SHORT ANSWERS

What is Electrostatic sensing

A capacitor can be used as either a sensor or an actuator. If the distance and relative position
between two conductors change as a result of applied stimulus, the capacitance value would be
changed.

Surface force

Electrostatic forces are not often used for driving macroscopic machinery. However, micro devices
have large surface-area-to-volume ratios and their masses are generally very small, thus making
electrostatic force

operation principle of the electrostatic motor

One group of stator electrode is first biased. An in-plane electric field develops between any given
stator electrode in this group and the closest rotor tooth next to it. This generates an electrostatic
attractive force that aligns the said tooth with the said stator electrode

Major advantages of electrostatic sensing and actuation

1. Simplicity- Easy to implement, requiring only two conducting surfaces. No special functional
materials are required. Other sensing methods, such as piezoresistive and piezoelectric sensing, and
other actuation methods, such as piezoelectric actuation, require deposition, patterning, and
integration of special piezoresistive and piezoelectric materials.

2. Low power. Electrostatic actuation relies on differential voltage rather than current. The method
is generally considered energy efficient for low-frequency applications.

3. Fast response. Electrostatic sensing and actuation offers high dynamic response speed, as the
transition speed is governed by the charging and discharging time constants that are typically small
for good conductors.

two major categories of capacitive electrode geometries

parallel-plate capacitor and interdigitated finger (comb-drive) capacitors. The static capacitance
values of parallel plates and comb drives are generally very small, being on the order of pF or
smaller.

Representation of parallel plate capacitor

What is the capacitance of parallel plates?

The capacitance value is directly proportional to A and inversely proportional to d(distance between
plates). It is a function of the electric permittivity e

Paschen curve

predicts that the breakdown voltage increases for decreasing gap sizes.

What s electrical spring constant

when the electrostatic force acts in the opposite direction as the mechanical restoring force, the
spring will be effectively softened. The spatial gradient of the electric force is defined as an electrical
spring constant

As seen, the magnitude of electrical spring constant changes with position (d) and the biasing voltage
(V). On the other hand, the mechanical spring constant stays unchanged for small displacements.

Define pull in voltage

At a particular bias voltage, the two curves representing the mechanical restoring force and the
electrostatic force intercept at one point tangentially, where the magnitude of both equals. The bias
voltage that invokes such a condition is called the pull-in voltage

Define snap in

The capacitor two plates will be pulled against each other rapidly until they made a contact, at which
point the mechanical contact force will finally balance the electric one. This condition is called pull in,
or snap in.

What are the types of inertia sensor?

Parallel plate capacitor accelerometer, torsional Parallel plate capacitor accelerometer

What are the applications of pressure sensor?

Pressure sensors are widely used in automotive systems, industrial process control, medical
diagnostics and monitoring, and environmental monitoring.

Which factor is important for pressure sensor?

The membrane thickness is a primary factor in determining the pressure sensor sensitivity.

What are the applications of flow sensor?

Flow sensors broadly encompass devices for measuring point fluid speed, volume flow rate, shear
stress at the wall, and pressure.

What are the advantages of flow sensor?

Micromachined flow sensors offer the following advantages: (1) small size and less disturbance to the
flow field of interest; (2) high sensitivity stemming from compliant mechanical elements or circuit
integration; and (3) potential for achieving large array of sensors with uniform performance

Define shear stress

The shear stress is defined as the velocity gradient at the boundary multiplied by the viscosity of the
fluid

What are the applications of tactile sensor?

Tactile sensors are critical components for robotics applications.

What are the featured requirements of tactile sensor?

In order to accurately measure tactile information, the sensors must have high density of integration
and high sensitivity, preferably in multiple axes

Define comb drive

One set of finger-like electrode is fixed on chip while a second set is suspended and free to move in
one or more axes. Since the interdigitated fingers are shaped like tooth of combs, such configuration
is commonly referred to as the comb-drive device.

What factor differentiates the types of comb drive?

