Unit - 4 RES Notes

UNIT - IV
BIO - ENERGY
Energy from biomass, Principle of biomass conversion

technologies/process and their classification, Bio gas generation,
types of biogas plants, selection of site for biogas plant,
I
classification of biogas plants, Advantage and disadvantages of
biogas generation, thermal gasification of biomass, biomass
gasifies, Application of biomass and biogas plants and their
economics. ..-------
77
BIO-ENERGY
4.1. ENERGY FROM BIOMASS
The energy obtained from organic matter derived from biological organisms (plants and
animals) is known as biomass energy or simply, bioenergy. Animals feed on plants and plants
grow through the photosynthesis process using solar energy.
Photosynthesis process is primarily responsible for the generation of biomass energy.

Biomass energy resources are available from botanical plants, vegetation, algae, animals ·and
organisms living on land or in water. Biomass resources are mainly classified into two
categories. They are as follows:
I. Bioma ss from cultivated fields, crops and forests.

2. Biomass from municipal waste, animal dung, forest waste, agricultural waste,
bioprocess waste and fishery waste.
Biomass energy may be transformed either by chemical or biological processes to produce

intermediate bio-fuels such as methane, producer gas, ethanol and charcoal etc.
[4.2 Renewable Energy System
Biomass cycle maintains the environmental balance of oxygen, CO, rain etc. Biomass is
used for producing the process heat and electricity, gaseous and solid fuels, liquid and
chemicals.
4.1.1. Biomass Resources
Biomass resources for energy production encompass a wide spectrum of materials ranging
from forest, agriculture, aquaculture (fresh and sea water) and industrial and social activities
such as food processing, urban refuse etc.
(i) Forests:
Forests, natural or cultivated, serve as sources of fuel wood, charcoal and producer gas.
Some fast growing intensive trees such as eucalyptus, poplar and pine are specially cultivated
for the purpose of energy.
(ii) Agricultural residues:

Crop residues such as straw; rice husk, coconut shell, groundnut shell, sugarcane baggage
etc., are gasified to obtain producer gas.
(iii) Energy crops:

Certain cultivated plants produce raw material for bio-fuels. They are as follows:
(a) Sugarcane:
It is a raw material source for bio-ethanol. The sugarcane stems are milled to obtain the
cane juice which is subsequent used for sugar (sucrose) or alcohol (ethanol) production. The
residual fraction from the sugarcane stem milling is named as bagasse. One-third of the total
energy is available in sugarcane and another similar amount is available in bagasse, leaves and
cane tops.
(b) Oil producingplants:

Oil producing plants such as sunflower, rapeseed, palm oil, castor oil, soybean, groundnut
and cottonseed have the capabilities of producing energy.
(iv) Aquatic plants:

Some water plants grow very fast and provide raw materials for producing biogas or
ethanol. These are water kelp, seaweed and algae, etc.
(v) Urban waste:

Urban waste is of two types. They are given below.
Bio-Energy 4.3
(a) Municipal solid waste (MSW)

(b) Sewage (liquid waste).
4.1.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Biomass Energy
Advantages of biomass energy:

1. It is a renewable source.
2. The pollutant emissions from combustion of biomass are usually lesser than fossil
fuels.
3. Commercial use of biomass may avoid or reduce the problems of waste disposal in
other industries.
4. Use of biogas plants apart from supplying clean gas also leads to improved and
stabilized sanitation.
5. The forestry and agricultural industries which supply feed stocks also provide
substantial economic development opportunities in rural areas.
6. The energy storage is an in-built feature of it.
Disadvantages of biomass energy:

1. It is dispersed and land intensive source.
2. It is often of low energy density.
3. It is also labour intensive and the cost of collecting large quantities of biomass for
commercial application is significant.
4.1.3. Biomass Fuels
Biomass is an organic carbon-based material that reacts with oxygen in combustion and
natural metabolic process to release heat. Some of its forms available to users are given below.
(i) Fuel wood:

Wood is the most obvious and oldest source of biomass energy. Direct combustion is the
simplest way to obtain heat energy. Its energy density is 16-20 MJIkg. It can also be converted
into more useful forms such as charcoal or producer gas.
(ii) Charcoal:
Charcoal is a clean, dry, solid fuel of black colour. It has 75-80% carbon content and has
energy density of about 30 MJ/kg. It is obtained by carbonization process ofwoody biomass to
achieve higher energy density per unit mass. It is also used for making high quality steel.
[ 4.4 Renewable Energy System
(iii) Fuel pellets:

Crop residues such as straw, rice husk, cow dung etc., are pressed to form lumps known
as fuel pellets and used as solid fuel.
(iv) Bio-ethanol:
Ethanol (C2HsOH) ts a colourless liquid biofuel. Its boiling point is 78°C and energy
density is 26.9 MJ/kg. It can be derived from wet biomass containing sugar starches or
cellulose. Commercial ethanol is used in specially designed IC engines.
() Biogas:
Organic wastes from plants, animals and humans contain enough energy to contribute
significantly to energy supply in many areas. Biogas is produced in a biogas fermenter or
digesters. If a raw material is cow manure, the output biogas will contain about 50% to 60%
CH, 30% to 40% CO3, 5% to 10% H, 0.5% to 0.7% N with trace amounts of O, and HS. Its
3
energy density is about 23 MJ/m • It is used for cooking, lighting, heating and operating small
IC engines, etc.
Properties ofBiogas:
I3iogas is a mixture of different components and the composition varies depending upon
the characteristics offeed materials, amount ofdegradation, etc. Biogas predominantly consists
of 50 to 70% methane (CH,), 30 to 40% carbon dioxide (CO) and low amount of other gases.
Methane is a combustible gas. The energy content ofbiogas depends on the amount ofmethane
it contains. Methane content varies from about 50% to 70%. The properties of the biogas are
given in the following Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Properties ofbiogas
Properties Range
Net calorific value (Mm') 22.6
Air required for combustion (m3/m3) 5.7
Ignition temperature ("C) 700
Density (kg/m3) 1.2
Flash point ("C) 650- 750
(vi) Producer gas:

Woody . matter such as
'
crop residue, wood chips, bagasse, rice husk, coconut shell etc., .
can be transformed to producer gas (wood gas, water gas or blue gas) by a method known as
Bio-Energy [ 4.s l
gasification of solid fuel. The gas production depends upon the type of biomass and the design
of gasifier.
(ii) Vegetable oils (bio-diesel):

It can be used as such or blended with diesel as a diesel engine fuel.
4.2. PRINCIPLES OF BIOMASS CONVERSION

Bioconversion, also known as biotransformation, is defined as the process of conversion of
organic materials such as plant or animal waste into usable products or energy sources by
biological processes or agents such as certain microorganisms.
4.2.1. Photosynthesis Process

Biomass energy is obtained by photosynthesis process. It means the synthesis process with
light. Photosynthesis converts solar energy into biomass· energy. It consists in building up of
simple carbohydrates such as sugar in the green leaf in the presence of sunlight.
Solar radiation incident on green plants and other photosynthesis organisms perform two
basic functions. They are given below.
1. Temperature control for chemical reactions to proceed and
2. Photosynthesis process.
The fundamental conversion process in green plants is photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is

a complex process. It is the process of combining CO, water and light energy to produce
oxygen and carbohydrates (sugar, starches, celluloses and hemicelluloses). They are the main
source of our foods and clothes (in the form of cotton), furniture etc. The net energy absorbed
from solar radiation during photosynthesis can be measured from its combustion.
Photosynthesis
x CO + y HO + Light energy> x O+ Cx (HO) y
where the symbol Cx (HO) y indicates the carbohydrates.
For example, the basic chemical reaction for the formation of hexose (glucose, fructose
etc.) using photosynthesis is represented by the following chemical equation
Photosynthesis
6CO + 6HO + A»60+6CHO
where AQ is enthalpy change ofthe combustion process equal to the energy absorbed from
photons of solar radiation.
Necessary conditionsfor photosynthesis process:

1. Light: It is one of the important input for biomass production.
2. CO, concentration: It is the primary raw material for photosynthesis.
3. Temperature: Photosynthesis is restricted to the temperature range 0°Cto 60°C.
4.3. BIOMASS CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES/PROCESSES
There are many biomass conversion routes to prepare energy efficient biofuels. The
conversion routes are broadly divided into four categories. These are outlined as follows:
1. Physical or mechanical conversion
2. Agrochemical conversion
3. Thermal gasification or Thermochemical conversion

a) Direct combustion
b) Carbonisation
c) Pyrolysis
d) Gasification
e) Liquefication
4. Biochemical conversion
a) Anaerobic digestion
b) Ethanol fermentation.
4.4. PHYSICAL OR MECHANICAL CONVERSION OF BIOMASS AND ITS

CLASSIFICATION
Mechanical conversion of biomass is an important method because it is a solid. Usually,

agricultural residues and energy crops have irregular shapes and a low bulk density due to loose
harvest formats. They also have high moisture content which can accelerate degradation during
storage. Therefore, the low density of biomass materials makes a challenge for the handling,
transportation, storage and combustion processes. These problems can be reduced by proper
processes called biomass densification and biomass upgrading.
Biomass densification is a process to increasing the bulk and energy densities ofa biomass
feedstock by reducing its bulk volume to obtain more uniform properties than raw biomass.
Bio-Energy 4.7
Mechanical means are used to arrange biomass into predetermined smaller, uniform sizes to
facilitate better handling, transportation and storage.
Biomass upgrading is the process of changing the properties of biomass to improve

storage, transportation, pretreatment and conversion. For example, upgrading can reduce
moisture content and increase hydrophobicity to reduce feedstock deterioration during storage.
Upgrading also increases feedstock flowability by improving the handling of feedstocks and
their grindability. Also, it reduces energy requirements during the size-reduction process.
'Before doing of mechanical conversion biomass, it is necessary to pre-treatment of biomass.
4.4.1. Pre-treatment of Biomass

Pretreatment is a main tool for cellulose conversion processes which is essential to change
the structure of cellulosic biomass to make cellulose more available to the enzymes. They
convert the carbohydrate polymers into fermentable sugars. Some of the methods are listed in
Table 4.2 below.
Table 4.2 Methods ofpre-treatment ofbiomass residues materials

Pre-treatment Procedures Effects Benefits
methods
'
.
Steam explosion It is method in which Due to this, there is a It helps in binding
high pressure steam is physical, chemical and during palletization
applied for a short structural changes in and briquetting.
time and then released. the biomass residues
rnaterials.
Torrefaction It is a process of slow Due to this, volatile It helps in binding

heating of materials and smoke during palletization
biomass residues evolving products are and briquetting.
materials to a reduces to make final
temperature of near product better.
about 3000%C.
Ammonia It is a process in which Due to this process, It helps in binding

fiber ammonia aqueous is recrystallizing of during palletization
expansion used at high pressure cellulose in the and briquetting.
and temperature to biomass residues
obtain more hydrolysis material reduces
yields for several
gramineous hemicellulose and

feedstocks. lignin.
Grinding It is a process of Due to this, It increases the
grinding ofthe conversion surface area ofthe
biomass raw/residues ofthe biomass raw or biomass raw or
material at residues material in residues material
specific size depends appropriate size and which improves
upon the breakdown the lignin the binding
densification present in it. process.
.·
technology selected.
Pre-heating It is a process of Due to this, energy Generate more

heating ofbiomass consumption of lignin which help
raw or residues manufacturing the in binding during
material before briquettes or pellets densification.
densification or can be decreased.
briquetting process
to enhance the quality
ofthe product.
4.4.2. Methods of Biomass Densification and Upgrading
Various methods ofbiomass densification and upgrading techniques are used based on the
type offeedstock, available equipment and desired final product such as
(i) Baling
(ii) ,Briquetting
(iii) Pelletization
(iv) Torrefaction
(v) Chipping.
1. Baling:
Baling is a traditional method ofdensification commonly used to harvest crops. A bale is

formed using farm machinery called a baler to compress the chop. The shape ofbales can be
square, rectangular or round based on the type of baler used. The dimensions of round bales
range from 1.2 m x 1.5 m to 1.5 m x 1.5 m. Large rectangular bales are in the size of 0.9 m x
Bio-Energy 4.9
0.9 m x 1.8 m in length. Round bales are less expensive to produce but large square bales are
usually denser and easier to handle and transport.
2. Briquetting:
Briquetting is one way to increase the energy density and overcome handling difficulties.
It is the simplest method of physical conversion of biomass by compressing the combustible
material. In this method, feedstocks are compacted using a hydraulic, mechanical or roller press
under high pressure by a piston press or screw press/extruder. Briquettes (66 mm diameter and
96 mm thick) made from paddy husk or sawdust is a cheap and effective fuel for the tobacco-
curing industry. Also, briquettes can be made from feedstocks with a 6-18% range of moisture
and may use binders such as starch, molasses and arabic gum. The addition of binders permits
a considerable flexibility in the production method and type of feedstock. Briquettes are
primarily used for heating purposes.
(i) Screw compaction/extruder machine:
Screw extruder has a rotating screw which exerts a force on biomass residues coming from
the feedstock for compression. A separate mechanical drive is used to operate a screw inside
the machine. A significant amount ofenergy is needed to reduce the particle friction because
biomass residues are moderately compressed and crammed. At high temperature and initial
temperature, particles of biomass become softer. It causes interlinking of particles and local
bonds formation. When biomass enters in tapered die section, a remaining moisture is again
evaporated because of high temperature of range 2800°C. This process helps to intensify the
compression on biomass residues materials. The high temperature and heavy compression
make the biomass material more appropriate for burning and co-firing process.
Heater
Pallets
Solids conveying,,, Meng & umping_ y, Pumping,
Figure 4.1 Biomass screw type extrude

(ii) Piston press/pump machi
ne:
Piston press used piston which is driven by flywheel or some hydraulic mechanism for the
production of densified biomass fuel such as briquettes/pellets. A biomass residues material
[4.1o ] Renewable Energy System
coming from feedstock unit into the cylindrical shaped piston drive which can be driven either
mechanically or hydraulically. For heating ofbiomass residues material, temperature range lies
between l 5000°C to 30000°C during compression process. The incoming biomass residues
material is compressed towards the conical shaped die by the piston and the briquettes is
extrude from the opening face ofthe die.
Biomass residue /
Feedstock
########
Biomass solid fuel
(Briquette) ..A%
Mechanical /
Hydraulic piston
an}l ([f/9
Nozzle Piston
Figure 4.2 Biomass piston press/pump type mac/tine
(iii) Roller press/mill machine:
A biomass roller press/mill type machine depicted in Figure 4.3. The main unit ofroller
mill is two rollers which rotate in the opposite direction with each other.
Rotation anti-clockwise
Accurate size
for packing
Biomass residue
material
[±] Dll Particle detector
Rotation clockwise
Fine particle feedback
Figure 4.3 Biomass rollerpress/mill type machine
The biomass residues material is fed through the hopper. The flow of biomass residues
material is controlled by control mechanism. The forces exerted on the predetermined quantity
of pre-compressed biomass residues materials by two rollers which continuously rotate in
Bio-Energy 4.11
opposite direction. The biomass residues material is dragged out from one side and the
densified product is extruded from other side. The gap between two rollers depends on type of
biomass residues material used, content ofmoisture, size ofparticle, ratio ofbinders and several
other factors.
3. Pelletization:
Pelletisation is a process in which wood is compressed and extracted in the form ofrods
(5-12 mm diameter and 12 mm long). It has applications in steam power plants and gasification
systems. The purpose ofpelletisation is to reduce the moisture contents and increase the energy
density ofwood for longer transportation haulage. A pellet mill is used to produce high-density
pellets by compressing ground biomass between rollers and a die and then it is extruded through
die holes. The most common pellet mills are flat die and ring die mills. The primary difference
between briquettes-and pellets are their bulk densities, the particle size ofthe biomass inputs
and their final product size. For pelletization, the biomass is ground to 0.18-3 mm in diameter.
The production of high-quality pellets is enhanced by using steam to soften the biomass and
entrained lignin and by adding different binders. Usually, pellets have high bulk density and
durability, good flowability and storability. Currently, pellets· are used for domestic space
heating. They also have the potential for supplying feedstock to biobased industries with
improved processability.
;3$32
3$ "
::::::::
-
Yoke
Figure 4.4 Biomass pellet press type machine

