Renewable Energy Part 2

Photovoltaic Panel
(pv)
Dr. Mohamed Salah eng. Hany Yahya 1

Photovoltaic Panel

Photovoltaic cells are made from the same materials as the well-known transistors of solid-state
electronics and this class of substances called semiconductors (because it slightly conducts an
electric current when connected to a battery, but not nearly as well as a metal).

The electrons in the atoms of a semiconductor are not free to move unless they are excited first
with certain amount of energy. They can acquire this energy from light shining directed towards
the semiconductor in a photocell.

How the Photovoltaic is work?

Photovoltaic in Depth

1- As premonition later, the photovoltaic cells are made from semiconductors.
2- The semiconductors in a photocell are “doped” by replacing some of the atoms
with others that have a different number of electrons.
3- If these substituted atoms have more electrons, the extra electrons increase the
negative charge among the electrons, and the result is called an n-type
semiconductor.
4- It is important to note that : n-doping does not result in a negatively charged
semiconductor, because all atoms (the semiconductor atoms and the doping
atoms) are electrically neutral.
5- However, the doping atoms have one more electron in their outer layer that
cannot form bonds with the other semiconductor atoms, and this creates a
structural imbalance. Dr. Mohamed Salah eng. Hany Yahya 9
6- Structural balance could be regained by removing the extra electrons. If the
substituted atoms have fewer electrons, there will be a decrease in the negative
electron charge (equivalent to an increase in positive charge), and the result is
called a p-type semiconductor

7- Pohtocvoltaic cells are made from a piece of n-type semiconductor joined to a
piece of p-type semiconductor.

8- The region where the two types of semiconductor are joined is called a p-n
junction.

9-Because of the above-mentioned structural imbalance, some of the surplus
electrons in the n-type semiconductor (near the boundary) naturally migrate to the
p-type semiconductor, cross into it and line up along the junction.

10-The atoms that accept these electrons now have more electrons than protons
and so have a net negative charge.

11- This buildup of negative charge also keeps further electrons from the n-type
semiconductor from moving into the p-type semiconductor.
12- The electrons that migrated from n-type to p-type semiconductor naturally
result in a positively charged region on the n-side of the junction. This electrical
discontinuity forced by the structural n-p discontinuity is often referred to as a
potential barrier

13- If the photon energy is great enough, it can energize an electron and release it
from its covalent bond. This produces an electron that is free to move and leaves
behind a hole in the covalent bond that can accept another electron.
14- If this freed electron is in the p-n junction region, it will be pulled across the
junction into the n-type semiconductor by the small voltage at the junction.
15- A freed electron in the p-type semiconductor will then fill the hole in the p-n
junction that it left behind.
16- This electron will leave its own hole, which will be filled by another freed
electron from deeper in the p-type material.
17- In this way, electrons from the p-type material move across the p-n junction
into the n-type material.

18- This leaves behind an increased number of holes in the p-type material.
19- This causes the solar cell to develop a negative charge in the n-type material
and a positive charge in the p-type material just like in a charged battery.
20- To enable electrons on the p-side of the p-n junction to cross the junction into
the n-type semiconductor, they become free to move and produce an electric
current. Dr. Mohamed Salah eng. Hany Yahya 19

21- If the PV is connected to an electric circuit (Load), the electrons will flow from
the n-type semiconductor through the circuit back to the p-type semiconductor of
the photocell, just as they would in flowing from the negative terminal of a battery
to the positive terminal.

Components of a Solar Panel System

Structure of the Solar Panel

The photovoltaic (PV) panel consists of many layers described as:
Frame: strong anodized aluminum frame to give stability to the different layers
and to facilitate the assembly, the module is enclosed in an aluminum frame.
Glass face-plate: the first layer is a tempered, texturized glass plate (safety
glass), which is not only impact, pressure, and temperature resistant but also
shock-proof. For area loads in snow and wind. Applying an a – reflecting coating
to the cover glass will reduce reflections and increase the module's output power.
Upper encapsulating film (EVA): a plastic layer made from EVA (ethylene
vinyl acetate) is inserted as the upper moisture barrier. The plastic films are
welded (laminated) onto the solar cells at temperatures 150 °C forming a
waterproof corrosion protection. Dr. Mohamed Salah eng. Hany Yahya 28
Solar cells: single solar cells, interconnected with each other, produce electric
power.
Lower encapsulating film (EVA): has the same specifications and objective of
the upper one.
Tedlar laminated film: laminated multilayer white polyster film known under the
trade name Tedlar is used as finish on the back side to further protection of the
module and electrical contacts against the action of climatic agents like humidity.
Junction box: the last layer, water proof and contains 3 by pass diodes which
protect the module against hot spot effects