Transverse comb drive and a longitudinal comb drive

Depending on the relative movement of two sets of comb fingers allowed by their mechanical
suspensions.

What is the direct and indirect effect of piezoelricity?

 certain materials generate an electric charge (or voltage) when it is under a mechanical stress.
This is known as the direct effect of piezoelectricity
 Alternately, the same material would be able to produce a mechanical deformation (or force)
when an electric field is applied to it. This is called the inverse effect of piezoelectricity.

Define poling

A crystal can be made piezoelectric in any chosen direction by poling, which involves exposing it to a
strong electric field at an elevated temperature

Define electromechanical coupling coefficient

The electromechanical coupling coefficient k is a measure of how much energy is transferred from
electrical to mechanical, or vice versa, during the actuation p

LONG ANSWERS
 Parallel plate capacitor

Capacitance of parallel plate

 These two plates have an overlapping area of A and a spacing of d. The dielectric constant,
or relative electrical permitivity, of the media between the two plates is denoted . The
permitivity of the media is .
 The value of the capacitance, C, between the two plates is defined as

where Q is the amount of stored charge and V the electrostatic potential. The electric energy
stored by a given capacitor, U, is expressed as

For a parallel-plate capacitor, electric field lines are parallel to each other and perpendicular
to the plate surfaces in the overlapped region.
 According to the Gauss’s law, the magnitude of the primary electric field,E, is related to Q by

 The magnitude of the voltage is the electric field times the distance between two plates
(d).The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is

 The capacitance value is directly proportional to A and inversely proportional to d(distance

between plates). It is a function of the electric permittivity e
 Two parallel plates can move with respect to each other in two ways—normal displacement
or parallel sliding displacement.
 By measuring the capacitance value of a parallel capacitor, one can sense the changes of
permitivity, A, or d. The permitivity can be changed by temperature and humidity [11] of the
capacitor media. The capacitance change via the permitivity route can be used to characterize
liquid, air, or even biological particles in the gap.
 The capacitor can be used as an actuator to generate force or displacement.
 Examining a pair of electrode plates, with one plate firmly anchored and another one
suspended by a mechanical spring. As a differential voltage is applied between the two parallel
plates, an electrostatic attraction force will develop. The magnitude of the forces equals the
gradient of the stored electric energy, U, with respect to the dimensional variable of interest.
The expression for the magnitude of the force is

the electrostatic force decreases drastically with increasing gap, d.

Equilibrium position of electrostatic actuator under bias

 A parallel-plate capacitor with one movable plate supported by a mechanical spring is
diagrammed

 The top plate is supported by a spring with the force constant being Km. At rest, the applied
voltage, displacement, and the mechanical restoring forces are zero.
 When a voltage is applied, an electrostatic force (Felectric)will be developed. The magnitude
of when the movable plate is at its starting position is given by

 The case of an electrostatic actuator, the magnitude of electrostatic force itself is a function
of the displacement
 when the electrostatic force acts in the opposite direction as the mechanical restoring force,
the spring will be effectively softened. The spatial gradient of the electric force is defined as
an electrical spring constant

As seen, the magnitude of electrical spring constant changes with position (d) and the biasing
voltage (V). On the other hand, the mechanical spring constant stays unchanged for small
displacements.
 The effective spring constant of a structure is the mechanical spring constant minus the
electrical spring constant.
 To derive the equilibrium displacement of a spring-supported electrode plate under a bias
voltage V. Suppose the resulted equilibrium displacement is x, with the x-axis pointing in the
direction of increasing gap (Figure 4.3). With the displacement x, the gap between electrodes
becomes . The electrostatic force at the equilibrium position is
 PULL IN EFFECT OF PARALLEL PLATE ACTUATOR

 At a particular bias voltage, the two curves representing the mechanical restoring force and
the electrostatic force intercept at one point tangentially, where the magnitude of both
equals. The bias voltage that invokes such a condition is called the pull-in voltage
 If the bias voltage is further increased beyond the two curves will not have a common
interception, thus the equilibrium solution disappears
 The two plates will be pulled against each other rapidly until they made a contact, at which
point the mechanical contact force will finally balance the electric one. This condition is called
pull in, or snap in.