4. Torrefaction:
Torrefaction is a thermal biomass upgrading process carried out at 200-300°C under inert
conditions which means in the absence ofoxygen with a reactor residence time of 10-30 min
and longer. Torrefied biomass has reduced moisture content, improved hydrophobicity,
enhanced brittlenessand greater energy content when compared to the raw biomass. It is also
better-preserved during storage and its enhanced brittleness improves downstream grindability.
Torrefied biomass is further densified by pelletization which increases its specific bulk and
energy densities while enhancing its flowability by creating uniformity among the different
biomass types and forms.
5. Chipping:
Chipping is a biomass upgrading method to reduce the size of woody biomass which
includes forest residues and short rotation woody crops into smaller and more uniform wood
chips. Usually, the bulk density of chipped biomass is higher than forest residue which is
loosely piled but it is lower than stacked wood. It is cut to specific lengths and split or sorted
by diameter before stacking.· Chipping improves the handling, storage and transportation of
irregular-sized and shaped woody biomass. It prepares it for use in biorefineries or combustion
power plants. Wood chips used in biofuels plants and boilers are irregular in shape and size
ranging from 3 to 80 mm.
4.4.2.1. Advantages and disadvantage of biomass densification
The main advantages ofbiomass densification for combustion are as follows.
(i) Simplified mechanical handling and feeding

(ii) Uniform combustion in boilers
(iii) Reduced dust production
(iv) Reduced possibility ofspontaneous combustion in storage
(v) Simplified storage and handling infrastructure, lowering capital requirements at
the combustion plant
(vi) Reduced cost oftransportation due to increased energy density
The major disadvantage to biomass densification technologies is the high cost associated
with some ofthe densification processes.
4.5. AGROCHEMICAL CONVERSION OF BIOMASS
Agrochemical fuel extraction describes the production of fuels from plants. The plant
usually remains alive and unharmed. Generally, liquid or solid fuels may be obtained directly
Bio-Energy 4.13 ]
from living or freshly cut plants. The materials are called exudates. They are obtained by
cutting into stems and trunks ofthe living plant or by crushing freshly harvested material. A
well-known similar process is the production ofnatural rubber latex.
Some ofthe plants form not only partly oxidised C-H bonds (cellulose or lignin) but also
form completely oxygen-free hydrocarbons. The oil ofthe plant itselfcan directly be used as
an energy source. Categories ofsuitable materials are as follows:
(i) Seeds (sunflower with 50% oil)

(ii) Nuts (oil palm; coconut copra to 50%by mass ofoil)
(iii) Fruits (olive)
(iv) Leaves (eucalyptus with 25% oil)
(v) Tapped exudates (rubber latex)
(vi) Harvested plants (oils and solvents to 15% of the tree dry mass, e.g. turpentine
from pine trees; oil from Euphorbia).
4.6. THERMAL GASIFICATION OR THERMOCHEMICAL CONVERSION OF BIOMASS
4.6.1. Biomass Direct combustion
Figure 4.5 Biomass direct combustion

Biomass direct combustion is not only the oldest form of combustion used by humanity
but it is also one of the most complex combustion systems to manage. The main biomass for
combustion is wood which has been used over the years. It is burnt to provide heat for cooking,
comfort heat (space heat), crop drying, factory processes and forming steam for electricity
production and transport. As direct combustion involves the use of solid fuels in a multi-phase
reaction system with extensive interaction between thermal and mass fluxes, these processes
have only recently been properly analyzed to design efficient combustion systems.
The key to understanding solid fuel combustion processes is to recognize that only flue
gases burn and release heat, liquids and solids do not burn themselves but actually consume
heat in the drying and volatilization processes needed for them to be chemically converted into
flue gases. The main fuel intermediates are the volatile hydrocarbons and energy rich organic
molecules, carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H).
4.6.2. Carbonisation
Wood is heated with a restricted air flow to form a high carbon product by removing
volatile materials from it. This process is termed as carbonisation. The final product is known
as charcoal. It is extensively used as a domestic fuel. Charcoal contains 20-25% volatiles and
75-80% fixed carbon on a dry basis. It burns smokeless and it can be preserved for longer
period. Charcoal stoves have a higher overall burning efficiency than wood stoves.
The carbonisation process takes place in the following four main stages determined by the
temperature attained in each stage.
Stage 1:
It is endothermic and involves the ».initial drying of the wood to be carbonised. This stage
occurs at temperatures up to 200°C.
Stage 2:
It is the precarbonisation stage which is also endothermic. It occurs in the temperature

range of 170-300°C and it produces some pyroligneous liquids as well as small quantities of
non-condensable gases that are mainly CO and CO3.
Stage 3:
This is exothermic and takes place in 250300°C temperature range. At this stage, the
greater proportion of the light tars and pyroligneous acids produced in the second stage are
released from the wood steadily to produce the carbonised residue of the wood which is
charcoal.
Bio-Energy 4.1sJ
Stage 4:
It follows at temperatures above 300°C during which the bulk of the remaining volatile
components ofthe charcoal are driven off. Thus, it increases the carbon content ofthe charcoal.
4.6.3. Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is a thermochemical decomposition oforganic material at elevated temperatures
in the absence of oxygen or with restricted air or oxygen supply. It involves the simultaneous
change of chemical composition and physical phase and it is irreversible. Biomass is heated
either in the absence of oxygen or by partial combustion biomass with restricted air or oxygen
supply. In a pyrolysis process, all forms of organic materials including rubber and plastics are
processed.
The basic process steps- for biomass pyrolysis include:
(a) heat transfer from a heat source that heats the biomass
(b) initiation of the pyrolysis reaction in the biomass due to the increased temperature
(c) product formation in the vapor phase resulting in heat transfer between the hot vapor
products and the unreacted biomass
(d) condensation of products from the vapor phase and
(e) autocatalytic reactions between products.
The pyrolysis process consists of both simultaneous and successive reactions when
organic material· is heated in a non-reactive atmosphere. Thermal decomposition of organic
components in biomass starts at 350°C-550 °C and goes up to 700°C-800°C in the absence of
air/oxygen. The long chains of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen compounds in biomass break
dow into smaller molecules in the form ofgases, condensable vapours (tars and oils) and solid
charcoal under pyrolysis conditions. Rate and extent of decomposition of each of these
components depend on the process parameters ofthe reactor temperature, biomass heating rate,
pressure, reactor configuration, feedstock etc.
The products of pyrolysis are three types of fuels. They are as follows:
1. Bio-oil: It comes from the combustible gases of the process which are condensed
into a liquid. Bio-oil can be used as a low grade diesel oil.
2. Bio-char: It is the solid material that is created in the process. It is being promoted
for its potential to improve soil properties and fertility as well as sequester carbon.
3. Syngas: These are the permanent gases (CO, CO, Hz and light hydrocarbons) that
remain after the pyrolysis process is over. Syngas can be used in place of natural gas
or converted with catalysts to ethanol.
For example, the products of pyrolysis of wood are mainly charcoal (25%), wood gas
(20%), pyroligneous acid (40%), and tar or wood oil (15%), excluding the moisture content.
The last two liquid products are obtained by the condensation of volatiles from wood. Both
liquid and gaseous products ofpyrolysis are combustible and they are potential fuel feedstocks.
There are two types of pyrolysis systems. Fast pyrolysis optimizes bio-oil production by
increasing the rate of pyrolysis temperature greater than 800°C. This process yields
approximately 60-70% bio-oil, 15-25% bio-char and 10-15% syngas. In contrast, slow
pyrolysis uses slower heating rates at less than 450°C and bio-char is the major end product.
4.6.4. Gasification
Abundant quantities of agricultural wastes such as rice husk, bagasse (sugarcane waste),
coconut husk, cereal straw, etc., are produced worldwide every year. They are now under
utilised. The major portion of these wastes undergoes natural decomposition resulting in the
production of various greenhouse gases which create environmental problems. As mentioned
earlier, solid biomass fuels are usually inconvenient, have low energy density and can only be
used for certain limited applications. Conversion ofthe same biomass to a combustible mixture
such as producer gas solves most of these problems with use of solid biomass fuels.
Gasification of biomass is thermal decomposition in the presence of controlled air. It is

the conversion process of solid and carbonaceous fuels into combustible gas mixtures known
as producer gas. It is also referred to as wood gas, water gas and synthesis gas. This gas can
be burned directly in· a furnace to generate the process heat for electricity generation.
Alternative fuel from biomass is prepared through a gasification process in gaseous form which
substitutes for fuel in internal combustion engine.
Biomass contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen molecules for complete combustion to
produce carbon dioxide (CO) and water vapour (HO). Partial combustion produces carbon
monoxide (CO) as well as hydrogen (H) which are both combustible gases. By weight, wood
gas or producer gas obtained from the charring wood contains approximately 10-20% hydrogen
(H), 15-30% carbon monoxide (CO) and small amount of methane. All are combustible. It
also contains 45-60% noncombustible nitrogen (N;).
Bio-Energy 4.17 ]
Steam gasification:
Methane is directly produced from woody matter by treating at high temperature and
pressure with hydrogen gas. The hydrogen can be added or more commonly generated in the
reactor vessel from carbon monoxide and steam.
4.6.5. Liquefaction
Liquefaction is a promising technology among the thermochemical processes to convert

biomass to liquid valuable products. Bio-oils, bio-crudes or polyols obtained via liquefaction
ofbiomass can be upgraded to gasoline and diesel like fuels and various polymeric materials.
In the liquefaction process, biomass is converted to liquefied products through complex
physical and chemical reactions. Biomass is broken into small molecules in the presence of
various factors such as heat, pressure, catalyst and solvents. These small molecules are
unsteady and reactive, and can polymerize into oil like substances with a broad range of
molecular weight distribution.
Liquefaction can be divided in two categories such as direct liquefaction and indirect
liquefaction. Direct liquefaction refers to pyrolysis or solvolysis liquefaction to produce liquid
tars and oils or condensable organic vapors.
On the other hand, indirect liquefaction is a type ofcondensing procedure ofa gas mixture
(CO+H,) to produce liquid products in the present of catalysts. In the indirect liquefaction
process firstly, biomass is gasified to syngas in the presenc e of partial O/air at very high
temperature more than I 000°C and then this gas mixture undergoes a catalytic reaction. In this
reaction, Fe-, Co-, Ru- and Ni-based catalysts are mostly used at high temperature around.
340°C or low temperature around 230 °C to produce olefins and gasoline or diesel and linear
waxes respectively.
Two important processes of liquefaction of biomass are discussed here.
(a) Liquefaction through pyrolysis:

As mentioned earlier, pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition oforganic compounds in the
absence ofair. The resulting product streams depend on the rate and duration of heating. Liquid
yields exceeding 70% are produced under fast pyrolysis conditions. It is characterised as having
short residence time(< 0.5 s) at moderate temperatures of 450 to 600°%C and rapid quenching
at the end of the process. Rapid quenching 1s essential if high molecular weight liquids are to
be condensed rather than further decomposed to low molecular weight gases.
Pyrolysis liquid from fast pyrolysis is a low viscosity, dark brown fluid up to 15 to 20%
water. It contrasts with the black, tarry liquid resulting from slow pyrolysis. Fast pyrolysis
liquid is a complicated mixture of hydrocarbons arising from the uncontrolled degradation of
lignin in lignocelluloses biomass. The liquid is highly oxygenated which makes it highly
unstable. It contains many different compounds, namely phenols, sugars and both aliphatic and
aromatic hydrocarbons. The low pH of pyrolysis liquids makes the liquids highly corrosive.
The liquid also contains particulate char. The higher heating values of pyrolysis liquids are
ranging from 17 MJ/kg to 20 MJIkg with liquid densities of about 1280 kg/m3•
Pyrolysis liquids can be used directly as a substitute for heating oil. In some cases, they
are also suitable as fuel for combustion turbines or modified diesel engines. However, there are
several problems with pyrolysis liquids. The storage of these liquids becomes difficult due to
phase separation and polymerisation of liquids and corrosion of containers. The high oxygen
and moisture content of pyrolysis liquids makes them incompatible with conventional
hydrocarbon fuels.
(b) Liquefaction through methanol syntliesis:

Methanol is a liquid fuel that can be burned in a modified internal combustion engines. It
is also known as methyl alcohol.
Methanol (CI-bOH) produced by the reaction ofCO and th at 330°C and 150 atm pressure
I
is given by
yields
CO+2H,
A/I =-90.77kJ Imo/
The CO and H; are required for this process. It can be produced by gasifying biomass
fuels. Gasification often produces less hydrogen than 2: l ratio of H to CO for methanol
synthesis. Thus, the gas mixture (producer gas /synthesis gas) is often reacted.with steam in the
presence of a catalyst to promote a shift to high hydrogen content as
yld 3CO+H 2
AfJ =-40.57 kl /mol
CO and HS in the synthesis gas are removed prior to the methanol reactor. The gas reacts
with a catalyst at elevated temperature and pressure to produce methanol in a highly exothermic
reaction.
Bio-Energy 4.19 ]
The yields of methanol from woody biomass are expected to be in the range of
480-568 litres/tons. Methanol can be used as a liquid fuel in petroleum engines. It has an energy
density of23 MJ/kg.
4.7. BIOCHEMICAL CONVERSION OF BIOMASS AND ITS CLASSIFICATION
It makes use of metabolic action ofmicrobial organism on biomass to produce liquid and
gaseous fuel. There are two major biochemical processes. They are given below.
1. Anaerobic digestion
2. Alcoholic or Ethanol fermentation.
4.7 .1. Anaerobic Digestion
In anaerobic digestion, biogas is produced by the bacterial decomposition of wet sewage

sludge, animal dung or green plants in the absence of oxygen. Biogas is also known as swamp
gas, sewer gas,fuel gas, marsh gas, wet gas and in India more commonly as "gobar" gas. The
anaerobic digestion process breaks down the organic matter into simpler organic compounds.
The final product is a mixture of methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO) and some trace gases
known as biogas. The process is called anaerobic fermentation. The main fuel component of
biogas is methane gas. Carbon present in biomass may be ultimately divided between fully
oxidized CO and fully reduced CHa. It is given by the following equation.
20-55°C
Decaying wet biomass Biogas (largely CH, and CO3)
Anaerobic fermentation
The natural decay process, 'anaerobic decomposition' can be speeded up by using a

thermally insulated air-tight tank with a stirrer unit and heating system. The reactions are
slightly exothermic and small amount of heat is also generated which helps to maintain the
favourable temperature. The most useful biomass materials appear to be animal manure, algae,
kelp, hyacinth, plant residues and other organic waste materials with high moisture content.
Anaerobic digestion basically involves the following three phases.
(i) hydrolysis
(ii) an acid phase and (iii) methane phase.
The hydrolysis phase covers the breakdown of large molecules into smaller ones by
enzymes that are decomposable by bacteria. During the acid phase, complicated molecules
[4.zo ] Renewable Energy System
such as proteins, fats and carbohydrates are decomposed by acid-forming bacteria into organic
acids, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, ammonia and some impurities. Organic acids are mainly
short-chain fatty acids. During methane phase, the methane-forming bacteria converts fatty
acids into methane.
Anaerobic digestion is a simple and low-cost process that can be economically carried out
is rural areas where organic wastes are generated in plenty. Biogas is a renewable and non-
fossil fuel that is created as a byproduct of plant and animal materials. The complete
decomposition of animal or human faces takes around 10 days. Each kilogram of organic
material can be expected to yield 450-500 litres of biogas at atmospheric pressure. The residue
left after digestion is valuable fertilizers. The detailed study about aerobic digestion is made in
cha pter 4.9.2 on Page 4.25.
4.7.2. Alcoholic Fermentation
Ethyl alcohol or ethanol known as alcohol and technically termed ethanol is a colourless
and flammable liquid with a chemical formula CH,OH. It is the alcoholic product of
fermenting the sugars in natural raw materials with yeast. The natural raw materials include
vegetable matter, growing crops, farm waste, waste organic products (straw and saw dust),
molasses, wastes of paper and pulp industries etc.
Alcoholic fermentation or ethanol fermentation is the decomposition ofbiomass in the

absenc e of air and simple hexose sugars (CH+O6) in aqueous solution by action of enzyme
present in yeast in acidic conditions. The chemical process involved in ethanol fermentation is
given by the following equation.
32°c
C H+O« 2C H,OH+2 CO
Fermentation
Ethanol can be produced by the fermentation of any feedstock that contains sugar or
starches. It can be produced from cellulose materials that can be converted into fermentable
sugar. These three groups of biomass are as follows:
(i) sugars (sugar beets, sugarcane, sweet sorghum, fruits)
(ii) starches (small grains such as com and wheat, potatoes, cassava) and
(iii) cellulose (wood, solid waste, agricultural residues).
Sugar crops contain monosaccharide forms of sugar such as glucose. It can readily be
fermented into alcohol by yeast with no intermediate processing. In fermentation, ethanol is
Bio-Energy 4.21
produced by the fermentation of sugar solution. After about 30 hrs of fermentation, the brew
contains 6-10% alcohol removed by distillation. One tonne of sugar will produce upto 520
litres of alcohol in which a tonne of grain 350 litres and a tonne of wood are estimated 260 to
540 litres.
Starch crops contain sugar units that are tied together in long chains. Yeast cannot use
these disaccharide forms of sugar until the starch chains are converted into individual six-
carbon groups such as glucose or fructose. This conversion process can be done fairly by the
use of cooking in a dilute acid solution or reacting the starch with thermophilic (heat tolerant)
enzymes. Cellulose crops contain chemicals called polysaccharides. These chains must be
broken down to release the sugar. Breaking the chemical bonds of cellulose is more
complicated than breaking down starch to simple sugar. The conversion is typically done
physically (milling or heat treatment) or chemically (basic or acid reactions).
4.8. BI OGAS GENERATION