Classification of Photovoltaic (PV) Solar cell

Module s
Type Features conversion
efficiency
Monocrystal Monocrystal about 200 microns thick is used as the substrate. The conversion η and Up to 20%
reliability are high, but the price is high as well.
crystal Polycrystal consisting of relatively small crystals is used as the substrate. Compared with Up to 15%
Polycrystal the monocrystal type, this is easy to manufacture and inexpensive, but the efficiency is
Silicon low.
This type is made by forming an amorphous or crystalline silicon film (about 1 micron Up to 9%
Thin- film thick) on a glass substrate. The efficiency is lower than that of crystalline silicon type.
Compound Thin- film: copper, indium and This is a thin – film PV cell made from copper, indium and diselenide selenium. The CIS Up to 12%
diselenide selenium type features resource saving and mass production, and is expected to have high
(non -
(CIS) performance.
silicon
Thin- film: copper, indium and gallium Manufacturing costs are higher that amorphous Si thin film cells, but dropping fast. UP TO 20%
based thin selenide (CIGS)
film) Thin- film: Cadmium tellurium (CdTe ) This is a thin – film PV cell made from Cadmium and tellurium. The (CdTe) type features Up to 11%
resource saving, mass production, and low price.
Gallium Arsenide multijunction Max. reported efficiency of 42%. Much more expensive to produce. Limited to scientific Up to 42%
cells(GaAs) and high cost commercial usage.
Dye sensitizer Dye adhering to titanium oxide absorbs light and generates power. The dye sensitizer Up to 11%
type is in the research and development stage. (Expected)
organic
Organic thin- film This type is made by coating
Dr. Mohamed Salah
a film using an organic semiconductor. The organic thin film Up to
eng. Hany Yahya 32
8%
is in the research and development stage
Comparison between the different types of
Photovoltaic (PV) Solar cell

Solar Cell Type Efficiency Surface area Advantages Disadvantages
needed for (1 kwp )
monocrystalline 18- 20% 7.9 m2 High conversion efficiency, the most mature technology, high High cost, large silicon consumption, complex
reliability production process.
Polycrystalline 13-15% 8.9 m2 No efficiency recession,less energy and time needed for Slightly less efficient than monocrystalline
production than for monocrystalline cells, can be fabricated silicon modules
on cheap substrates, far lower cost than monocrystalline.
Amorphous 6-9% 13-20 m2 Higher temp and shading have lower impact on performance. Light – induced recession effect, low conversion
silicon efficiency, low stability.
Less silicon needed for production.
More space for the same output needed.
Low cost, easiness of mass production, relatively high optical
absorption coefficient, very low dark conductivity, good
response to weak light
Cadmium 9-11% 11-13 m2 high light absorption rate, high conversion efficiency, stable Limited natural tellurium reserves, high cost of
telluride (CdTe) performance, simple structure, low cost module and base material, toxic cadmium.
Copper- Up to 20 % 9-11 m2 Low cost, good weak light performance, wide applicability of Rare materials, the difficulty of controlling four
indium- substrate. elements precisely
gallium-
diselenide
(CIGS)
Thin film 10-12% 9-11 m2 Higher temperature and shading have lower impact on More space for the same output needed.
copper indium performance, lower production costs.
diselenide
(CIS)
Major PV Solar System Component

Major PV solar system components
Solar PV systems include different components that should be
selected according to your system type , site location and
applications.
The major components for solar PV system are:
1- PV array.
2- solar charge controller.
3- inverter.
4- battery bank.
5- watt hour meter.
6- auxiliary sources.
7- loads.
8- Grid system.
1- PV module: convert sunlight into DC electricity. The following table
present example of specification of monocrystalline PV module.
Specification of Monocrystalline PV Solar Panel.
Power(Pmax) 300 wp
Current (I) 8.06 A
Voltage(V) 38.2 V
Solar cells efficiency(ήC) 17.80 %
Modules efficiency(ήM) 15.95 %
The Nominal operating cell temperature 45 ºc
(NOCT)
Maximum system voltage 1000 V
Temperature range -40 to 85 ºc
Relatives humidity Up to 100%
Dimension 1960x985x45 mm (±2)
Dimensions of laminate 1952x977x5 mm (±2)
Weight 27 kg framed-24
laminated
Power tolerance ±3% Dr. Mohamed Salah eng. Hany Yahya 38
2- Solar charge controller regulate the voltage and current coming
from the PV panels going to battery and prevents battery
overcharging and prolongs the battery life. The following table
present example of specification of charge controller.
Specification of Phocos Charge Controller.
Charge current max. 40 A
Load current max. 40 A
System voltage 12/24V
Self power consumption <4 Ma
Dimensions (w x h xd) 92x93x38 mm