 By equating these two forces and rearrange terms,

The value of x is negative when the spacing between two electrodes decreases.
 In addition, the gradients of these two curves at the intersection point are identical, namely,

 The expression for the electric force constant,

 The only solution for x under which the pull in condition can be satisfied is

 The pull-in voltage is found to be

INERTIA SENSOR
 According to the Newton’s Second Law, an acceleration (a) acting on an object with a mass m
would produce a reactive inertia force ma relative to its frame. The inertia force may in turn
modify capacitive electrode spacing. This constitutes the basic operating principle of
electrostatic acceleration sensors.

CASE STUDY

 Exposure of a silicon wafer with circuitry to high temperature under prolonged duration may
cause dopants in active regions of the circuits (e.g., source and drain) to diffuse out.
 The new device consists of a flat nickel-top plate supported by torsional bars. Counter
electrodes are located on the substrate surface (Figure 4.9). Since the plate weight is
asymmetrically distributed with respect to the rotational axis, acceleration along normal axis
to the substrate will cause the top plate to rock in one direction or another
 The total mass of the top plate is determined by the geometric design.
 The process starts with a silicon wafer that has already gone through the complete cycle of IC
fabrication.
 First, a conductive layer, metal 1, is deposited over the substrate surface
 This serves as a seed layer for subsequent electroplating. A second layer of
conductive metal (metal 2) is deposited and patterned, forming bottom electrode
patterns
  The combined thickness of these two metal layers is Next, a photoresist layer is
deposited and patterned, opening windows to reach the metal 1 layer
 Electroplating of nickel takes places in the open window to define the movable
plate
 The thickness of the electroplated nickel determines the thickness of the movable
plate and that of the torsional bar. The photoresist is removed, following by the
etching of the sacrificial metal. The bottom conductive layer (seed layer) is etched
as well. It is important to make sure that the metal 1 layer underneath the anchor
is not removed
 All steps, including deposition and etching, take place under room temperature.

PRESSURE SENSOR

 Pressure sensors are widely used in automotive systems, industrial process control, medical
diagnostics and monitoring, and environmental monitoring. The membrane thickness is a
primary factor in determining the pressure sensor sensitivity.

Case Study: Membrane Parallel-Plate Pressure Sensor

 A membrane made of doped silicon serves as the pressure sensing element and one electrode.
The counter electrode consists of patterned metal thin film on the bottom substrate (made of
glass in this case). A fabrication process was developed where the micro machined silicon
membrane was transferred to a glass substrate. The process begins with a (100) silicon wafer
(Figure 4.10, step a). An oxide mask is deposited and patterned (step b), serving as a chemical
barrier during a wet anisotropic etching of silicon (using KOH solutions) (step c). A -deep
 recessed region is created with the slopes being [33] surfaces (step d). Another layer of oxide
is grown, this time as a conformal coating. The oxide is then photolithographically patterned
(step f).