•.
Biagas is a gaseous fuel obtained from biomass by the process of anaerobic digestion
(Fermentation). A biogas digester (also known as a biogas plant) is a large tank where inside
biogas is produced through the decomposition/breakdown of organic matter through a process
called anaerobic digestion. It is called a digester because organic material is eaten and digested
by bacteria to produce biogas.
Biagas digester delivers methane as rich gas which contains methane (CH,), carbon
dioxide (CO) and other impurities. The biogas plants have urban applications for converting
urban refuse and waste into useful energy. The biogas plants have the rural applications for
converting cow dung, agricultural wastes etc. into biogas. Biogas plants are built in various
sizes having the capacity of 0.5 m'lday to 650 mlday. The most popular size in India is of
3 m'lday capacity.
4.8.1. Conversion of Raw materials to Biogas
The choice of raw material is based on the availability of the waste. All types of organic
wastes which can form slurry are suitable for producing· biogas by the process of anaerobic
digestion in a biogas plant. Wood and sugarcane baggage are difficult and time-consuming
process. So, the burning may be preferred. The energy route ofbiogas plant is shown in Figure
4.6.
Dung Water Domestic cooking
Fuel for kilns

& furnace
Fuel for
Biogas plant }biogas methane }I
IC engine
IC engine
Sludge to driven generator
manure
Lighting
· Figure 4.6 Energy route of biogas plant
4.8.2. Biogas Raw Materials
l. Agricultural wastes
{ Poultry waste
2. Rural animal wastes
Butchery waste
3. Forest wastes > Coconut husk waste
4. Industrial wastes.
The following organic matter rich in feedstocks are suitable for biogas production.
1. Animal wastes: Cattle dung, poultry droppings, fish wastes, leather and hood wastes,
foetus wastes and elephant dung.
2. Human wastes: Faeces and urine
3. Agricultural wastes: Aquatic and terrestrial weeds crop residue, sugarcane trash,
bagasse, cotton and textile wastes and tea wastes.
4. Industrial wastes: Sugar factory, tannery, paper etc.
4.8.3. Average Composition of Biogas
The average composition ofthe biogas is given by

1. Methane (CH,) 55 to 60 %
Bio-Energy [ 4.23 ]
2. Carbondioxide (CO3) 35 to 40%

3. Hydrogen (H) 5%
4. HS and O Traces.
4.9. BIOGAS DIGESTION
Based on the oxygen requirements, the digestion processes can be divided into two major
groups. They are as follows:
1. Aerobic (oxygen presence)
2. Anaerobic (absence ofoxygen).
4.9.1. Anaerobic Digestion Process
When organic matter undergoes the process of chemical change by living organisms
through anaerobic digestion, the gas is generated. This gas is known as bib-gas. A digester is
a sealed tank or container in which the biological requirements of digestion are controlled to
achieve fermentation and to produce biogas.
Carbo-
Sugars
hydrates
Carbon acids
Alcohols
Acid acetic
Fatty Methane
Fats Carbon dioxide
acids Carbon dioxide
Hydrogen Hydrogen
arbon dioxide
Ammonia
Amino
Proteins
acids
Hydrolysis Acidogenesis Acetogenesis Methanogenesis
Figure 4.7 Anaerobic digestion process
In anaerobic digestion process, a biogas digester is prepared (closed container) in which

the segregation and feeding of the organic fraction take place. In this digester, the
biodegradation ofsegregated waste takes place under anaerobic (absence ofoxygen) conditions
and in the presence ofmethanogenic bacteria, and as a result produces a methane-rich biogas.
Anaerobic fermentation produces CO , CH,, H and traces of other gases along with
decomposed mass. Anaerobic digestion occurs in the following four steps.
(i) Hydrolysis:
In organic wastes, carbohydrates are mostly in the form ofcellulose and other components
of plant fibre. Complex organic matter such as fat, starches and proteins contained in biomass
cellulose are broken down into simple compounds called soluble monomers (e.g. sugars, amino
acids). This process uses water to Split the chemical bonds between substances. It acts as
substrates for micro-organisms during the next phase in which soluble organic compounds are
converted into organic acids.
(ii) Fermentation or Acidogenesis:
The chemical decomposition of carbohydrates occurs by enzymes, bacteria, yeasts or

molds in the absence of oxygen. Fermentative acidogenesis bacteria transform sugars, amino
acids, fatty acids to organic acids, alcohols and ketones, CO2 and H . This initial acid phase of
digestion may last for two weeks and a large amount of CO is given off during this period. In
an anaerobic digester, the acidogenic bacterial population is the largest, covering 90% of the
total. The process of acidogenesis is similar to the way that milk sours.
(iii) Acetogenesis:
Fatty acids and alcohols are converted to acetate, hydrogen and carbondioxide by acetate
and H -producing bacteria called acetogenic bacteria. Acetogenic bacteria then convert these
resulting organic amino acids into acetic acid along with additional ammonia, hydrogen and
carbon dioxide.
(iv) Methanogenesis:
Acetate, CO and H formed from the acidogenesis process are used by the methanogens
to produce methane (CH4) gas. Methanogens are split into: Acetolactic methanogens which
convert acetate into methane and CO, and Hi-oxidizing which convert hydrogen and carbon
dioxide into methane. In an anaerobic digestion process, among these substrates, the
methanogens use about two-thirds of the methane produced which is derived from acetic acid
while only one -third is from H and CO .
The basic equation for anaerobic digestion is given by
CHO. +I+-
( 7-5
J::'. Z ) J::'.
HO>j tj (X
Z ) (X
J::'.
co+j g-j Z )
CH,
For cellulose, the equation becomes

(CH+Os )n + n H O »3nCO, + 3n CH,
Bio-Energy 4.2s J
Advantages ofanaerobic digestion:

1. It can be used as an energy source to produce steam and water.
2. New sludge production occurs because of the conversion of organic matter to
methane and CO.
3. They are also much more compact than the aerobic bio-solids.
4. Anaerobic digestion reduces the emission of landfill gas into the atmosphere.
5. lt has low running cost.
6. lt produces less odor.
7. Almost any organic material such as waste paper, grass clippings, leftover food,
sewage and animal waste can be processed with anaerobic digestion.
8. The nutrient-rich solids left after digestion can be used as fertilizer.
9. It requires less nutrients.
Disadvantages ofanaerobic digestion:

1. This process produces certain emissions and effluents to air, ground and water which
need treatment to avoid damage to human health and environment. •
2. Water produced during process can be contaminated with nitrates and other
chemicals which needs to be processed before release to the environment.
3. Longer start-up time is required to develop necessary biomass inventory.
4. Biological nitrogen and phosphorus removal are not possible.
5. This process is much more sensitive to the adverse effect of lower temperature on
reaction rates.
6. This process may be less stable after 'toxic shock' (e.g. after upsets due to toxic
substances in the feed).
4.9.2. Aerobic Digestion Process
Aerobic digestion process involves the decomposition of organic wastes in the presence
of oxygen (air). This process involves the oxidation of biodegradable and microbial cellular
matter by aerobic microorganisms resulting in overall reduction in the mass of sludge and
generation of finite amount of stabilized cell mass. Products from this process include CO,
. .
ammonia (NH;), water and heat.
The microorganisms which can only survive in aerobic conditions are known as aerobic
organisms. This is the natural biological degradation and purification process in which bacteria
that thrive in oxygen-rich environments break down and digest the waste. In an aerobic system,
the microorganisms access free, gaseous oxygen directly from the surrounding atmosphere. To
ensure an adequate supply of oxygen throughout, ventilation of the waste either. forced or
passive is essential.
In an aerobic digestion, biodegradable particulate organic matter is hydrolyzed by
converting it into biodegradable soluble organic matter which releases ammonia and
phosphate. The biodegradable soluble organic matter thus produced is then converted into
water, carbon dioxide and active biomass through the action of heterotrophic bacteria. The
biomass then decays and generates additional carbon dioxide and water and debris. The aerobic
digestion process does not affect the non-biodegradable organic matter in the sludge.
The presence ofheterogeneous population ofmicroorganisms in an aerobic digester makes

it a complex ecosystem. One microbial species can serve as a food source to other members of
the population. Thus, the degradable matter in the sludge is reduced.
Under aerobic conditions, bacteria rapidly consume organic matter and. convert it into
carbon dioxide. Once there is a lack of organic matter, bacteria die and are used as food by
other bacteria. This stage ofthe process is known as endogenous respiration. Solids reduction
occurs in this phase.
The factors affecting the performance of aerobic digestion are solid retention time,
temperature, pH, mixing, solids type and bio solids configuration.
Oxygen
+ Respiration
PO
NH3
End products
SO,
I
CO:
I
I
HO
Synthesis
More micro-organisms
Figure 4.8 Aerobic digestion process
Ofall the biological treatment methods, aerobic digestion is the most widespread process
which is used throughout the world. The capital costs of aerobic digestion are lower because
ofthe fact that the aerobic digestion occurs much faster than anaerobic digestion. However, the
Bio-Energy 4.27 ]
operating costs are characteristically much greater for aerobic digestion because ofenergy costs
for aeration needed to add oxygen to the process.
Advantages ofaerobic digestion:

(i) Aerobic bacteria are very efficient in breaking down waste products.
(ii) Aerobic treatment usually yields better effluent quality than that obtained in
anaerobic processes.
(iii) The aerobic pathway also releases a substantial amount of energy.
(iv) A portion is used by the microorganisms for synthesis and growth of new
microorganisms.
Disadvantages ofaerobic digestion:

(i) A high power cost is associated with supplying the required oxygen.
(ii) A digested sludge is produced with poor mechanical dewatering characteristics.
(iii) The process is affected by temperature, location and type oftank material.
(iv) A useful by -product such as methane is not recovered.
(v) It produces more sludge for disposal.
4.9.3. Factors affecting Digestion Process
The factors affecting anaerobic digestion process are as follows:

1. pH concentration
2. Total solid content
3. Seeding
4. Temperature
5. Loading rate
6. Type of feed
7. Pressure
8. Nutrients
9. Diameter to depth ratio
10. Mixing ofthe content

11. Retentation time or rate of feeding
12. Carbon to nitrogen ratio
13. Uniform feeding.
[ 4.28 l Renewable Energy System
(i) pH concentration:
In the initial acid formation stage in the fermentation process, pH is around 6 or less. In
latter 2-3 weeks time, pH value increases as the volatile acid and N compounds are digested
and CH4 is produced. The ideal pH values for digestion ofsewage solids are 7 to 7.5.
(ii) Total solid content:
The cow dung is usually mixed in the proportion of 1: 1 (by weight) in order to bring the
total solid content of 8-10%. The raw cowdung contains 80-85% moisture. The balance 15-
20% is termed total solids.
(iii) Seeding:
Seeding is more advantageous to increase the number of methane formers by artificial

seeding with digested sludge.
(iv) Temperature:
Methane bacteria work the best at a temperature ofbetween 30°C and 35°C.
(v) Loading rate:

It is defined as the amount of raw material fed to the digester per day per unit volume.
Most municipal sewage treatment plants operate at a loading rate of0.5 kgto 1.6 kg ofvolatile
solids/m'/day.
(vi) Type offeed:

Uniform feeding will give a good digestion. So, the micro-organisms are kept relatively
constant organic solids concentration at all times.
(vii) Pressure:
Pressure on the surface ofslurry also affects the fermentation. The low pressure slurry is
suggested.
(viii) Nutrients:
The major nutrients required by the bacteria in the digester are C, H, O, N, P and S.
These nutrients Nand P are always in short supply. So, extra raw material rich in phosphorous
should be added along with the cow dung to obtain the maximum production ofgas.
(ix) Diameter to depth ratio:

Diameter to depth ratio is in the ratio of0.66 to 1.00. Digesters of 16 ft. depth and 4 to 5
ft. diameter work satisfactorily.
Bio-Energy 4.29
() Mixing ofthe content:

The slurry is properly mixed and bacteria get their food supply. So, the violent slurry
agitation retards the digestion.
(xi) Retention time:

The period of retention of the material slurry for biogas generation inside the digester is
known as retention period. The normal value of retention period is 20 to 50 days and in some
cases, it is 60 days.
(xii) Carbon to nitrogen ratio:

• The elements of carbon and nitrogen are the main food of anaerobic bacteria. Carbon is
used for energy and nitrogen for building the cell structure. The bacteria use carbon with 30
times faster than nitrogen.
(xiii) Uniform feeding:

The digester must be fed at the same time every day with a balanced feed of the same
quality and quantity.
4.10. TYPES OF BIOGAS PLANTS
Biogas plants are mainly classified into the following types.

1. Continuous and batch types (as per the process).
2. Dome and drum types.
4.10.1. Continuous Process Biogas Plant
In this case, the raw material is thoroughly mixed with the digesting mass where the
dilution prevents souring and the biogas production is maintained. The main features of
continuous process biogas plant are as follows:
I. It requires small digestion chambers.
2. It will continuously produce gas.
3. It has fewer problems compared to a batch type.
4. It needs lesser period of digestion.
The entire process of conversion of complex organic compounds into biogas is completed
in a single chamber. Such plants are simple, economical, easy to operate and having good
control. These plants are generally preferred for sma ll and medium size biogas plants. Single
stage plants have less rate of gas production than two stage plants. Figure 4.9 shows the single
stage digester. The raw material is regularly fed and the spent residue keeps moving out.
Serious problems are encountered with agricultural residues when fermented in a single stage
continuous process.
Gas removal
Gas storage
Scum layer
Supernatant
Supernatant layer
outlets
Sludge
Actively
inlet digesting
slurry
Sludge outlet
Figure 4.9 Schematic ofsingle stage process digester
4.10.2. Batch Process Biogas Plant
Batch type biogas plants are more suitable for daily supplies ofraw waste materials where
raw materials are difficult to be obtained. The infeed biomass is fed in batches with large time
interval between two consecutive batches. Once the process of digestion is complete, the plant
is emptied. After the completion of digestion, the fresh biomass charge may be subjected to
aeration or nitro generation after feeding. Then, the digestion covers are closed for the digestion
process. Thereafter, the biogas is derived from the digester after 10 days to 15 days.
The main features ofthe batch plant are as follows:

1. Batch type plants deliver gas intermittently and discontinuously.
2. It needs several digesters or chambers for continuous gas production. They

are alternately fed.
3. It needs initial seeding to start the anaerobic fermentation.