3- Inverter convert direct current (DC) output of PV panels or wind
turbine into a clean alternating current (AC). The alternating
current is supplied for (AC) appliances or fed back into grid line.
It is worth noting that there are several types of inverter and can
be classified as shown in the following figure

There are different forms of AC output generated:
1- a sine wave inverter.
2- pure sine wave inverter.
3- Modified sine wave inverter.
A modified sine wave can be seen as more of a square wave than,

it passes the high DC voltage for specified amounts of time so that
the average power and voltage are the same as if it were a sine
wave. Dr. Mohamed Salah eng. Hany Yahya 41
These types (modified sine wave) of inverters are much cheaper
than pure sine wave inverters and therefore are attractive
alternatives.
A pure sine wave inverters, on the other hand, produce a sine
wave output identical to the power coming out of an electrical
outlet.
These devices (pure sine wave inverters) are able to run more
sensitive devices that a modified sine wave may causes damage
to such as : laser printers, laptop computers, power tools, digital
clocks and medical equipment. This form AC power runs inductive
loads, like motors, faster and quieter.

The following table present example of specification of TS1000
Inverter
Specification of Inverter.
Rated Power 1000 W
Maximum output power 1150 W for 180 sec./1500 W for

10 sec./surge power 2000 W for
30 cycles
AC voltage 200/220/230/240V AC
selectable by setting button
Waveform True sine wave

4- Battery: Storage batteries are the heart of all standalone
photovoltaic (PV) electrical systems. Their function is to balance
the outgoing electrical requirements with the incoming power
supply. They offer a reliable source of electricity which can be used
when solar energy is not available.
A brief overview of the different types of batteries that may be used
in solar electric and backup power systems:
Flooded battery: These are lead acid batteries that have caps to
add water.
They are reasonably priced and work well for many years but they
release gases when charged and should not be used indoor.

Gel battery: sealed gel batteries have no vents and will not
release gas during the charging process. Therefore they can be
used indoor .
AGM battery: Absorbed Glass Mat batteries are the best available
for solar power last longer use. They are leak /spill proof and have
superior performance. They maintain voltage better.

How to compare your solar storage options ?
As you consider your solar-plus-storage options, you’ll come
across a lot of complicated product specifications. The most
important ones to use during your evaluation are :
A-The battery’s capacity: it is the total amount of electricity that a
solar battery can store, measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh).
B-Power ratings: it is the amount of electricity that a battery can
deliver at one time. It is measured in kilowatts (kW).
Note that:
A battery with a high capacity and a low power rating would deliver
a low amount of electricity (enough to run a few crucial appliances)
for a long time. A battery with low capacity and a high power rating
could run your entire home, but only for a few hours.
C-Depth of discharge (DoD):it is the amount of a battery’s
capacity that has been used. Most manufacturers will specify a
maximum DoD for optimal performance.
For example, if a 10 kWh battery has a DoD of 90 %, you shouldn’t

use more than 9 kWh of the battery before recharging it. Generally
speaking, a higher DoD means you will be able to utilize more of
your battery’s capacity.
Most solar batteries need to retain some charge at all times due to
their chemical composition. If you use 100 % of a battery’s charge,
its useful life will be significantly shortened.
D- Round-trip efficiency
A battery’s round-trip efficiency represents the amount of energy
that can be used as a percentage of the amount of energy that it
took to store it.
For example, if you feed five kWh of electricity into your battery
and can only get four kWh of useful electricity back, the battery
has 80 % round-trip efficiency (4 kWh / 5 kWh = 80%).
E- Battery life & warranty
solar batteries are like the battery in your cell phone – you charge
your phone each night to use it during the day, and as your phone
gets older you’ll start to notice that the battery isn’t holding as
much of a charge as it did when it was new.
For example, a battery might be warrantied for 5,000 cycles or 10
years at 70 % of its original capacity. This means that at the end of
the warranty, the battery will have lost no more than 30 percent of
its original ability to store energy.
The following table present example of specification of T 105
battery.
Specification of The Battery Applied in The Present Work.
Capacity Energy Voltage Dimensions (mm) Weight.