 The depositing of photoresist film over a wafer with recessed cavities poses a challenge.
 Further, photo exposure action on the bottom of the cavity, which is away from the ideal focus
plane of the photolithography exposure tool, reduces linewidth resolution.
 During process, caution should be exercised whenever photolithography is performed on
wafers with significant topographic features. A boron diffusion step at is conducted (step g),
to form doped regions as thick as This is followed by the stripping of the oxide, and growth
and patterning of yet another oxide layer (step h).
 The second oxide layer is used in a subsequent boron diffusion step to define a doped region
which becomes the thickness of the membrane diaphragm (step i). A layer of silicon oxide is
deposited and patterned, to form a dielectric insulation (step j). The researchers patterned via
holes in the oxide, which allow a subsequently deposited polysilicon to contact the boron
doped region and provide electrical contact with the membrane later (step k).
 A short diffusion session is performed to dope the polysilicon; this is followed by a chemical
mechanical polishing (CMP) step to increase the top surface smoothness. The polishing step
enhances the yield of the sealing step later. A layer of metal (consisting of Cr and Au) is
deposited and patterned, with the gold facing the front side of the wafer (step l). An oxide
layer is deposited and patterned to reside on the bottom of the cavity to provide electrical
 isolation in case the top membrane touches the bottom electrode. The researchers flip
bonded the wafer onto a glass wafer, which is coated with a composite Ti-Pt-Au layer. Wafer-
level anodic bonding to the glass is performed in vacuum ( torr) at for 30 min (step m).
 The backside of the silicon wafer is etched in an anisotropic silicon etchant to dissolve the
silicon other than the heavily doped, raised membrane (step n).
 Due to the large gap, the sensor has a wide dynamic range (500–800 torr) along with a very
high resolution (25 mtorr, equivalent of altitude difference of one foot at sea level) after
readout and digital compensation. The device yielded a pressure sensitivity of 25 fF/torr (or
3000 ppm/torr).

FLOW SENSOR
 Flow sensors broadly encompass devices for measuring point fluid speed, volume flow rate,
shear stress at the wall, and pressure.
 Micromachined flow sensors offer the following advantages: (1) small size and less
disturbance to the flow field of interest; (2) high sensitivity stemming from compliant
mechanical elements or circuit integration; and (3) potential for achieving large array of
sensors with uniform performance

Case : Capacitive Boundary-Layer Shear Stress Sensor

 Fluid flowing past a solid surface introduces a boundary layer, inside which the flow velocity
is reduced. Inside the boundary layer, the velocity varies with the distance to the wall surface
(y).
 The shear stress is defined as the velocity gradient at the boundary multiplied by the viscosity
of the fluid:

The term µ is the dynamic viscosity with the unit being produces drag force.

 The shear stress information can be used for active control of turbulent flow field, for actively
monitoring fluid drag, and for achieving drag reduction.
 Techniques for measuring fluid shear stress fall into two categories: hot-wire/hot-film
anemometer (indirect measurement) and the floating-element technique (direct
measurement).
 The floating element shear stress sensor determines the magnitude of local shear stress
directly by measuring the drag force it experiences.
 The capacitive floating element consists of a plate (with area of times ), suspended by four
fixed-guided cantilevers, each with a length, width, and thickness of L1,w1 and t1 respectively.
The plate is assumed to be a rigid body. A distributed drag force is applied on the element as
well as on the cantilevers.
 Under a given flow shear stress π w,a distributed force P acting on the floating plate and a
distributed force q (N/m) on the four fixed-guided beams are given as

 Three passivated electrodes are located on the surface of the wafer underneath the element
and a thin conductor is embedded in the polyimide. The coupled capacitances between the
 drive electrode in the center and the two symmetrically placed sense electrodes are modified
by motion of the floating element. This change in capacitance is transduced by connecting the
sense electrodes to a pair of matched depletion-mode MOSFET’s on chip.

The fabrication process for the device begins from a silicon wafer with MOS circuits already defined.
The entire wafer is passivated with 750-nm-thick atmospheric chemical vapor deposition of silicon
dioxide and a polyimide layer (Dupont 2545). The polyimide is added between the passivated
electrodes and the sacrificial layer to eliminate stress cracking in the silicon dioxide layer. A -thick
aluminum layer is evaporated as the sacrificial layer. It is patterned photolithographically. A -thick
polyimide layer is coated again and cured. This is followed by the evaporation of a 30-nm thick
chromium layer, which serves as the floating electrode. A thick polyimide layer is applied in seven
coating steps. A layer of aluminum is deposited on the top layer and serves as a mask for etching the
polyimide to define the plate and the cantilever. The undercut is corresponding to a deep etching. The
aluminum is removed using a mixture of phosphoric acid, acetic acid, nitric acid, and water. It takes
approximately 2 h to completely release a by floating element.

