them to learn in a more effective and personal way. This interactive instruction is
designed for the students to share their thoughts about a wide range of subjects.[22]

Class discussions have also proven to be an effective method of bullying prevention

and intervention when teachers discuss the issue of bullying and its negative
consequences with the entire class. These discussions have shown to increase the
number of students who would help other students when they are victimized.[23]

Debriefing[edit]
Main article: Debriefing
The term "debriefing" refers to conversational sessions that revolve around the sharing
and examining of information after a specific event has taken place. Depending on the
situation, debriefing can serve a variety of purposes.[24] It takes into consideration the
experiences and facilitates reflection and feedback. Debriefing may involve feedback to
the students or among the students, but this is not the intent. The intent is to allow the
students to "thaw" and to judge their experience and progress toward change or
transformation. The intent is to help them come to terms with their experience. This
process involves a cognizance of cycle that students may have to be guided to
completely debrief. Teachers should not be overly critical of relapses in behaviour.
Once the experience is completely integrated, the students will exit this cycle and get on
with the next.[20]

Debriefing is a daily exercise in most professions. It might be in psychology, healthcare,

politics, or business. This is also accepted as an everyday necessity.

Classroom Action Research[edit]

Classroom Action Research is a method of finding out what works best in your own
classroom so that you can improve student learning. We know a great deal about
good teaching in general (e.g. McKeachie, 1999; Chickering and Gamson, 1987;
Weimer, 1996), but every teaching situation is unique in terms of content, level, student
skills, and learning styles, teacher skills and teaching styles, and many other factors. To
maximize student learning, a teacher must find out what works best in a particular
situation.[25] Each teaching and research method, model and family is essential to the
practice of technology studies. Teachers have their strengths and weaknesses, and
adopt particular models to complement strengths and contradict weaknesses. Here, the
teacher is well aware of the type of knowledge to be constructed. At other times,
teachers equip their students with a research method to challenge them to construct
new meanings and knowledge. In schools, the research methods are simplified,
allowing the students to access the methods at their own levels.[20]

Questioning[edit]
Questioning is one of the oldest documented teaching methods, and can be used by
teachers in a variety of ways for a variety of purposes including, checking for
understanding, clarifying terms, exposing misconceptions, and gathering evidence of
learning to inform subsequent instructional decisions.[26]

Socratic questioning[edit]
Named after Socrates, socratic questioning is described by his pupil Plato as a form of
questioning where the teacher probes underlying misconceptions to lead students
towards deeper understanding.

Cold calling[edit]
Cold calling is a teaching methodology based around the teacher asking questions to
students without letting the students know beforehand who will be called upon to
answer by the teacher. Cold calling aims to increase inclusion in the
classroom[27] and active learning as well as student engagement and
participation.[28] Cold calling in education is distinct from cold-calling in sales which is a
form of business solicitation. Cold calling as a teaching methodology has been linked to
increased student participation,[29] increased student voluntary participation,[30] increased
student engagement, increased student in class gender equity[31] and no decrease in
student comfort levels in class.[32] There is some evidence that the effectiveness of cold
calling as teaching method is connected to the use of covert retrieval practice.[33]

Feedback[edit]
See also: Corrective feedback
Feedback is targeted information given to students about their current performance
relative to their desired learning goals.[34] It should aim to (and be capable of producing)
improvement in students’ learning, as well as being bidirectional by giving teachers
feedback on student performance which in turn helps teachers plan the next steps in
learning.[35] Feedback in its various forms can be a potent teaching method with
potentially large impacts on student achievement.[36] It can also have some negative side
effects under certain conditions.[37]

Effectiveness of teaching methods[edit]

Main article: Educational research
Small effects or lack of statistically significant effects have been found when evaluating
many teaching methods rigorously with randomized controlled trials.[38] Many teaching
methods targeting cognitive skills show quickly disappearing impacts.[39]

Evolution of teaching methods[edit]

Ancient education[edit]
About 3000 BC, with the advent of writing, education became more conscious or self-
reflecting, with specialized occupations such as scribe and astronomer requiring
particular skills and knowledge. Philosophy in ancient Greece led to questions of
educational method entering national discourse.

In his literary work The Republic, Plato described a system of instruction that he felt
would lead to an ideal state. In his dialogues, Plato described the Socratic method, a
form of inquiry and debate intended to stimulate critical thinking and illuminate ideas.

It has been the intent of many educators since, such as the Roman educator Quintilian,
to find specific, interesting ways to encourage students to use their intelligence and to
help them to learn.

Medieval education[edit]
Comenius, in Bohemia, wanted all children to learn. In his The World in Pictures, he
created an illustrated textbook of things children would be familiar with in everyday life
and used it to teach children. Rabelais described how the student Gargantua learned
about the world, and what is in it.