Amp-Hours (kWh) (V) (kg)
Length Width Height
225 1.50 6 VOLT 264 181 276 28

5- Watt-hour meter: it is a device that measures and records over
time the electric power flowing through a circuit.
6- Auxiliary energy sources: it is Diesel generator or other
renewable energy sources.
7- load: it is the electrical appliances that connected to solar PV
system such as lights, radio, TV computer, refrigerator, etc.
8- Grid system : The electrical grid is the electrical power system
network comprised of the generating plant, the transmission lines,
the substation, transformers, the distribution lines and the
consumer.

Types of solar PV system

Photovoltaic Solar System Design
Solar power system is one of renewable energy system which
uses PV module to convert sunlight into electricity.
The electricity generated can be either stored or used directly ,
fed back on grid or to be used off grid .

Off – grid PV system
Off grid system consists of :
1- Solar PV array ( generate Direct current (DC)).
2- Charge controller (controller prevents battery overcharging and

prolongs the battery life of the PV system)
3- Bank of batteries(Storage batteries are the heart of all standalone

photovoltaic (PV) electrical systems).
4- Inverter from Direct current (DC) to Alternating current( AC).

On grid PV system
On grid system consists of :
3- Watt – hour meter.
4- Grid system.

Typical off - grid PV system in H.T.I

Hybrid PV system
Off grid system consists of :
2- Charge controller (controller prevents battery overcharging and prolongs
the battery life of the PV system)
3- Bank of batteries(Storage batteries are the heart of all standalone
photovoltaic (PV) electrical systems).

Photovoltaic Cell Characteristics

Voltage – current characteristic curve (I-V curve)
- The voltage – current characteristic curve of a PV cell is
under short-circuit conditions the generated current is at the
highest (Isc)
- While with the circuit open the voltage (voc) = open circuit
voltage) is at the highest.
- Under the two previously mentioned conditions the electric
power produced in the cell is null.

Open circuit voltage (voc)
The open circuit voltage (voc) occurs when there is no current passing
through the cell V ( at I = 0 ) = voc . To read the open circuit voltage from the
graph, locate the point on the voltage axis where the current is zero.

short circuit current (Isc)
The short circuit current, (Isc), is the max. current from a solar cell and
occurs when the voltage across the device is zero i.e.( when the solar
cell is short circuit).

Solar Cell Terms
MPP: maximum power point. The max. power point (MPP) value is
the point on the I-V curve at which the solar cell works with
maximum power.
Impp: current at maximum power point.
Vmpp: Voltage at maximum power point.
Voc: open circuit voltage with crystalline cells, approximately 0.5 v
to 0.6 v, and for amorphous cells is approximately 0.6 V to 0.9 v.
ISC: Short circuit current is approximately 5 % to 15 % higher than
the MPP current with crystalline standard cells ( 10 cm x 10 cm )
under standard test condition.
FF: fil factor it measures the quality of PV cell. If FF = 1, this
means the best quality of PV cell.
PV Connection

Environmental Factors affecting on PV modules

Environmental Factors affecting on PV modules:
1- Shading and dirt.
The effect of this shading are well known when even a small portion of a
cell, module, or array is shaded.

2- Temperature
The performance of the photovoltaic solar cells is affected considerably due
to solar radiation that has all spectrum including infra-red radiation which
heats the photovoltaic cells and raise its temperature. Raising temperatures
reduce the efficiency of photovoltaic solar cells and consequently reduce
the output power and lifetime. Therefore, trails method of cooling have been
made to investigate the best method to cool the photovoltaic cells in order to
keep the output near the design value.

3- Irradiance
The changes in irradiance affect the module current most of all since the current is
directly dependent upon the irradiance.
When irradiance drops by half, the electricity generated also reduces by half.