4. Its operation and maintenance are relatively more complex.
5. It has longer digestion time. Therefore, it is more suitable for materials

which are difficult for anaerobic digestion.
Bio-Energy 4.31
Digester
gas outlet Floating cover
Fixed cover
Sludge
outlet
Sludge 4 Scum la er
inlet f Supernatant
Mixer Supernatant
layer outlet
Sludge
heater }l ( Sludge
outlet
Sludge
inlet
First stage Second stage

completely mixed (stratified)
Figure 4.10 Double stage digestion process
4.10.3.Dome and Drum Type Biogas Plant
The dome and drum types are in numerous models. They are mainly classified into the
following two types.
1. The floating gas holder plant.
2. Fixed dome digester.
1. The floating gas holder digester is known as KVICplant. There are different shapes in both
in designs such as cylindrical rectangular, spherical, etc. Again, the digester may be vertical
or horizontal. They are constructed underneath the ground. It is constructed with the help
of a gas holder made of MS plate. The gas holder is separated from the digester. The
formation of rust on the gas holder and cost are main drawback ofthis system.
2. In the fixed dome digester, the digester and gas holder are combined. It is also called
chinese plant. It is best suited for batch processes especially when daily feeding is adopted
in small quantities. The fixed dome digester is usually built below the ground level and
suitable for cooler regions. The pressure inside the digester varies as the gas is collected.
4.11. CLASSIFICATION OF BIOGAS PLANTS OR DlGESTERS
Biogas digesters are classified into four categories as follows.

1. Fixed-dome type biogas plant/digester

2. Floating drum biogas plant/digester
3. Flexible bag type combined digester I gas holder and
4. Floating gasholder type biogas plant/digester
4.11.1. Fixed-Dome Type Biogas Plant/Digester
Figure 4.11 shows a schematic ofthe fixed dome type digester biogas plant. The inlet tank
receives the feed biomass and water. The stirrer with a handle is used for stirring the mixture
to form slurry. It is fed into the digester via inlet pipe. The stirrer mixes the slurry in the
digester. The biogas in the digester is collected in the upper half ofthe digester tank. The upper
dome is a fixed type. The biogas is delivered via the gas outlet pipe. After the production of
biogas, the slurry is discharged by opening a dumper provided at the discharge window. In this
type, there is no provision for expansion of gas in the dome.
Inlet mixing tank

to, b;omass & wate,
\ .
v
_d Handle for stirrer
G:oullet pipe
'tr#!5 /,I
surer
handle
pi#fj#$jff$%t
Slurry
discharge
tank
Damper for
dischar window
Biomass Stirrer Discharge

slurry window
Figure 4.11 Fixed dome type digester

Advantages offixed dome type digester:
1. It has no corrosion trouble.
2. It requires less cost compared to a floating drum type.
3. Cattle, human excreta and long fibrous stalks can be fed.
4. It does not need maintenance.
5. Heat insulation is better and temperature will be constant.
Bio-Energy
Disadvantages offixed dome type digester:

1. Gas production per m3 of the digester volume is also less.
2. It produces a variable gas pressure.
3. It requires skilled masons.
4. Scum formation is a problem if no stirring arrangement is made.
4.11.2. Floating Drum Type Biogas Plant/Digester
This type of biogas plant was designed by Khadi and Village Industries Commission
(KVIC) in 1961 and is now being adopted and popularised by various agencies in many
countries. It is a floating drum digester type biogas plant
,..--.,
'' .. .
Inlet tank
ter seal
nk for
mass
,--,_.,,--,_,,,
Ground level
_ __
~ ,-,,-,-
,,_ _.,,,_,,
' _,,,,_ ,-
_,,, _.,,_.,,,
----A>tt±tr#re±f
Sliding bearing and seal
Figure 4.12 Floating drum digester
Figure 4.12 shows the floating drum type biogas plant. In a floating gasholder type
digester, the gas holder is separated from the digester. In this type, gas collector is a cylindrical
dome fabricated from mild steel plates. The floating gas collector dome slides vertically up and
down in the main digester in accordance with the pressure and volume of biogas.
Initially, the gas holder is at lower level. The biogas is produced in the digester and it rises
naturally into the floating dome collector. The gas pressure· in the dome· increases and the dome
rises to accommodate the gas volume. As the floating dome rises, the volume of gas in the
floating dome increases. The gas outlet pipe is connected to the uppermost point ofthe floating·
dome. The axis of the fixed digester and the floating dome collector are in one line. A central
guide rod passing through the dome gives a proper alignment. The seating arrangement and
guide arrangement are designed to provide leak proof and smooth operation.
The digester tank is of a cylindrical masonry construction. The floating dome is of

fabricated steel construction. The dome guide shaft provides the axial guide to the floating
dome which goes up from initial position to final position as the gas is collected in it. The gas
in the slurry gets collected in the dome and the doine arises.
Advantages offloating drum digester:
1. It has less trouble because solids are constantly submerged.

2. It has no problem of gas leakage.
3. Higher gas production per m' ofthe digester volume is achieved.
4. Constant gas pressure is obtained.
5. Danger of mixing oxygen with the gas is. minimized.
6. No separate pressure device is needed when the fresh waste is added to the tank.
Disadvantages offloating drum digester:
1. It is not suitable for colder regions because of heat lost through the metal holder.
2. It has higher cost.
3. It requires painting once or twice a year depending on the humidity ofthe location.
4. It requires maintenance in flexible pipe joining area and main gas pipe.
4.11.3. Flexible Bag Type Combined Digester/ Gas Holder
wv- Gas pipe
Levelled
surface I
Figure 4.13 Flexible bag digester

Bio-Energy 4.35 ]
Figure 4.13 shows a flexible bag digester. The digester is made of plastic material and it
can be easily installed. The short life of the material due to the effect of ultraviolet rays is a
main drawback. As the gas is generated, the flexible plastic dome gets inflated and the gas is
accommodated in the bag such as a dome.
4.11.4. Floating Gasholder Type Biogas Plant/Digester
This type of biogas plant was designed by Khadi and Village Industries Commission
(KVIC) in 1961 and is now being adopted and popularised by various agencies in many
countries. It is a floating drum digester type biogas plant.
Figure 4.14 shows the floating drum type biogas plant. In a floating gasholder type
digester, the gas holder is separated from the digester. In this type; gas collector is a cylindrical
dome fabricated from mild steel plates. The floating gas collector dome slides vertically up and
down in the main digester in accordance with the pressure and volume of biogas.
r
''
Inlet tank ter seal

nk for
_-- -- ___
-- -
__,
mass
Ground level
__
~ --- --
,....., o
,__
,,_
,.- -- -- --
_.,,,,...,, _.,
Sliding bearing and seal
Figure 4.14 Floating gas/wider type digester
Initially, the gas holder is at lower level. The biogas is produced in the digester and it rises
naturally into the floating dome collector. The gas pressure in the dome increases and the dome
rises to accommodate the gas volume. As the floating dome rises, the volume of the gas in the
floating dome increases.
The gas outlet pipe is connected to the uppermost point ofthe floating dome. The axis of
the fixed digester and the floating dome collector are in one line, A central guide rod passing
through the dome gives a proper alignment. The seating arrangement and guide arrangement
are designed to provide leak proof and smooth operation. The digester tank (I) is of a
cylindrical masonry construction. The floating dome (2) is offabricated steel construction. The
dome guide shaft (3) provides the axial guide to the floating dome which goes from position
(a) to position (b) as the gas is collected in it. The gas in the slurry gets collected in the dome
and the dome arises.
Advantages offloating drum digester:
I. It has less trouble because solids are constantly submerged.

2. It has no problem ofgas leakage.
3. Higher gas production per cu.m ofthe digester volume is achieved.
5. Danger ofmixing oxygen with the gas is minimized.
6. No separate pressure device is needed when the fresh waste is added to the tank.
Disadvantages offloating drum digester:
I. It is not suitable for-colder regions because ofheat lost through the metal holder.
· 2. It has higher cost.
3. It requires painting once or twice a year depending on the humidity ofthe location.
Comparison between floating drum digester andfixed-dome digester:
S.No. Floating gasholder type Fixed-dome type
I. Gas is released at constant pressure. Gas is released at variable pressure.
2. Identifying the defects mn gas Identifying defects is difficult.

holder easy.
3. Cost ofmaintenance is high. Cost ofmaintenance is low.
4. Capital cost is high. Capital cost is low (for same capacity).

Bio-Energy 4.37 j
5. Floating drum does not allow the use Space above the drum can be used.
of space for other purposes.
6. Temperature is low during winter. Temperature is high during winter.
7. Life span is short. Life span is comparatively long.
8. lt require s relatively less excavation. It requires more excavation work.
4.12. GAS YIELD
Biogas yield is the amount ofvolatile matter destroyed or the portion ofthe volatile matter
content which is capable of being decomposed within a comparatively short time.
The biogas yield is mainly dependent on the substrates fed to the digester. Both organic
dry matter content and substrate- related inhibition or needed retention and breakdown time
have an influence on final gas production and gas quality. If methane content is high, the actual
energetic value ofthe gas will be high.
Table 4.3 compares the biogas yield and energy potential for the different feedstocks that
can be utilized for biogas production.
Table 4.3 Biogas yield and electricity producedfrom different potential substrates
Biogas yieldper ton Electricity producedper

Type offeedstock
fresh matter (nr) ton fresh matter (kW·lt)
Cattle dung 55-68 122.5
Chicken litter/dung 126 257.3
Fat 826-1200 1687.4
Food waste (disinfected) 110 224.6
Fruit wastes 74 151.6
Horse manure 56 114.3
Maize silage 200/220 409.6
Municipal solid waste 101.5 207.2
Pig slurry . 11-25 23.5
Sewage sludge 47 96.0
[ 4.38 ) Renewable Energy System
4.13. COMBUSTION CHARACTERISTICS OF BIOGAS
In general, biogas can be used similar to other fuel gas . Biogas has an average methane
content of 55-75% and carbon dioxide of 40% produced by anaerobic digestion of organic
material usually animal dung, human excreta and crop residue.
Biogas is mainly methane (CH,) and carbon dioxide (CO). It has small amount of
hydrogen sulfide (HS), moisture and siloxanes. The gases methane, hydrogen and carbon
monoxide (CO) can be combusted or oxidized with oxygen. This energy release from biogas
combustion provides the opportunity biogas as a fuel. It can be used for any heating purpose,
such as cooking. It can also be used in a gas engine to convert the energy in gas into electricity
and heat. Air composition was changed by increasing oxygen from 21% to 35% 02. Biogas
composition is considered to be 40% CO and 60% CH. It is a typical composition for biogas
produced from anaerobic fermentation of organic waste. The following factors are considered
to calculate the combustion properties of biogas for different enrichment levels.
() Air-fuel mixture combustion is stoichiometric and there is no dissociation reaction.

(ii) The oxygen is supplied from atmospheric air and it is dry. Both fuel and air are ideal
gases and
(iii) The turbulence effect is neglected and the flame is plane and laminar without being
stretched.
Biagas combustion reactions with normal air and with oxygen-enriched air stoichiometric
reactions are as follows:
In normal air (21% 03),

... (4.1)
In oxygen-enriched air, the value of r is nitrogen to air ratio,
0.6CH, + 0.4CO + 1.2 (0 +rN) >CO+ 1.2 HO + 1.2rN ... (4.2)
Considering reactions (4.1) and (4.2) and r values, when oxygen composition is changed
from 21% to 35%, combustion properties such as stoichiometric air volume, wet and dry fume
volumes, maximum CO percentage and steam in wet fumes are determined using the method.
4.14. BIOGAS UTILIZATION FOR COOKING
Biagas production for domestic cooking depends on an affordable appropriate size of

digester at a suitable scale for domestic use, In any digester, the waste is mixed with water to
Bio-Energy 4.39 )
create the right environment for the bacteria to decompose the biomass called anaerobic
process.
It happens without the presence of oxygen in an airtight tank. The biogas accumulates at
the top of the tank where it is collected and taken by a pipe to the user. The slurry is removed
regularly from the tank. It can be used further in an agricultural fertilizer. Based on this
principle, a number of designs have been developed. Digesters come 'in many forms and sizes
ranging from 1m' for a small household unit to some 10 m for a typical farm plant and more
than 1,000 m' for a large installation.
A small-scale biogas system for household-use consists ofthe following components:
(i) Anaerobic digester
(ii) Slurry storage
(iii) Gas handling: Pipes, gas pump or blower, gas meter, pressure regulator and
condensate drain.
(iv) End-use device: Cooker, boiler or lighting equipment.
PVC lock valve for PVC lock valve Stove
L - - - - - -1 - I
Additional reservoir for

high altitude zones
Figure 4.15 Schematic ofbiogas supply line
For transporting biogas from the digester to the cooking place, a tube is needed. Stoves
contain a valve to premix the biogas with the right amount of oxygen, a burner to combust the
mixture and a structure to hold a cook-pot. Stoves and ovens for biogas application are almost
similar to conventional appliances running on commercial gas-fuels. Most of these
conventional appliances can be adapted for the use with biogas by special measures to obtain
both proper combustion and efficient use of energy.
4.15. SIZE OF BIOGAS PLANTS
Category Biogas Delivery

Size of
Applications I
I
i
Digester
I Very small biogas 0.65 m'/day - For small family of
i
! plant 3 members having I
I
' ~ 2 cattle. I
Small biogas plant 2mlday - For family of

6 members, having
8 catties.
Medium size biogas 3 m'lday 1.6 m dia. For family of
plant 4.2 m height 12 members, having 12
cattle.
8.34 m'
6 m'lday 3.3 m dia .
Large farm size
. For a farm having
biogas plant 4.65 m poultry dairy, having 20
I
cattle.
height
Large community 20000m3 /day 4 digesters 50,000 cattle

size
4.15.1. Technical Data Calculations for a Medium Size Biogas Plant
Technical data for a family size biogas plant with a rating of 3m/day of biogas is given.
1. Type of feed: Cow-dung
2. Number of animals: 12
3. Cattle dung per day/animal: 10 kg/day
4. Total cattle dung for 12 animals: 120 kg/day
Total cattle dung collection: 70% of 120
= 0.70 x 120 = 84 kg/day
5. Dry solid cow dung = 84 x 0.18 = 16 kg/day
6. Biogas produced = 16x 0.57 = 9.2 kg/day
7.
Volume at 25°C and} = 25 3
atmospheric pressure "7
8. Weight of biogas in 3 m'= 3 kg

Bio-Energy 4.41
4.15.2. Selection of Size for a Biogas Plant
The factors considered for selection ofsize ofa biogas plant (i.e. very small, small, medium,
or large) are as follows:
1. Distance:
The distance between plant and site ofgas consumption should be less. For a plant capacity
of2 m', the optimum distance is 10m.
2. Open space:
It is essential for gas generation to maintain the plant temperature between l 5°C and 30°C.
3. Seasonal run of
fwater:
A proper care has to be taken to prevent the interference of run-off water during the
monsoon.
4. Di
stancefrom wells:
A distance of 15 m should be kept from wells to avoid well water pollution.
5. Water table:
The plant should not be constructed if the water table is more than 3m.
6. Space requirements:
The plant requires a sufficient space for day-to-day operation and maintenance. Normally,
10 to 12 m area is required per m' ofthe gas.
7. Availability ofwater:
Plenty of water is required as the cow dung slurry with a solid concentration of 7% to 9%
is used.
4.15.3. Digester Design Considerations

o
While designing a biogas plant the following factors considered to be considered to obtain
an optimum size of the plant.
1. Period of digestion
2. The volume of waste to be digested daily

3. Efficiency of the collection ofthe raw waste
4. Climate condition ofthe region
5. Volume of waste to be digested daily
· [ 4.42 Renewable Energy System
6. Methods of stirring
7. Availability offennentable waste
8. Subsoil condition and water table, and
9. Type of cover.
4.15.4. Digester Design Calculations
1. The capacity of the digestion tank can be calculated by
(F+,)
Capacity = - x t
2
where Vi = the volume of raw waste added daily
Vi = volume ofthe waste after digestion
t = period of digestion in days.
2. The energy available from a biogas digester is given by
E = n H,
where n Combustion efficiency of burners
H
, =
=
Heat of combustion per unit volume
Volume ofbiogas.
3. The volume of biogas is given by
Vi = Cmo
wh ere C = biogas per unit dry mass of whole input
mo. = mass ofthe dry input.
4. The volume of fluid in the digester is given by
V, = mo/pn
where Pm is the density of dry material in the fluid.
5.
,t,
The volume of digester is given by
V =
where VJ = Flow rate ofthe digester fluid
t, = Retention time in the digester.
Bio-Energy 4.43_]
4.15.5. Design of a Community Biogas Plant for a Village
A village consisting of 100 families in which each family is of 4 persons. Two children
are equivalent to one person. Survey report of village gives the following information about
catties.
1. Cows = 102
2. Oxen = 120
3. Buffalo = 50
4. Pig = 05
1. Design considerations:
1. A community biogas plant is to be designed only for cooking and house lighting.
2. Gas required for cooking/person/day= 0.227 m.
3. Gas required for lighting/lamb/hour= 0.126 m3 •
4. 2 lamps are allotted for each family which would burn 2 hrs daily.
2. Calculations:
1. Total quantity of dung available
(i) Cow = 10 kg/day/cow

= 10 x 102 = 1020 kg/day
(ii) Ox = 12 kg/day/ox
= 12 x 120 = 1440 kg/day.