TACTILE SENSOR

Case 4.6 Multiaxis Capacitive Tactile Sensor

 A parallel-plate capacitor is formed by bonding a silicon wafer with a glass one (Figure 4.13).
One piece consists of a cone-shaped silicon mesa suspended by a circular silicon membrane
with a thickness of t and a radius of a. The glass piece consists of a recessed region in which
electrodes are patterned. Four electrodes, are arranged in a quad configuration. Four
capacitors are formed, between the four electrodes and the suspended plate. These are
denoted through C1 through C4 .
 If a normal force is applied perpendicular to the substrate, the distance between the movable
mass and the bottom electrodes is reduced uniformly for all four capacitors. The capacitance
change is related to the displacement by

However, if a shear force is applied to induce rotational movement of the silicon mass, the changes of
capacitance for the four capacitors will be different. Two capacitances increase while the other two
decrease, with almost the same degree of change. Under a tilting angle the total capacitance of the
tilted plate capacitor is estimated as
  First, a buried n-type layer (3. deep) was formed by doping.
 Then a -thick n-type epitaxial silicon layer was grown (Figure 4.14b).The buried n type layer
and the epitaxial layer constitute the thickness of a flexible membrane.
 A composite layer of silicon oxide followed by silicon nitride is grown on both sides. The silicon
nitride and oxide on the backside is patterned to serve as an etch mask for wet anisotropic
etching (Figure 4.14d).
 After the etching, a contact pad on top of a membrane is formed by anisotropic silicon wet
etch (Figure 4.14e).
 The silicon nitride and oxide layers are then removed using wet chemical etchants. The silicon
wafer is then bonded to a glass wafer, which consists of a recessed region ( deep) with
patterned electrodes on the bottom. Anodic bonding is achieved at with a voltage bias of
1000–1200 V

COMB DRIVE

One set of finger-like electrode is fixed on chip while a second set is suspended and free to move in
one or more axes. Since the interdigitated fingers are shaped like tooth of combs, such configuration
is commonly referred to as the comb-drive device
Configuration

 two sets of fingers are in the same plane and their comb fingers are engaged with an
overlapping distance of Io.
 The length of the fingers is denoted Lc
 thickness (t) and width Wc
 The distance between a fixed comb finger and an immediately neighboring movable finger is
d. The thickness of fingers corresponds to that of the conductive thin film.

 The capacitance between a pair of electrode fingers is contributed by vertical surfaces of the
fingers in the overlapped region, as well as by fringe capacitance fields
 Hence the total capacitance is a summation of capacitance contributed by neighboring finger
 Opposite walls of comb fingers in the overlapped region form a parallel-plate capacitor and
contribute a capacitance C

 When designing a comb-drive capacitor, the thickness t and the distance d are highly process
relevant. The greater the thickness, the larger the capacitance effects

Types of Comb drive

The first is a transverse comb-drive device

 The set of free fingers moves in a direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of comb
finger.
 there are two major capacitances associated with each finger pair, one to the left-hand side
of the finger, called Csl and one to the right-hand side, called Csr

 A second type of comb-drive device is called the longitudinal comb drive (Figure 4.18c). The
direction of relative movement is along the longitudinal axis of the fingers, allowable by the
 suspension. With a lateral movement (y), the capacitances associated with a single finger
changes to

PROPERTIES OF PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS

QUARTZ

 natural piezoelectric material

 In a quartz-crystal oscillator, a small plate of quartz is provided with metal electrodes on its
faces.
 Quartz-crystal oscillators are able to produce output frequencies from about 10 kilohertz to
more than 200 megahertz
 Piezoelectric coefficient matrix
PZT

 The lead zirconate titanate system is widely used in polycrystalline (ceramic) form with very
high piezoelectric coupling.
 Depending on the formula of preparation, PZT materials may have different forms and
properties.
 A techniques for preparing PZT includes sputtering, laser ablation, jet molding, and
electrostatic spray deposition
 Piezoelectric coefficient matrix of PZT 5A

