Reservoir Completion 115

tubing and then the remainder of the treatment pumped down the coiled tubing
annulus (Fussell et al., 2006; East et al., 2005b). If too much net pressure
develops, it is possible that multiple fractures may initiate away from the intended
treatment interval. Hydrajetting can be used in a cased hole environment by
jetting slots through the casing with the aid of high-velocity sand slurries (‘sand
blasting’). Such a slot is theoretically superior to perforating by being more
localised. The previous intervals can also be isolated by proppant plug-back
techniques (Romers et al., 2007).
Even with compromises, the significant cost reduction of open hole systems
compared to cased hole fracturing can make them attractive.
Many of the techniques covered are also suitable for acid fracturing. Some
systems (e.g. limited-entry perforating) that are primarily attractive for acid
fracturing and covered in Section 2.5 can also be used for proppant stimulation.

2.5. Acid Fracturing and Stimulation

This section primarily covers acid fracturing. Remedial techniques for
removal of acid-soluble formation damage such as calcium carbonate scale are
covered in Section 7.1.1.

2.5.1. Basics of acid fracturing

Acids create enhanced productivity by dissolving acid-soluble rocks, such as
limestones and chalks. Much of the theory of hydraulic (proppant) fracturing is
applicable to acid fracturing especially regarding fracture initiation and propagation.
Leak-off and fracture conductivity are however fundamentally different.
The most common acid system is hydrochloric acid and this reacts effectively
with the calcium carbonate as found in limestones and chalks according to the
reaction
CaCO3 þ 2HCl ! CaCl2 þ CO2 þ H2 O
It is less effective at removing calcium magnesium carbonate (dolomite)
CaMgðCO3 Þ2 þ 4HCl ! CaCl2 þ MgCl2 þ 2CO2 þ 2H2 O
Other weaker acids (formic, acetic) are commonly used that are more expensive,
less corrosive, and provide longer reaction times (greater penetration). Hydrofluoric
acid (HF) is occasionally used in sandstones for the removal of fines or clay minerals.
It is never used in carbonate reservoirs as it produces an insoluble precipitate
(calcium fluoride). There are a number of considerations for choosing acid systems
and additives:
1. Corrosion inhibitors. Corrosion is metallurgy, acid type, temperature, time and
acid concentration dependent. Inhibitors are added to the acid to reduce
corrosion. These inhibitors (and their concentrations) will be both temperature
and duration dependent. Physical testing (coupons) may be required and is