(iii) Buffalo = 15 kg/day/buffalo
= 15 x 50 = 750 kg/day.
(iv) Pig = 2 kg/day/pig
- 2 x 5 = 10 kg/day.
. :. Total quantity of dung available,
= 1020 + 1440 + 750 + 10 = 3220 kg/day ... (4.3)
Assume that gas produced from 1 kg of gobar in
(i) Winter = 42litres

(ii) Summer = 55 litres
:. Total gas produced/day in winter,
42 x 3220 = 135240 livday =135.2 m/day ... (4.4)

Total gas produced/day in summer,
55 x 3220 = 177100 lit/day =177.1 m3/day ... (4.5)
It is advisable to design on minimum gas generating capacity,
i.e., = 135.2 m3 /day
Total gas required in village for cooking,
0.227 X 400 = 90.8 m ... (4.6)
Gas required for lighting = (2 lamp x 98 family)

= 2x0.126 x100= 25.2 m? ... (4.7)
Total gas required for cooking and lighting

= 90.8 + 25.2 = 116 m3
:. Surplus gas 135.2-116 = 19.2 m3

The remaining 19 m may be used for street lighting and leakage account.
For our convenience in distribution, 4 digesters can be used.
. · 3220
:. The dung required for each digester = =805kg
f , d . h _ (weight of dung + weight of water)

1 c arge -
Vo 1 ume o the laily . Density of slurry
807 +805 _.as ?

1090 · m
Taking density of slurry, p= 1090 kg/m3
Digester volume = Volume ofthe daily charge x Retention time
= 1.48 X 30 = 44 m'
It is the minimum working volume. The actual volume should be about 10% more to provide
some empty space at the top for the proper disengagement ofthe gas.
:. Actual digester volume= 1. 1 x 44 = 48.74 m3
Height (H) to diameter (D) ratio is taken as unity for any large plant.
T TL
Volume = ~ D2 H = - H2 X H= - JI'
4 4 4
m_ Volume _ 48.74 _62.093

0.785 0.785 .
Bio-Energy 4.45 j
Height of the digester, H= 3.95m Ans.
Diameter, D=3.95m Ans.
4.15.6. Solved Anna University Problem
AU Problem 4.1
Design a bio gas gasifierfor a community hall located in village of Yelagiri hills, Tamil
Nadu. In this, village has a total population of 300families with 120 men, 80 women and
I 00 children. The biogas consumptionforfoodpreparation of the tribalpeople are 300 litres
for men, 200 litres for women and I 00 litres for children respectively. A buffalo yields an
average of 40 kg of dung every day. The average estimated the gasproductionfrom the dung
is around 10 litres/kg of dung. Estimate the number of buffaloes required to. meet the gas
requirementforfoodpreparation for that tribal people. The density of slurry is I 090 kg/m'.
Estimate the size of the digester ifthe height: Diameter ratio is 3:1.
Given data:
No. of men= 120
No. of women= 80
No. of children = 100
Consumption of men= 300 litre's
Consumption of women = 200 litres
Consumption of children= 100 litres
Quantity of dung= 40 kg/day
Gas production = 10 litres/kg
Density, p = 1090 kg/m
HID= 3 ==> H=3D
©Solution:
Gas produced from I buffalo = 40 x IO= 400 litres/day/cow
Total gas required for 300 families = Gas required for men + Gas required
for women + Gas required for children
= 300 120 + 200 x 80 + 100 x 100
= 62,000 litres/day= 62 m3/day
.• N 'UIi@I f~ 1
b O] f b MI[ialOeS d d N
feed@«,
Totalrequiredfor300families
Gas produced by I buffalo
62000
=-
400
= 155 Ans.
15% of total gas is assumed for the compensation due to leakage.

Surplus gas 15% of total gas required
l? 62=9.3mtday
100
Actual total gas required =62+9.3=71.3 m'/day
Volume ofthe daily charge _(Actual total gas produced)_ 71.2_0.0654 m?

Density of slurry 1090 ·
Usual retention period = 30 days
Digester volume = Volume of the daily charge x Retention time
= 0.0654 X 30 = 1.962 m3
It is the minimum working volume. The actual volume should be about 10% more to
provide some empty space at the top for the proper disengagement of the gas.
:. Actual digester volume = 1.l x 1.962 =2. I 6 m
Height (H) to diameter (D) ratio 'is taken as unity for any large plant.
Actual digester volume = DH
2.16 = T
D3 p =
37
D'
D 3 =~
3 7t = 16
• 3
:. Diameter, D= 1.18 m Ans.
Also, height of the digester, H= 3.54 m Ans.
4.16. METHODS FOR MAINTAINING BIOGAS PRODUCTION
There are several methods for maintaining biogas production as follows:
1. Insulating the gas plant

2. Composing
3. Hot water circulation
Bio-Energy 4.47 )
4. Use of chemicals
5. Solar energy systems.
1. Insulating the gas plant:
In order to avoid the heat loss from the digester, the external surface of the digester is
adequately insulated using different materials such as mineral wool, aluminium cladding, fibre
glass, straw, etc.
2. Composing:
The heat released in aerobic composing of agriculture residues around the annular ring in
the upper part of the digester can be utilized to raise the digester operating temperature.
3. Hot water circulation:
The hot water circulation has been reported to be efficient for maintaining temperatures
of the fermented slurry at the desired level.
4. Use ofchemicals:
Chemicals such as urea and urine have been suggested to increase the digester
temperature.
5. Solar energy systems:
The solar energy can be provided to the digester by two methods. They are given below.
1. Active method
2. Passive method
In the first method, the incoming feed is preheated using solar energy during the day and it
is fed to the digester when it attains the desired temperature.
In the passive method, a solar canopy is used to enhance the biogas production for the low
temperature in winter and polythene or the plastic sheet is used for canopy.
4.17. SELECTION OF SITE FOR BIOGAS PLANTS
Selection of construction sites are based on the following factors such as
1. The site should facilitate easy construction works.

2. The selected site should be in such a way that the construction cost is minimized.
3. The selected site should ensure easy operation and maintenance activities such as
feeding of plant, use of main gas valve, composing and use of slurry, checking of
gas leakage, draining condensed water from pipeline etc.
4. The site should guarantee plant safety.
5. To make plant operations easier and avoid wastage of raw materials especially the
dung/swine manure, plant must be as close as possible to the cattle shed.
6. Th e site shouid be in slightly higher elevation than the surrounding. It helps in
avoiding water logging. It also ensures free flow of slurry from overflow outlet to
the composting pit.
7. For effective functioning of bio-digesters, right temperature (20-35°C) has to be

maintained inside the digester. Therefore, it is better to avoid damp and cool place
because sunny site is preferable.
8. To mix dung and water or flush swine manure to the digester, considerable quantity·
of water is required. If water source is far away, the burden of fetching water
becomes more.
9. The well or ground water source should be at least 10 m away from the biodigester
especially the slurry pit to avoid the ground water pollution.
10. If longer gas pipe is used, the cost will be increased as the conveyance system
becomes costly. Also, longer pipeline increases the risk of gas leakage. The main
gas valve which is fitted just above the gas holder should be opened and closed
before and afterthe use ofbiogas. Therefore, the plant should be as near to the point
ofapplication as possible.
l l. The site should be at sufficient distance from trees to avoid damage ofbio- digester
from roots.
12. Type ofsoil should have enough bearing capacity to avoid the possibility of sinking
of structure.
4.18. LOCATION OF BIOGAS PLANTS
A biogas plant should be located less than 5 m from the field. The digester chamber must
be in an open area and should not be near any water source or natural water because animal
excrement may seep into underground water. The plant should also be situated on a slope and
not on the low land to avoid the danger of floods. The excess manure from expansion chamber
Bio-Energy 4.49 ]
should flow into the farmer's field or the storage tank but it should not flow into natural water
bodies such as rivers to avoid the risk ofpollution.
4.19. CHALLENGES IN HANDLING BIOGAS PLANTS
I. Handling of effluent slurry is a major problem.
2. The gas forming-methanogeric bacteria are sensitive towards the temperature.

3. Lack oftraining the biogas plant owners creates a lot of problems.
4. Adding urea-fertilizer in large quantities may reduce the gas production.
5. pH and volatile fatty acids play an important role in anaerobic digestion.
6. Leakage of gas from gas holder especially in Janata type plants is a major problem.
4.20. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BIOGAS GENERATION
Advantages ofbiogas:
(i) Biogas bums very cleanly and produces fewer pollutants during cooking than any
other fuel except electricity.
(ii) Biogas provides instant heat upon ignition, no pre-heating or waiting time is
required.
(iii) Most biogas burners are able to regulate the flow-rate to tum down fire-power from
high heat to small low heat for simmering.
(iv) Biogas can be used for lighting as well.
(v) The by-product from the digester can be used as fertilizer.

(vi) Biogas is a renewable fuel.
Disadvantages ofbiogas:
(i) High investment costs are needed for the digester, tubes, gas stove and pots.
(ii) Biogas can increase the workload of women as it is often made their task to run the
digester.
(iii) It is not viable for elderly or sick people to run a biogas plant on their own if they
do not have labor to assist them in the maintenance of the digester.
(iv) Installations must be protected against theft and damages.
(v) Cultural rules might limit the acceptance of handling dung or feces and their use as
fuel for cooking.
(vi) Cooking with biogas requires the change of cooking habits which might prevent the
adoption.
(vii) Biogas is difficult to store and transport to other consumers.
4.21. APPLICATIONS OF BIOGAS PLANTS
·Bioenergy is a main support of decarbonisation in the energy transition as a near zero-

emission fuel. Bioenergy is useful due to flexibility in the contexts and sectors. It can be used
as solid bioenergy and biogases combusted for power and heat in homes and industrial plants
to liquid biofuels used in cars, ships and airplanes. Also, biomethane can use existing natural
gas pipelines and end-user equipment while many drop-in liquid biofuels can use existing oil
distribution networks and be used in vehicles with only minor alterations.
Some of the potential applications ofbio energy are as follows.
(i) Mechanical applications such as water pumping and power generation
(ii) Heat generation

(iii) High.efficiency wood burning stoves
(iv) Bio fuels.
4.21.1. Water Pumping

Using biomass gas, it is possible to operate a diesel engine on dual fuel mode-part diesel
and part biomass gas. Diesel substitution ofthe order of75% t0 80% can be obtained at nominal
loads. The mechanical energy thus derived can be used either for energizing a water pump set
for irrigational purpose or for coupling with an alternator for electrical power generation of
3.5 k- 10 MW.
4.21.2. Electricity Generation
For generating the electricity, the producer gas from biomass is utilised. All types of
gasifiers described in earlier section can provide producer gas for combustion purposes but for
the sake of simplicity up-draught gasifiers are preferred in small systems (below l MW thermal
power) while fluidised bed gasifiers are appropriate in power ranges above this level.
For generating the electricity, the producer gas from the biomass gasifier is first cleaned
and cooled and then it is used as a fuel in an IC engine. A generator coupled to the engine
produces electricity.
Bio-Energy 4.51
Biomass gasifier engines are typically available in capacities ranging from 10 kW to 500
kW. Two types of engines are used. Diesel engines are modified and it can be run on a mixture
of diesel and producer gas. These are called dual-fuel engines. Typically 60 -85% diesel is
replaced with producer gas. Now, 100% producer gas engines are also available. These engines
can operate on 100% producer gas.
Biomass gasifier-based electricity generation has typically been. used for three types of
applications.
(a) Village electrification in an off-grid mode:

In recent years biomass gasifiers have been used for electrification ofremote villages. The
size of such systems can vary from 1 0kW to 500 kW. In India, several of the smaller size (10-
20 kW) biomass gasifier systems have been established under two Government of India
schemes called Remote Village Electrification (RYE) and Village Energy Security Programme
(VESP). Apart from the Government programmes, several NGOs and corporate have also
established such systems.
One of the first successful applications of biomass gasifier for rural electrification in an
off-grid mode is 500 kW gasifier plant set-up at Gosaba island of Sundarban in India. The plant
was set-up in 1997 and consists of 5 x 100 kW units. The gasifiers are closed-top downdraft
systems based on woody biomass. The plant has dual-fuel engines. The plant serves around
900 consumers.
(b) Grid-connected biomass gasifier based powerplants:

There are some examples of grid-connected biomass gasifier power plants. These are
relatively large sized gasifier with capacities ranging in hundreds of kW. A typical example of
this type of power plant is Arashi Hitech Bio power plant situated at Sulthanpet, Coimbatore,
Tamilnadu. It is a gasifier based power plant linked to the State grid. In the first phase, an 800
kg/hr gasifier system was integrated with a low speed marine diesel engine in July 2002. The
power plant has operated in the dual-fuel mode at an average load of 600 kW for nearly 6000
hours. The average liquid fossil replacement recorded is 68% with specific biomass
consumption being 0.6-0.7kglkWh. Recently, the dual-fuel engine has been replaced with 5 x
250 kW producer gas engines.
(c) Biomass gasifierfor captive power generation:

Biomass gasifier plants in an industry or an institute are usually used as captive power
generation unit. In India, a large number of systems have been put-up in rice mills with rice-
husk as the feed material for gasifiers.
4.21.3. Thermal Applications or Heat Generation

A few of the devices to which gasifier could be retrofitted are dryers for drying tea, flower,
spices, kilns for baking tiles or potteries, furnaces for melting non-ferrous metals, boilers for
process steam, etc. Direct combustion of biomass has been recognized as an important route
for generation of power by utilization of enormous amount of agricultural residues, agro-
industrial residues and forest wastes. Gasifiers can be used for power generation and available
upto a capacity 500 kW.
A very large number of micro, small and medium enterprises (MSME) use biomass as
well as fissile fuels for generating heat. With continued rising prices of fossil fuels coupled
with their scarcity in open market many of these small and are facing serious problems in
controlling fuel cost and as a result keeping competitive pricing for existence in the market.
Gasification technology offers them an option to have all benefits of gaseous fuels using
comparatively cheaper locally available solid biomass fuel. There are a variety of fuel-fired
furnaces that are ideal candidates for switching over to producer gas from biomass. These are
listed in the table below.
Type Application/ Temperature (PC)
Forging furnace 1200 -1250