PVDF

 The polyvinylidenfluoride (PVDF) is a synthetic fluoropolymer with monomer chains of It

exhibits piezoelectric, pyroelectric, and ferroelectric properties, excellent stability to
chemicals, mechanical flexibility, and biocompatibility
 Thin-stretched PVDF films are flexible and easy to handle as ultrasonic transducers.
 The material is carbon based, usually deposited as a spin cast film from a dilute solution in
which PVDF powder has been dissolved
 Piezoelectric coefficient matrix
ZnO

 ZnO material can be grown using a number of methods, including rf or dc sputtering, ion
plating, and chemical vapor deposition
 ZnO is most commonly deposited by magnetron sputtering
 As-deposited ZnO films have significant compressive stress, ranging from 1 GPa to 135 MPa .
The stress can be reduced using thermal annealing, to 100 MPa to 80 MPa rang
 A popular electrode material on top of the ZnO thin film is aluminum, which can be etched
using a solution of KOH, and water
 Piezoelectric coefficient matrix

INCHWORM MOTPR

INERTIA SENSOR

CASE STUDY: Cantilever Piezoelectric Accelerometer

A proof mass is attached at the end of a fixed-free cantilever beam. The cantilever beam
consists of multiple layers of materials, with ZnO being the functional piezoelectric material. ZnO is
used instead of PZT because, although the PZT material offers greater piezoelectric coefficient, it does
so at the expense of greater dielectric constant and hence larger capacitance

The piezoelectric layer is sandwiched between a top conducting layer (platinum) and a bottom
conducting layer. A vertical acceleration will deflect the cantilever, producing a longitudinal stress in
axis 1, along the length of the cantilever

The analysis is relatively complex because the proof-mass weight and the piezoelectric layer
are distributed in length and thickness. The distribution of stress is nonuniform along the length.
However, it can be said that the output voltage is proportional to since the stress is applied in axis-1
and the electric polarization is measured in axis-3. The value of is 2.3 pC/N in this case.

FABRICATION PROCESS

 A silicon oxide and a silicon nitride layer are deposited over the silicon wafer to serve as
insulating layers.
 A phosphorous-doped polycrystalline silicon film is deposited and patterned via reactive ion
etching to define electrical contacts to the bottom electrodes of the accelerometer.
 polysilicon is used here which can withstand much higher processing temperature and provide
greater flexibility for down-stream process steps. Next, a -thick layer of phosphosilicate glass
is deposited by LPCVD, and patterned to define regions under the suspended cantilever. A
second layer of -thick silicon is deposited, covering bare silicon surfaces, the first polysilicon
trace, and the PSG sacrificial layer. This layer is patterned by using reactive ion etching (RIE)
process with photoresist as the mask
 A thin LPCVD silicon nitride layer is deposited over the wafer. This film serves as a stress-
compensation layer for balancing a highly compressive stress in the ZnO film
 Next a ZnO layer on the order of thick is deposited by RF-magnetron sputtering from a lithium-
doped ZnO target. Finally, a -thick Pt thin film is sputtered.
 Next a ZnO layer on the order of thick is deposited by RF-magnetron sputtering from a lithium-
doped ZnO target. Finally, a -thick Pt thin film is sputtered.

FLOW SENSOR

 The device consists of two pressure-sensing elements with piezoelectric readout connected
to a hydraulic restriction channel at two locations (up- and down-stream). The pressure
difference measured using the piezoelectric sensors provides information about the flow rate,
 Each pressure sensor consists of a membrane (made of polyimide) carrying an annular ring
made of ZnO.
 The diameter of the membrane is 1 mm with the thickness being 25 um. The strain
distribution is 100 mbar. An annular ring is used rather than a continuous circular membrane.
The ZnO material is located in the region with an identical sign of radial stress when the
membrane is deformed.

FABRICATION