solar PV system sizing

Solar PV system sizing
1-Determine power consumption demand:
the first step in designing a solar PV system is to find out the total power and
power consumption of all loads need to be supplied by the solar PV system as
follows:
a) Calculate total watt-hours per day for each appliance used, then add the watt-
hours needed for all appliances together to get the total watt-hours per day
which must be delivered to the appliances.
The daily energy use =
σ 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒙 (𝒏𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒓. 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌) [w.hr./day]
b) Calculate the total watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules , by
multiply the total appliances watt-hours per day times 1.3 (the energy lost in the
system(battery efficiency and charger regulator efficiency and so….. ).
Total watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules =
The daily energy use 𝒙 1.3 [w.hr./day]
Ex: Calculate the total watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules for the
following loads
Item power/unite (W) No of unites Hours / day ( Hr/d )
item 1 540 1 5
item 2 350 1 2
Solution :
Item power/unite (W) No of unites Hours / day ( Hr/d ) Energy required daily ( W.hr/d )
item 1 540 1 5 2700
item 2 350 1 2 700
Total energy required : 3400
Calculate the total watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules =
The daily energy use 𝒙 1.3 [w.hr/day]
= 3400 𝒙 1.3 = 4420 ( W.hr/day )
2-Size the PV modules:
Different size of PV modules will produce different amount of power. The total peak watt
produced to be calculated.
The peak watt (Wp) produced depends on size of the PV module and climate of site location
have to consider “panel generation factor” which is different in each site location. To
determine the sizing of PV modules ,calculate as follows:
a) Calculate the total watt-peak rating needed for PV modules: by dividing the total watt-
hours per day needed from the PV modules by Solar cell run time (brightness time)
Total watt-peak rating needed for PV modules [w]=
Total watt−hours per day needed from the PV modules

𝑺𝒖𝒏 𝑳𝒊𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒂𝒚 𝒉𝒓
In case of : off - grid system
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐭 − 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐬 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐝𝐚𝐲 𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐝𝐞𝐝 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐕 𝐦𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐬
𝑺𝒖𝒏 𝑳𝒊𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒂𝒚 𝒉𝒓 (𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚)𝒙( 𝒃𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚)
b) To calculate the number of PV panels for the system by dividing the total watt-peak
rating needed for PV modules [w] by the rated output watt-peak of PV modules
available to you.
No. of PV panels for the system =
Total watt−peak rating needed for PV modules [w]

Output watt−peak of PV modules[W]
The result should be moved up to the next highest full number and that will be the
number of PV modules required.
3- Solar charge controller sizing
The solar charge controller is typically rated against amperage and
voltage capacities. Select the solar charge controller to match the
voltage of PV array and batteries and then identify which type of
solar charge controller to match the capacity and to handle the
current from PV array.
According to standard practice, the sizing of solar charge controller
is to take the short circuit current (Isc) of the array, and multiply it
by 1.3.
Solar charge controller rating =
No. of strings 𝒙 Short circuit current (Isc) 𝒙 1.3

4- Battery sizing
The battery type recommended for using in solar system is deep cycle battery. Deep cycle
battery is specifically designed to low energy level and rapid recharged or cycle charged
and discharged day after day for years.
The battery should be large enough to store sufficient energy to operate the appliances at
night and cloudy days.
To find out the size of battery , calculate as follows:
a) Calculate the total watt-hours per day used by appliances multiply with days of
autonomy (the
number of days that need the system to operate when there is no power.
b) Divide previous term by 0.85 for battery efficiency, depth of discharge(0.6) and the
nominal battery voltage.
Battery capacity [A.hr] =
Total watt−hours per day used by appliances (whr/day)𝒙Days of autonomy (days of battery storage (day))
(battery voltage"Volts")𝒙(battery efficiency)𝒙(max depth of discharge)

5- Inverter Sizing
An inverter is used in the system where AC power nominal output is needed. The
output rating of the inverter should never be lower than the total watts of
appliances. The inverter must have the same nominal voltage as the battery . For
stand-alone system , the inverter must be large enough to handle the total amount
of watts will be used at one time. The inverter size should be 25 : 30 % bigger than
total watts of appliances.
For grid connected system, the input rating of the inverter should be the same as
PV array rating to allow for safe and efficient operation.
In case of appliance type is motor , compressor then the size should be minimum
3 times the capacity of those appliances and must be added to the inverter
capacity to handle surge current during starting or capacity could calculated as
the start current multiply the nominal voltage.

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Photovoltaic Panel

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Load current max. 40 A

System voltage 12/24V

Self power consumption <4 Ma

Dimensions (w x h xd) 92x93x38 mm

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A modified sine wave can be seen as more of a square wave than,

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Rated Power 1000 W

Maximum output power 1150 W for 180 sec./1500 W for

Waveform True sine wave

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For example, if a 10 kWh battery has a DoD of 90 %, you shouldn’t

Capacity Energy Voltage Dimensions (mm) Weight.

Length Width Height

225 1.50 6 VOLT 264 181 276 28

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uses PV module to convert sunlight into electricity.

The electricity generated can be either stored or used directly ,

fed back on grid or to be used off grid .

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2- Charge controller (controller prevents battery overcharging and

3- Bank of batteries(Storage batteries are the heart of all standalone

4- Inverter from Direct current (DC) to Alternating current( AC).

2- Inverter from Direct current (DC) to Alternating current( AC).

3- Watt – hour meter.

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