-
Re-rolling mills 900-1200
Direct fired process Food, textile, paper, printing, chemical, rubber, plywood and
heaters plastic industries.
Dryers Paper, cardboard, wood and lumber, textile, ceramic, tobacco,

plastic, paint, food and pharmaceutical industries.
Kilns Gypsum, vitreous china-plumbing fixture, brick and structural

clay and concrete industries.
-
Ovens Low-temperature (ranging between 20 to 370°C) cooking, baking,
curing, or to vulcanize rubber or plastic. The food industry uses
ovens to bake bread, cookies, crackers, pretzels, while the rubber
and plastic industries use the lower temperature heat produced in
ovens in the production of tires, footwear, hosiery, and rubber
belts (e.g. fan belts).
Small boilers Various industries

Bio-Energy 4.53 ]
4.21.4. Mobile Applications
The use of down-draught gasifiers fuelled by wood or charcoal to power cars, lorries, buses,
trains, boats and ships has proved its value. This technique is currently being studied for
powering tractors (Switzerland, France, Finland, Netherlands) as well as small vans and boats
(Philippines) and lorries (Sri Lanka).
However, mobile applications present a number of additional difficulties as compared with

stationary units.
In the first place, the construction needs to be as light as possible in order not to reduce
excessively the hauling capacity of the vehicle.
In the second place, mobile applications tend to operate with fairly large variations in
engine (and gasifier) load. Under a given set of circumstances (especially long idling periods),
it can lead to tar formation and clogging of cooler/cleaners and engines as commonly occurred
during the Second World War.
Applications on trains and boats suffer less from weight and load constraints and for this
reason give better results.
Engines retrofitted with gas producers show an appreciable loss of maximum power and it
will depend very much on the geographical situation (flat or hilly terrain) as well as on the
skills of the driver whether the vehicle can be operated satisfactorily.
Whether these disadvantages will be balanced by the better economy of gasifier fuelled
transport vehicles depend entirely on the local situation, especially on the cost and availability
of petrol and diesel oil.
4.21.5. High Efficiency Wood Burning Stoves

These stoves save more than 50% fuel wood consumption. They reduce drudgery of
women saving time in cooking and fuel collection and consequent health hazards. They also
help in saving firewood leading to conservation of forests. They also create employment
opportunities for people in the rural areas.
4.21.6. Bio Fuels
Unlike other renewable energy sources, biomass can be converted directly into liquid fuels
and bio fuels for our transportation needs (cars, trucks, buses, airplanes and trains). The two
most common types of bio fuels are ethanol and biodiesel.
Biodiesel produced by plants such as rapeseed (canola), sunflowers and soybeans can be
extracted and refined into fuel which can be burned in diesel engines and buses. Biodiesel can
also be made by combining alcohol with vegetable oil or recycled cooking greases. It can be
used as an additive to reduce vehicle emissions (typically 20%) or in its pure form as a
renewable alternative fuel for diesel engines.
4.22. BIOMASS GASIFIERS
The word gasification implies the conversion ofsolid fuel into a gaseous fuel by a thermo-
chemical method without leaving any solid carbonaceous residue. Gasifier is an equipment
which converts biomass into producer gas. Most common raw materials are given below.
1. Wood chips
2. Coconut shells
3. Straw
4. Rice husk.
Gasification involves the partial combustion and reduction operations of biomass. In a

typical combustion process, the combustion products mainly carbon dioxide, water vapour,
nitrogen, carbon monoxide and hydrogen pass through glowing layer of charcoal for the
reduction process to occur. The composition of gas production depends on the degree of
equilibrium among various reactions.
1. Gasifier reactions:
The following reactions are occurs during the gasification
C+O ---► CO + 393800 k.J/kg mo/ (combustion)
C+ HO ---► CO + H -131400kJkgmol (water gas)
CO + HO +--+ CO2 + H+ 41200 k.J/kg mo/ (water shift reaction)
C+CO ---► 2 CO- 172600 k.J/kg mo/
C+2HO ---► CO + 2 H- 78700 kIlkg mol
C+2H ---► CI-Lt + 75000 k.J/kg mo/ (Methane reaction).
2. Chemistry ofthe gasification process:

The chemical reactions in a gasifier are classified into three zones.
1. Oxidation zone
Bio-Energy [«ss]
2. Reduction zone and
3. Distillation zone.
In the oxidation zone, the oxygen in the air-steam blast reacts with the carbon in the fuel to
reduce carbon to form hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
CO coming from oxidation zone is reduced in the reduction zone. The final gas
composition relies on the water-gas shift reaction.
In the distillation zone, the raw fuel is preheated and carbonized by giving of condensable
and non-condensable gases.
Twigs and sticks

wood savings Stalks and Dry waste from
packing wood root of - saw mills
waste cotton toor - paper pulp industries
castor
\
(Pieces and chunks)
Biomass
Drying
rose f Gas
Oxidation_!_
Reductiont _
A
Ash
\ --------------------- J
Gas · Gas
ASH
Figure 4.16 Schematic diagram ofa gasifier
Pyrolysis (destructive distillation) converts organic wastes to char, tar and oils and gas. In
Figure 4.16, four separate zones are shown i.e., drying, pyrolysis, oxidation and reduction.
( 4.56 Renewable Energy System
4.23. TYPES OF BIOMASS GASIFIERS
Biomass gasifiers are broadly classified based on the following factors.
I. The direction of the gas-flow

2. Output or capacity of the gasifiers
3. Type of combustion bed.
I. According to the direction of the gas flow, the gasifiers are classified into
(i) Down draught
(ii) Up draught
(iii) Cross draught.
2. According to output power the gasifiers are classified into

(i) Small size gasifiers (<10 kW)
(ii) Medium size gasifiers (10 kW to 50 k)
(iii) Large size gasifiers (50 kW to 300 kW)
(iv) Very large size gasifiers(> 300 k)
3. According to type of bed, the gasifiers are classified into

\ .
(i) Fixed-bed gasifier

(ii) Fluidised-bed gasifier
In above types, the downdraft type is best suited for a variety of biomass. In this, its design
forces the raw products to pass through a high temperature zone.
4.23.1. Down Draught Gasifiers
Figure 4.17 shows the fixed-bed downdraft type gasifier. In this type, air enters at the
combustion zone and the gas produced leaves near the bottom of the gasifier. The volatiles and
tars produced from the descending fixed bed have to pass through the reaction zone. These
gasifiers are suitable for fuels such as wood and agricultural wastes. It is used for power
generation up to above 150 kW.
In a steady state operation, heat from combustion zone is transferred upwards by radiation,
conduction and convection causing wood chips to pyrolyse and loose 70-80% of their weight.
These pyrolysed gases burn with air to form CO, CO, H and HO thereby raising the
temperature to 1 OOO- l 200°C.
Bio-Energy
4.57 )
About 40-70% air is drawn through open top depending on the pressure drop conditions
.
due to size of wood chips and gas flow rate. This flow of air opposite to flame front helps in
.
maintaining homogeneous air/gas flow across the bed. Combining the open top air with nozzle
air towards the bottom of the reactor helps in stabilizing the combustion zone by consuming
the uncovered char left.
The high temperature zone spreads above the air nozzle by radiation and conduction and
aided by airflow from the top. The tar is eliminated in. the best possible way and the gas
produced is withdrawn from an exit at the bottom and it is reintroduced in the annular jacket
for heal recovery. The hot gas enters the annular jacket around 500°C and it transfers some
. '
heat to wood chips inside. The inner wall temperature reaches more than 350°C after a few
hours of operation.
Biomass feed
Top
Drying zone {Up to 350° C)

777 7
77777
o69669
o969°
o006060 Oxidation or combustion zone
009o (Up to 1000"-1200"c)
Air--- ◄ Air
2r-ii2rn eduction zone (Upto
700"-1000"c)
Producer gas
Water seal
Figure 4.17Down draught gasifier
The regenerative heating due to the transfer of heat from hot gas to the biomass moving
downwards also increases its residence time in high temperature zone. The raw gases forced
by the throat to pass through a high temperature zone. Most ofthe unburnt tars are cracked into
[4.ss ] Renewable Energy System
gaseous hydrocarbons. Therefore, it produces relatively a clean gas. The raw producer gas can
be used in thermal applications. Raw gas contains varying amounts of dust particles, moisture
and tar.
A typical composition of the gas obtained from wood gasification on volumetric basis is
as follows:
co 18 to 22%
H, 13 to 19%
Methane 1 to 5%
HC 0.2 to 0.4%
N 45 to 55%
Water vapour - 4%
The gas can be used for generation of motive power either in dual fuel engines or in diesel.
engines. SI engines use producer gas entirely and CI engines made to operate with about 60-
80%. Fuel oil is replaced by the gas. Complete combustion takes place with excess air whereas
the gasification takes place with excess carbon.
The advantages of gasifier are given below.
1. It is reliable in operation.
2. It is very easy to operate the gasifier.
3. Its maintenance is easy.
4.23.2. Up Draught Gasifier
Figure 4.18 shows the up draught gasifier. An up draught type gasifier is known as
counterflow gasifier. In this type, air enters below the combustion zone and the producer gas
leaves near the top of the gasifier. It is easy to build and operate. The updraught gasifier
achieves the highest efficiency as the hot gas passes through the fuel bed and leaves the gasifier
at low temperature.
The producer gas is produced in the reduction zone that leaves the gasifier together with
the pyrolysis products and steam from the drying zone. The resulting gas is rich in
hydrocarbons (tars) and it is suitable only for direct heating purposes in industrial furnaces.
The gas produced has practically no ash but it contains tar and water vapour because of passing
the gas through the unburnt fuel. These types of gasifiers are suitable for tar free fuels such as
char-coal especially in stationary engines.
Biomass feed
Top
Producer gas
Pyrolysis zone
Oxidation or combustion zone
Reduction zone
Fire port -. hnierrins'snin

Air nal
Figure 4.18 Updraft gasifier
4.23.3. Cross Draught Gasifier
Cross draft gasification is one of the simplest types of gasification. The reactor for this
gasification is similar to the updraft gasifier in which the fuel will enter from the top and the
thermochemical reaction will occur progressively as this fuel descends into the reactor. A cross-
draft gasifier is adapted for the use of charcoal.
Figure 4.19 shows the cross draught gasifier. In this type of gasifier, the producer gas
passes upwards in the annular space around the· gasifier which is filled with charcoal. The
charcoal acts as an insulator and a dust filter. Air enters the cross draft gasifier through a water
cooled nozzle. The gas is produced by the horizontal zone in front of the nozzle and it passes
through a vertical grate into the hot gas port on the opposite side.
Advantages:
(i) Charcoal can be used instead of wood in gasification. Usually charcoal does not
produce tars.
(ii) Only few steps ofcleaning equipment are required.

(iii) The crossdraft gasifier operates in small scale.
(iv) The technology is mainly used in developing countries.
(v) The gasifier system is simple, cheap and easy to operate.
Biomass feed
Top
Biomass hopper
+
Oxidation or combustion zone

Pyrolysis zone
If - m Producer gas
Ash
Figure 4.19 Cross draught gasifier
Disadvantages:
(i) Due to the use of charcoal, high combustion temperature is reached (1500°C)
which can lead to local material problems.
(ii) Also, manufacturing charcoal from wood represents a large loss of energy
potential and the manufacturing process.
4.23.4. Fluidised-Bed Gasifier
Figure 4.20 shows the fluidised-bed gasifier. This type ofgasifier takes advantage ofthe
excellent mixing characteristics and high reaction rates of gas-solid mixtures. It consists of a
chamber containing a bed of inert particles such as sand or limestone supported by distributor
plates. Pressurised air is passed through the distributor plate. The velocity ofair is progressively
increased so as to support the entire weight ofthe bed by the fluid drag on the bed particles due
Bio-Energy 4.61
to upward flowing air. The bed is then said to be incipiently fluidised. It exhibits fluid like
properties above this particular velocity called minimum fluidisation velocity. This moving
rriass ofsolid particles is calledfluidised bed. The turbulence ofthe bed increases with velocity
greater than the minimum fluidisation velocity.
In combustion/gasification process, the fluidised bed is first heated externally close to the
operating temperature. The bed material, usually sand, absorbs and stores the heat while the
turbulence and mixing ofthe bed keeps the temperature very uniform throughout the bed. When
biomass fuel is introduced into the fluidised bed, the high heat and mass transfer characteristics
ofthe bed permit the rapid energy conversion under practically isothermal conditions. The high
surface area available in fluidised bed and the constantly moving area per unit volume on which
reactions occur by resulting the good conversion efficiency and lower operating temperature
when compared to fixed beds. Uniform temperatures and high heating capacities ofsand media
permit a wide range oflow grade fuels ofeven non-uniform size and varying moisture content
to be converted to the desired products. The processes ofpyrolysis and char conversion occur
throughout the bed.
Fluidised bed
Ash out
•
Air, oxygen or steam entry
Figure 4.20 Fluidised-bedgasifier

Although a fluidised bed gasifier can handle a wide range of biomass fuels, the fuel
particles must be less than 10 cm in length and must have no more than 65% moisture content.
The fluidised bed design produces a gas with low tar content but a higher value of particulate.
is compared with fixed-bed designs.
4.24. APPLICATIONS OF BIOMASS GASIFIER
The potential applications ofthe biomass gasifier can be analysed on the basis ofthe total
energy requirements in a particular application.
._ 0)
<l) C
.:0: ·a
a. 0
C E m0
u ·,.;
:}
0.
._
0)
C
·c
·c ~ ... n,
t5 <l)
2 5 <l) .c <l)
<l) C C .c O >
·;::
5
Q)
0) £ C)
......
O E
(1) ·-
-6
._
g <l)
>
0
::
0
5 a.
(/)
<l)
C:
5
C
uI
._
<I)
C:
U
<l)
c3
(/)
C:
0
£a.
a.
(ti
(/)
co
C)
JaJIsE9
Figure 4.21 Applications ofgasifier

Bio-Energy [_ 4.ss ]
Figure 4.21 shows the applications ofthe biomass gasifier. Small size gasifiers (up to kW)
are used in rural areas especially for providing shaft line power to agricultural pumps thereby
processing machinery and agricultural processing machineries.
Medium size gasifiers (10 kW-5O k) meet the shaft line power requirements of various
rural industries such as saw mills, carpentry workshops, mechanical fabrication shops as well
as small rice mills. They can also find some extensive applications.
4.25. PROBLEMS IN DEVELOPMENT OF BIOMASS GASIFIERS
The major problems occur in the development of gasifiers.
1. Fuel supply and cost

2. Capital costs and Economics
3. Technology development
4. Safety
5. Market barriers
1. Fuel supply and cost:
The fuel requirements for gasifiers vary from 1.0 to 1.3 kg/kW depending on the feed
properties such as moisture content, calorific value and ash content. 100 kW and 300 kW
systems require approximately 850 MT and 2550 MT of feed respectively.
2. Capital costs and economics:
It is important to evaluate how gasifiers compete against other technologies. In

considering economics, the capital, present charges for energy, operating costs, capacity
utilization, etc., become important factors.
3. Technology development:
The areas further needed developments in gasifiers are given below.
(a) Bridging andjamming
It is the handling of feed and ash either inside or outside gasifiers. They can also find
extensive application as a decentralized source of electrical energy in milk chilling centers.
Large size gasifiers (50 kW and above) are used in rural as well as urban industries besides
$ •
being a source of decentralised electrification. It is also used in dairy, oil mill, mineral
processing, brick manufacturing, ceramics and pottery industries, etc. These gasifiers can be
also used in mining operations, forest based wood processing units, well drilling, etc.
(b) Lack ofproven gas clean up systems:
Tar build up on the valves and fast wearing of engine and pistons. This in turn results 'the
frequent overhaul of the system.
(c) Lack ofdata to carryout proper modifications in airfuel mixing systems.