Much later, Jean-Jacques Rousseau in his Emile, presented methodology to teach

children the elements of science and other subjects. During Napoleonic warfare, the
teaching methodology of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi of Switzerland enabled refugee
children, of a class believed to be unteachable[by whom?], to learn. He described this in his
account of an educational experiment at Stanz.[citation needed]

19th century[edit]
The Prussian education system was a system of mandatory education dating to the
early 19th century. Parts of the Prussian education system have served as models for
the education systems in a number of other countries, including Japan and the United
States. The Prussian model required classroom management skills to be incorporated
into the teaching process.[40]

The University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge in England developed their
distinctive method of teaching, the tutorial system, in the 19th century.[41] This involves
very small groups, from one to three students, meeting on a regular basis with tutors
(originally college fellows, and now also doctoral students and post-docs) to discuss and
debate pre-prepared work (either essays or problems).[42][43] This is the central teaching
method of these universities in both arts and science subjects,[44] and has been
compared to the Socratic method.[45][46]

Experimental pedagogy[edit]

Children's experiments (Daniel Chodowiecki & Johann B.

Basedow)
Experimental pedagogy is a pedagogical trend that appeared at the end of the 19th
and the beginning of the 20th century, whose task was to introduce, in addition to
observation, the experimental method into the study of teaching. This field of study
employs scientific methods to investigate teaching and learning, aiming to improve
educational practices by testing different approaches and measuring their effectiveness.

The main credit for the constitution of experimental pedagogy as a special direction and
the development of its theoretical foundations belongs to two German
pedagogues, Ernst Meumann[47] and Wilhelm August Lay,[48] who are also considered the
founders of experimental pedagogy. There are also Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon in
France, Joseph Mayer Rice, Edward Thorndike and G. Stanley Hall in
America, Édouard Claparède[49] and Robert Dottrens in Switzerland, Alexander
Petrovich Nechaev in Russia, etc.[50]

Key characteristics of experimental pedagogy include being evidence-based, rigorous in

study design, and oriented towards improvement. The field investigates the
effectiveness of various teaching methods, the impact of instructional materials, and
factors influencing student learning.

Experimental pedagogy has the potential to significantly impact education by offering

evidence-based support for effective practices. Examples of its application include
studies on the use of technology in the classroom, the influence of different teaching
methods on student motivation, and the examination of factors affecting student
achievement.

Examples of experimental pedagogy in educational action include:

• A study on the effectiveness of using technology in the classroom, comparing the

learning outcomes of students using tablets with those who do not.
• A study on the impact of different teaching methods on student motivation,
comparing motivation levels in classes using different approaches.
• A study on the factors influencing student achievement, examining factors such as
student background, family income, and resource access.[51][52]
20th century[edit]
Newer teaching methods may incorporate television, radio, internet, multi media, and
other modern devices. Some educators [who?] believe that the use of technology, while
facilitating learning to some degree, is not a substitute for educational methods that
encourage critical thinking and a desire to learn. Inquiry learning is another modern
teaching method. A popular teaching method that is being used by many teachers is
hands on activities. Hands-on activities are activities that require movement, talking,
and listening.

See also[edit]

• Active learning – Educational

technique
• Asynchronous learning – Learning
that occurs on each individual
student's time
• Business game
• Case method – Teaching approach
• Didactics – Teaching method
• Differentiated instruction –
Framework or philosophy for
effective teaching
• Design-based learning – Learner
centric pedagogy
• Educational psychology – Branch of
psychology concerned with the
scientific study of human learning
• Educational philosophy – Study of
nature and aims of education
• Effective schools – educational
movement and body of research
which examines school-based
factors which positively influence
learning outcomes in K-12 schools
• Example choice
• Experiential learning – Learn by
reflect on active involvement
• Kinesthetic learning – Learning by
physical activities
• Lesson plan – Description of the
course of instruction for a lesson
• Passive learning – Learning method
• Pedagogical pattern – Re-usable
form of a solution to a problem or
task in pedagogy
• Pedagogy – Theory and practice of
education
• Phenomenon-based learning –
Learner centric pedagogy
• Teacher education – Training
teachers to develop teaching skills
• Teacher look
• Training – Acquisition of knowledge,
skills, and competencies as a result
of teaching or practice
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Further reading[edit]
• Highet G (1989). The Art of Teaching. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-679-72314-1.
• Monroe P (1915). A Text-Book in the History of Education.
Macmillan. OL 1540509W.
External links[edit]
• "Experimental pedagogy and experimental psychology". psycnet.apa.org. APA
PsycNet. Retrieved 2024-02-07.
• Jahrling R (1923). "Experimental Pedagogy, the Science of Education". The
Pedagogical Seminary. 30 (1): 40–
44. doi:10.1080/08919402.1923.10532906. ISSN 0891-9402.
• Deines AG (2019), "Experimental Pedagogy: The Connection Between Teaching
and Social Impact", Teaching and Designing in Detroit,
Routledge, doi:10.4324/9780429290596-10, ISBN 978-0-429-29059-6,
retrieved 2024-02-07

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