4. Safety:
A proper CO metering arrangement as well as safety devices needs to be provided with

the systems. The system also needs a provision to divert the gas to stack in an emergency
shutdown.
5. Market barriers:
The known technologies and conventional fuels can pose problems for gasifier marketing.
The gasification system suppliers must convince the potential users that the cost is worthy and
there is no risk of operating a new technology.
4.26. ECONOMICS OF BIOENERGY
The economics of biomass-based power generation system is calculated by evaluating

various costs involved in producing the bio energy. A power plant should generate a reliable
supply of electricity at a possible minimum cost to the investor and consumer.
For the success and commercialization of any power generation technology, it is essential
to know whether' the technology is economically viable or not. Therefore, it is essential to
evaluate the economics of biomass power generation.
In the economic analysis, the cost of generation is determined by the following costs:
4.26.1. Capital Investment Cost
The capital investment cost of biomass power generation includes the cost of gasifier,
engine generator, civil/construction work and installation, biomass preparation unit, syngas
clean-up unit, electricity distribution network, and electrical and piping connection to the site
of the gasifier installation.
Different projects will have different requirements for each of these components with
infrastructure requirements/ improvements in particular being very project-sensitive. Table 4.4
presents a breakdown of the typical cost structure of different biomass power generation
technologies.
Bio-Energy
4.65 )
The feedstock conversion system comprises boilers (stoker, CFB, BFB, etc.), gasifiers and
anaerobic digesters with a gas collection system as well as the gas cleaning systems for gasifiers
and gas treatment systems for AD systems. Electrical/balance of the plant includes grid
connection and control and monitoring systems but not any cost for extending transmission
lines. The prime mover is the power generation technology and includes any in-line elements
such as particulate matter, filters etc. As it can be seen, the prime mover, feedstock conversion
technology and feedstock preparation and handling machinery account for between 62% and
77% ofthe capital costs for the biomass power generation.
The total installed cost range including all balance of plant equipment (e.g. electrical, fuel
handling, civil works) as well as owners costs including consultancy, design and working
capital is presented in Table 4.5.
Table 4.4 Proportion ofcapital cost ofdifferent biomass power generation technologies
Item Stoker Fluidized Gasifier Anaerobic
Bed boiler digester
Consultancy/Design 19% 11% 4% 9%
Civil works 13% 14% 19% 19%
Fuel Handling/ Preparation 14% 15% 4% 22%
Electrical / balance of plant 13% 16% 3% 8%
Converter system (gasifier) 37% 37% 62% 31%
Prime Mover 4% 7% 8% 11%
Table 4.5 Installed capital cost rangefor different biomass power generation technologies
Power generation Installed capital cost

technology range (USS/KW)
Stoker 1700 - 4300
Fluidized Bed boiler 2200 - 4500
Gasifier 2200 - 5700
Anaerobic digester 2700 - 6400
4.26.2. Operation and Maintenance (O&M) Cost

O&M cost refers to the fixed and variable costs associated with the operation ofbiomass
fired power generation plants. O&M cost includes salaries and wages, cost of repair (including
spare parts, water, lubrication, and miscellaneous expenses), fixed cost, fuel cost, cost of
catalyst, chemicals and waste disposal, capital depreciation, average income tax, average return
on investment, insurance, overhauling equipment cost, cost of administrative offices, storage
areas, utilities, and other essential and nonessential auxiliary facilities.
Fixed O&M costs can be expressed as a percentage of capital costs. For biomass power
plants, they typically range from 1% to 6% ofthe initial capital investment cost per year (Table
4.6). Fixed O&M costs consist of labour, scheduled maintenance, routine
component/equipment replacement (for boilers, gasifiers, feedstock handling equipment, etc.),
insurance, etc. If larger is the plant, the lower will be the specific (per kW) fixed O&M costs
because of the impact of economies of scale, particularly for the labour required. Variable
O&M costs depend on the output of the system and they are usually expressed as a value per
unit of output (USD/kWh). They include non-biomass fuels costs, ashdisposal, unplanned
maintenance, equipment replacement and incremental servicing costs.
Table 4.6 Fixed and variable operations and maintenance costsfor biomass power
Power generation Fixed O&M (% of Variable O&M

technology installed cost) (USS/MI)
Stoker 3.2-4.2 3.8-4.7
Fluidized Bed boiler 3-6 3.8-4.7
Gasifier 3-6 3.7
Anaerobic digester 2.3-7 4.2
4.26.3. Feedstock Costs
Feedstock costs or fuel costs is the unit price of biomass and supplementary fuel, i.e.
diesel. It is well-known that unlike wind, solar and hydro, the biomass electricity generation
requires a feedstock which should be produced, collected, transported and stored. The
economics of biomass power generation are critically dependent upon the availability of a
secure and long-term supply of an appropriate biomass feed-stock at a competitive cost:
Feed-stock costs can represent 40% to 50% of the total cost of electricity produced. The
lowest cost feed-stock is typically agricultural residues such as straw and bagasse from sugar
cane as these can be collected at harvest. For forest arising, the cost is dominated by the
Bio-Energy
4.67 ]
collection and transportation costs. The density of the forestry arising has a direct impact on
the radius of transport required to deliver a given energy requirement for a plant. The low
energy density of biomass feed-stocks tends to limit the transport distance from a biomass
power plant that it is economical to transport the feed-stock. It can place a limit on the scale of
the biomass power plant, meaning that biomass struggles to take the advantage of economies
ofscale in the generating plant because large quantities of low-cost feed-stock are not available.
Other. important cost considerations for biomass feed-stock include the preparation the
biomass requires before it can be used to fuel the power plant. Analysis suggests that there are
significant economies ofscale in biomass feedstock preparation and handling. The capital costs
for preparation and handling can represent around 6% to 20% of total investment costs of the
power plant for the system capacity more than 550 tonnes/day.
t
The biomass resources are multiple as rice straw, rice husks, bagasse, wood waste; wood,
wild bushes and paper mill waste. In India, small-scale gasifier systems for off-grid, mini-grid
and grid-connected applications are relatively successful and as much as 28 MW were installed
by 2008 in industry and upto 80 MW in rural systems.
Table 4.7 presents price estimates for biomass feedstocks in India.
Table 4.7 Biomassfeedstock prices
Biomassfeedstock Price
(US$ I tonne)
Forest residues 15-30
Wood waste 10- 50
Agricultural residues 14-34
Energy crops 28- 58
4.26.4. Economic Parameters for Biomass Power Plant
In the economic analysis, among the various options that exist for checking the fiscal
performance ofan investment, the Levelized Generation Cost (LGC) and Net Present Value
(NPV) are the recommended indicators in the electricity industry for checking the viability of
decentralized electricity generation system. The merits and the economic potential and analysis
ofthe biomass gasification technology can be evaluated in terms of the following parameters:
(i) Net Present Value (NPV): It is the present worth ofthe entire project.
( 4;68 Renewable Energy System
(it) Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR): It is the benefits from the project which are in proportion
with the costs involved.
(iii) Payback Period (PBP): It is the years which will take to get the investment back from
the project, i.e., the year in which the net present value of all costs equals the net
present value of all benefits. It could also be defined as the minimum period over
which the investment for the project is recovered.
(iv) Internal Rate ofReturn (IRR): It is the real return of the project or the maximum rate
of interest at which capital can be arranged for the project.
The expressions for calculating various economic parameters are given below:
(i) Total investment cost is given by

C =Ca+Cu+ Ce + C, + Cr+C
where CG = Cost of gasifier
Cmu= Cost of prime mover
Ccw = Cost of civil work
CA Cost of electricity, accessories, auxiliaries, and miscellaneous
CF Cost of fuel (biomass)
C Additional costs (labour, repair and maintenance, building
services, stores, insurance, and taxes costs).
(ii) Operating and maintenance cost is given by

M = KaCa+ Ku Cu + Ke Ce+ K,Ci + Kr Cr+ KC
+ (8760 xCF x Mp, ,)
where KG = Fraction of the capital cost of biomass- power plant used for the
operation and maintenance of gasifier
Ku = Fraction of the capital cost of biomass power plant used for the
operation and maintenance of prime mover
Kew= Fraction of the capital cost of biomass power plant used for the
operation and maintenance of civil work
KA = Fraction of the capital cost of biomass power plant used for the
operation and maintenance of accessories and miscellaneous
Kr = Fraction of the capital cost of biomass power plant used for the
purchase of fuel and fuel handling
Bio-Energy 4.69 )
K11 = Fra~tio[f\'of the capital cost of biomass power plant used for the
repair and maintenance, building services, insurance, and taxes.
CF = Capacity factor
Mpn = Number of manpower required
W, = Wage rate for manpower.
(iii) Annual revenue (AR) from the sale of electricity is given by
AR = f.-in ]
' 'Ia+Dy"
where C - Total capital investment cost
n = Life of plant in years
m = Percentage of initial investment for annual operating and
••
maintenance costs
I = Real rate of return.
(iv) Cost of fuel is given by
C, = 8760 x CF Pa x Cn x SFCR
where Ch = Cost of bioma ss

P rated= Rated power or installed output
SFCR = Specific fuel consumption rate
(v) The cost of one kWh of biomass gasification electricity generated is given by
~- NP,C, AR
where P = Plant installed capacity

N = Annual operational hour ofthe plant
(vi) Annual amount of electricity (Et) sent out by the power plant in kWh net is given by
Et = 8760 X CF X P ,'Oled X (1- P,,ux

100
J(l -MLF)
where MLF = Marginal loss factor
Paux = Percentage power consumption by the auxiliaries
(vii) Benefit delivered annually by the plant is given by
B, = EC
(viii)The payback period of the project is given by
Ixn( 1-IC )
B,-mC
PBP=
In(l+ I)
(ix) The net present value (NPV) of the project is given by
NPV= B [<I+/)" - I
A I (1 + 1y
]-c[1 + m((lI +(1 I)"+ I)"-1 )]
The economic viability is established when the NPV is greater than 0.
(x) The benefit cost ratio (BCR) is given by
BA
(1+1)"
[ 1(1+1)"
-IJ
BCR=
]
The project is acceptable if BCR is greater than 1.
(Xi) The internal rate ofreturn (IRR) is determined from the following model using numerical
methods such as Newton-Raphson:
B [ (1 + IRR)" - 1 ]
A IRR (I + IRR)" =
c[J . ( (1 + IRR)" -1 )]
+ m IRR ( l + IRR)"
(xii) Levellized cost of electricity is given by
LCE= 2[I, +d-TJC, + MO)/d+a)y]

2E,II+a)" -1J/ad+a)"]
where T = Company tax rate
d = Inflation-adjusted discount rate= W x Re +Xx Rd (I--T)

V V
W = Market value on equity in %
X = Market value on debt in %
Bio-Energy 4. 71
Re = Nominal cost of equity

Ra Nominal cost on debt
V = Total market value in %.
Estimated cost structure of a biomass gasification plant is presented in Table 4.8.
Table 4.8 Estimated cost structure ofbiomass gasification plant
Installed capacity of the biomass gasification plant 60MW

Annual hour of operation 8,000
Life in years of plant 20
Biomass in tons dry mass/year 400,000
Biomass gasification system capital investment $ 270,000,000
Interest on value of the machinery and equipment $ 25,650,000
Depreciation $ 51,300,000
Annual labour cost $27,000,000
Annual repair and maintenance cost $8,100,000
Insurance and taxes $2,700,000
Total biomass cost/year $ 10,800,000
Total Cost $ 395,550,000
Annual Electricity production from the plant 170,294,000 kWh
Cost of operation per hour $49,443.75
Benefit delivered annually $ 98,345,0 I6
..
Net Present Value of the benefit $ 837,211,121
Net Present Value of operation and maintenance cost $437,751,230
Accumulated Net Present Value of all the cost $833,301,230
Net Present Value of the project $ 220,642,467
Benefit Cost Ratio - 1.00
Payback period of investment
.
19.19 years
Internal rate of return 10
Levellized cost of kWh of gasification electricity $ 0.5775
generated
Annual revenue from the sale of electricity $41,666,511
~ .
4.26.5. Cost of Biomass Energy in India
The capital costof installation of bagasse based co-generation projects is in the range of
Rs. 4.5 to Rs. 5.0 Crore/MW depending upon technical, financial and operating parameters.
Costs of generation are expected to vary from Rs. 3.25 to 3.75/kWh depending upon the plant
load factor and interest on term loans. The Plant Load Factor (PLF) of bagasse cogeneration
projects is about 45% - 55%. In case of biomass power plants, the capital cost of installation
are Rs.4.5 to 5.5 Crore/MW, depending upon boiler pressure and capacity, costs of generation
around Rs. 3.50 to Rs. 4.00/kWh. The PLF of biomass-power projects is about 70%- 75%. The
operation and maintenance expenditure (including insurance) is at Rs.0.40 Crore / MW with
annual escalation of 5. 72% (from second year) on plant and machinery by reckoning 85% of
. .
the capital cost as the cost of plant and machinery. Gross Calorific Value (GCV) is in the range
of 3100 - 3600 kcal/kWhr. Specific fuel consumption is a function of GCV, the specific fuel
consumption works out to· 1.20 kg/kWhr. Fuel cost as prescribed by the government as on 17-
04-2017 is at Rs.2892.03/MT with 5% escalation p.a.
4.27. ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF BIOENERGY
Biomass benefits are still subject of many debates when compared with other renewable
energy sources. However, biomass has many advantages over fossil fuels due to reduction of
the amount of carbon emissions. The major environmental benefits of biomass are as follows:
(a) Biomass is a renewable energy source:

,
The benefit of biomass energy is that biomass is renewable source of energy and it cannot
be depleted. Biomass mostly derived from plants i.e., as long as plants are going to be on this
planet, biomass will be available as renewable energy source.
(b) Biomass helps climate change by reducing greenhouse gases:

Biomass helps reduce the amount of GHG that give more impact to global warming and
climate change. The biomass emissions level is far smaller compared to fossil fuels. The basic
difference between biomass and fossil fuels when it comes to amount of carbon emissions is:
all the CO which has been absorbed by plant for its growth is going back in the atmosphere
during its burning for the production of biomass energy. While the CO produced from fossil
fuels is going to atmosphere where it increases greenhouse effect.
(c) Cleaner environment:
Biomass energy helps to clean our environment. World population is constantly increasing
which in turn produces more wastes. These wastes needs to be properly disposed. Many of
Bio-Energy 4.73 ]
garbage ends up in water resources harming ecosystems and having negative impact on human
health. This garbage could be used for valorisation and produced energy, bioferilizers and other
products.
(d) Biomass is widely available source ofenergy:

Biomass· is widely available energy source. The sources are from agriculture, forestry,
fisheries, aquaculture, algae and waste. Marty energy experts agree that when the economic and
environmental character ofenergy sources combined, biomass is on top ofthe list as one ofthe
best energy sources.
4.28. TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. What do you understand by zero energy houses? [Anna Univ. June'l3]

A zero-energy building is also known as a zero net energy (ZNE) building or net-zero
energy building (NZEB). It refers to a building with zero net energy consumption and zero
carbon emissions annually.
2. What is biomass and biomass energy?

Biomass is organic matter produced by plants, both terrestrial (those grown on land)
and aquatic (those grown in water). E.g., Wood and Agriculture residues. The energy
obtained from biomass is called biomass energy.
3. What are the two major classifications ofbiomass resources?

l. Biomass from cultivated fields, crops, forests and harvested periodically.
2. Biomass derived from waste e.g., municipal waste, animal dung, forest waste,
agricultural waste and bioprocess waste.
4. Classify the bio-mass resources. /Anna Univ. Nov'20]

Or
List out the resources ofbiomass. [Anna Univ. Apr'22 & Apr'23]
(i) Forests
(ii) Agricultural residues
(iii) Energy crops
(a) Sugarcane
(b) Oil producing plants
(iv) Aquatic plants
(v) Urban waste.
[ 4.74 l Renewable Energy System
5. Mention the advantages of biomass energy.

1. It is a renewable source.
2. The pollutant emissions from combustion of biomass are usually lower than
fossil fuels.
3. Commercial use of biomass may avoid or reduce the problems ofwaste disposal
in other industries.
4. Use of biogas plants apart from supplying clean gas also leads to improved and
stabilized sanitation.
5. The forestry and agricultural industries which supply feed stocks also provide
substantial economic development opportunities in rural areas.
6. The energy storage is an in-built feature of it.
6. What are the disadvantages of biomass energy?

I. It is dispersed and land intensive source.
2. Itis often of low energy density.
3. It is also labour intensive and the cost of collecting large quantities of biomass
for commercial application is significant.
7. Wat are the differentforms of biomass available as biofuels? [Anna Univ. Nov'21]
1. Fuel wood
2. Charcoal
3. Fuel pellets
4. Bio-ethanol
5. Bio gas
6, Producer gas and 7. Vegetable oils (bio-diesel).
8. How Bio-gas is obtained? What is the composition of Bio-gas?

[Anna Uni. Nov'19 & Nov'22]
Biagas is a gaseous fuel obtained from biomass by the process of anaerobic digestion
(Fermentation).
Methane (CH,) 55to60%
Carbon dioxide (CO) 35 to 40%
Hydrogen (H) 5%
HS and O Traces.
Bio-Energy 4.75 ]
9. Define photosynthesis.
The fundamental conversion process in green plants is photosynthesis. Photosynthesis
converts solar energy into biomass energy. It consists of building up of simple
carbohydrates such as sugar in the green leafin the presence ofsunlight. Photosynthesis is
a complex process. It is the process ofcombining CO2, water and light energy to produce
oxygen and carbohydrates (sugar, starches, celluloses and hemicelluloses).
10. hat are the necessary conditionsfor photosynthesis process?
l. Light: It is one ofthe important inputs for biomass production.
2. CO> concentration: It is the primary raw material for photo synthesis.
3. Temperature: Photosynthesis is restricted to the temperature range 0° to 60°C.
11. List down the various biomass conversion processes.

1. Physical process
.2. Agrochemical process
3. Thermochemical processes
a) Direct combustion
b) Carbonisation
c) Pyrolysis
d) Gasification
e) Liquefication
4. Biochemical process
a) Anaerobic digestion
b) Ethanol fermentation.
12. hat are briquetting andpelletisation?

Briquetting is the process of compressing balling. Densification is carried out by
compression under a die.
Pelletisation is a process in which wood is compressed and extracted in the form of

rods (5-12 mm diameter and 12 mm long). The purpose ofpelletisation is to reduce the
moisture contents and increase the energy density of wood for longer transportation
-
haulage.
13. What is carbonization?
Wood is heated with a restricted air flow to form a high carbon product by removing
volatile materials from. It is termed as carbonisation.
14. Define pyrolysis.

Pyrolysis is a thermochemical decomposition of organic material at elevated
temperatures in the absence of oxygen or with restricted air or oxygen supply. It involves
the simultaneous change ofchemical composition and physical phase and it is irreversible.
15. hat isfermentation?

Fermentation is the process of breaking down of complex molecules in organic
uch as yeast, bacteria, enzymes, etc.
compound under the influence of ferments
16. What is meant by gasification?

Gasification of biomass is thermal decomposition in the presence of controlled air. It
is the conversion process ofsolid carbonaceous fuels into combustible gas mixtures known
as producer gas. It is also referred to as wood gas, water gas and synthesis gas.
17. What does steam gasification refer?

Methane is directly produced from woody matter by treating them at high temperature
and pressure with hydrogen gas.
18. Define liquefaction.

Liquefaction is the process of maximizing liquid yields by rapid heating of feed stock
to comparatively low temperature.
19. Mention the two processes of liquefaction of biomass. I
(a) Liquefaction through pyrolysis without any gasification medium and
(b) Liquefaction through methanol synthesis with gasification medium.
20. What is anaerobic digestion process? How does anaerobic digestion take place?
In anaerobic digestion, biogas is produced by the bacterial decomposition of wet
sewage sludge, animal dung or green plants in the absence of oxygen. An anaerobe is a
microorganism which lives and grows on biomass at low temperature (< 65°C). The
anaerobic digestion. process breaks down the organic matter into simpler organic
compounds. The final product is a mixture of methane (CH,), carbon dioxide (CO) and
some trace gases known as biogas.
21. List down the phases involved in anaerobic digestion.

(i) Hydrolysis
(ii) Acid phase and
Bio-Energy 4.77
(iii) Methane phase.
22. State the advantages ofanaerobic digestion.

1. It can be used as an energy source to produce steam and water.
2. New sludge production occurs because of the conversion of organic matter to
methane and CO.
3. It has low running cost.
4. It produces less odour.
5. The sludge can act as a soil conditioner.
23. Draw the aerobic digestion oforganic waste by 3 stages in biochemical processing.
{Anna Univ. Apr'23]
Oxygen
+ PO,
Respiration · 1,,---------.-.~ NH3
End products
SO
I
I
CO
I
Synthesis I
I
More micro-organisms
Figure 4.22 Aerobic digestion process
24. What do you mean alcoholicfermentation?

Alcoholicfermentation or ethanolfermentation is the decomposition of biomass in the
absence of air and simple hexose sugars (CHO) in aqueous solution by the action of
enzyme present in yeast in acidic conditions.
25. Define biogas.

Biogas is a gaseous fuel obtained from biomass by the process of anaerobic digestion
(Fermentation). It is generally produced from cow dung.
26. What are thefactors that affect the generation ofbiogas? [Anna Univ. Nov'20]
Temperature is the main factor affecting "the biogas production. At higher

temperature only, maximum biogas can be produced.
There are some other factors affecting the biogas generation such as
(i) Carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratio
(ii) pH value
(iii) Compression ratio
(iv) Solid retention time
(v) Mixing
(vi) Solids type
(vii). location and type oftank material, and
(viii) Total solid concentration.
27. What are the mainfeatures of continuous process biogas?

1. It requires small digestion chambers.
2. It will continuously. produce gas.
3. It has fewer problems compared to a batch type.
4. It needs lesser period ofdigestion.
28. What are the materials usedfor bio-gas generation?
l. Animal wastes
2. Human wastes
3. Agricultural wastes
4. Waste ofaquatic origin.
29. What is hydrolysi
s?
In organic wastes, carbohydrates are mostly in the form of cellulose· and other
components of plant fibre. Hydrolysis is the technology which converts cellulose into
alcohols through fermentation.
30. What is aerobic digestion process? How does aerobic digestion take place?
Aerobic digestion process involves the decomposition of organic wastes in the
presence of oxygen (air). This process involves the oxidation of biodegradable and
microbial cellular matter by aerobic microorganisms resulting in overall reduction in the
mass ofsludge and generation offinite amount ofstabilized cell mass. Products from this
process include CO, ammonia (NH;), water and heat.
31. hat are the advantages offixed dome type digester?

I. It has no corrosion trouble.
Bio-Energy 4.79
2. It requires less cost compared to a floating drum type.

3. Cattle, human excreta and long fibrous stalks can be fed.
4. It does not need maintenance.
32. Li
st down the disadvantages offixed dome type digester.
1. Gas production per m' ofthe digester volume is also less.
2. It produces a variable gas pressure.

3. It requires skilled masons.
4. Scum formation is a problem ifno stirring arrangement is made.
33. Mention the advantages offloating drum digester.

1. It has less trouble because solids are constantly submerged.
2. It has no problem of gas leakage.
3. Higher gas production per m3 of the digester volume is achieved.
34. State the disadvantages offloating drum digester.

1. It is not suitable for colder regions because ofheat lost through the metal holder.
2. It has higher cost.
3. It require s painting once or twice a year depending on the humidity of the
location.
35. Define gas yield.

Biagas yield is the amount of volatile matter destroyed or the portion of the volatile.
matter content which is capable of being decomposed within a comparatively short time.
36. What is Biomass Gasifier? What are their uses? [Ar.a Univ. Nov'2I]
Gasifier is the equipment which can gasify a variety of biomass such as wood waste,
agricultural waste, such as stalks and roots of various crops, maize cobs, etc.
Uses:
Biomass Gasifier are used in sawmills, wood cutting industries, and power generating
sectors. Also, they can be used for supplying power to the remote areas.
37. What are the advantages of a gasifier?

I. It is very easy to operate the gasifier.
2. Maintenance is easy.
3. It is reliable in operation.
38. hat is the classification ofbiomass gasifiers?

1. Small size gasifiers.
2. Medium size gasifiers.

3. Large size gasifiers.
4. Very large gasifiers.
39. What are the three major designs offixed bedgasifiers?

I. Up draught
2. Down-draught
3. Cross draught.
40. hat is equivalence ratio?
E . l . (ER) Weight of oxygen/Weight of dry fuel

qurvaence ratto = Weight of oxygen/Weight of dry fuel
41. What are the advantages offluidized bed gasifiers?
1. It has good heat storage capacity.
2. Consistent rate ofcombustion is obtained.

3. Output rate is high.
42. List down the majorproblems incurred in the development ofgasifiers.
1. Fuel supply and cost

2. Capital costs and Economics
3. Technology development
•
4. Safety
5. Market barriers.
4.29. SOLVED QUESTIONS
1. Briefly explain the various biomass resources.
Refer chapter 4.1.1 on Page 4.2.

Bio-Energy [_4.s1
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of biomass energy?

3. Explain various biomass fuels.
4. Explain the process 'Photosynthesis'. What are the conditions necessary for it?
5. Discuss the biomass conversion technologies and explain any one in detail.
[Anna Univ. Nov '22]
Refer chapter 4.3 on Page 4.6.
6. Write short notes on pre-treatment of biomass
7. Describe the various methods of biomass densification and upgrading.
8. Write down the advantages and disadvantage of biomass densification.
Refer chapter 4.4.2.1 on Page 4.12.
9. Illustrate the agrochemical conversion of biomass.
10. Briefly explain the various thermal gasification processes.
11. Explain the biomass gasification process in detail.
12. Explain the biochemical processes to convert biomass into energy. [Anna Univ. Apr'22]
13. What is biomass digestion? Explain in detail.
14. Explain the anaerobic digestion process with its advantages and limitations.

15. What is meant by aerobic digestion process? Discuss in detail.
16. Discuss the factors affecting digestion process.
17. Explain the working of continuous process biogas digester.
18. Explain continuous and batch type biogas plants and compare them with regard to
operation and efficiency. [Anna Univ. Nov '20]
Refer chapter 4.10.1 on Page 4.29 for continuous type biogas plants and
chapter 4.10.2 on Page 4.30.
19. Explain the operation ofbiogas plant and discuss combustion characteristics.
[Anna Univ. Apr'23]
20. Explain the construction and working ofany one type ofbiogas digester with a neat sketch.
Refer chapter 4.11.2 on Pages 4.33.
21. Explain briefly the components of a biogas plant. [Anna Univ. Nov'20]
22. With the help of neat sketch, explain the working of floating drum type biogas plant.
[Anna Univ. Nov '21]
23. What is Bio-mass? What are various principles of Bio-Conversion and their energy
products? Explain the working of fixed Dome type Biogas Plant with the help of a neat
sketch. What are the properties of Biogas? What are the advantages and disadvantages of
using Biogas as a fuel? [Anna Univ. Nov'19]
Refer chapter 4.1 on Page 4.1 for definition of biomass, refer chapter 4.3
on Page 4.6 for principles of bio-conversion and their energy products,
refer chapter 4.11.1 on Page 4.32 for working of Fixed-Dome Type
Digester and refer chapter 4.20 on Page 4.49 for advantages and
disadvantages of using Biogas as a fuel.
Bio-Energy 4.83 ]
24. Write short notes on gas yield.
25. Discuss the combustion characteristics ofbiogas.
26. Explain the biogas utilization for cooking.
27. Enumerate the size ofbiogas plants with technical data, digester design considerations and
design calculations.
Refer chapters 4.15.1, 4.15.3 & 4.15.4 on Pages 4.40-42.
28. Explain the design ofcommunity biogas plant for a village.
29. Describe the methods for maintaining biogas production.
30. Discuss the selection ofsite for biogas plants.
31. Explain the challenges in handling biogas plants.
32. Write down the advantages and disadvantages ofbiogas generation.
33. Discuss any two applications ofbiogas plants.
34. Enumerate the thermal applications ofbiogas plants.
35. Briefly explain the construction and working ofbiomass gasifier.

36. Explain any one type of gasifier with a neat line diagram. Mention the merits and demerits
¢
of the same. [ Anna Univ. Apr'23]
37. Describe the applications of biomass gasifier.
38. Explain the problems in development of biomass gasifiers.
39. Discuss the economics aspects ofbioenergy.
40. Write short notes on environmental benefits of bioenergy.
kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk END of Uni

t 4 kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk

Unit - 4 RES Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Unit - 4 RES Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UNIT - IV

Energy from biomass, Principle of biomass conversion

4.1. ENERGY FROM BIOMASS

Photosynthesis process is primarily responsible for the generation of biomass energy.

I. Bioma ss from cultivated fields, crops and forests.

Biomass energy may be transformed either by chemical or biological processes to produce

4.1.1. Biomass Resources

(ii) Agricultural residues:

(iii) Energy crops:

(b) Oil producingplants:

(iv) Aquatic plants:

(v) Urban waste:

(a) Municipal solid waste (MSW)

4.1.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Biomass Energy

Advantages of biomass energy:

Disadvantages of biomass energy:

4.1.3. Biomass Fuels

(i) Fuel wood:

(iii) Fuel pellets:

Table 4.1 Properties ofbiogas

(vi) Producer gas:

(ii) Vegetable oils (bio-diesel):

4.2. PRINCIPLES OF BIOMASS CONVERSION

4.2.1. Photosynthesis Process

1. Temperature control for chemical reactions to proceed and

The fundamental conversion process in green plants is photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is

where the symbol Cx (HO) y indicates the carbohydrates.

Necessary conditionsfor photosynthesis process:

3. Temperature: Photosynthesis is restricted to the temperature range 0°Cto 60°C.

4.3. BIOMASS CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES/PROCESSES

3. Thermal gasification or Thermochemical conversion

4.4. PHYSICAL OR MECHANICAL CONVERSION OF BIOMASS AND ITS

Mechanical conversion of biomass is an important method because it is a solid. Usually,

Biomass upgrading is the process of changing the properties of biomass to improve

4.4.1. Pre-treatment of Biomass

Table 4.2 Methods ofpre-treatment ofbiomass residues materials

Torrefaction It is a process of slow Due to this, volatile It helps in binding

Ammonia It is a process in which Due to this process, It helps in binding

gramineous hemicellulose and

Pre-heating It is a process of Due to this, energy Generate more

4.4.2. Methods of Biomass Densification and Upgrading

Baling is a traditional method ofdensification commonly used to harvest crops. A bale is

Solids conveying,,, Meng & umping_ y, Pumping,

Figure 4.1 Biomass screw type extrude

Figure 4.2 Biomass piston press/pump type mac/tine

(iii) Roller press/mill machine:

Fine particle feedback

Figure 4.3 Biomass rollerpress/mill type machine

Figure 4.4 Biomass pellet press type machine

4.4.2.1. Advantages and disadvantage of biomass densification

The main advantages ofbiomass densification for combustion are as follows.

(i) Simplified mechanical handling and feeding

4.5. AGROCHEMICAL CONVERSION OF BIOMASS

(i) Seeds (sunflower with 50% oil)

4.6. THERMAL GASIFICATION OR THERMOCHEMICAL CONVERSION OF BIOMASS

4.6.1. Biomass Direct combustion

Figure 4.5 Biomass direct combustion

It is the precarbonisation stage which is also endothermic. It occurs in the temperature

The basic process steps- for biomass pyrolysis include:

Gasification of biomass is thermal decomposition in the presence of controlled air. It is

Liquefaction is a promising technology among the thermochemical processes to convert

Two important processes of liquefaction of biomass are discussed here.

(a) Liquefaction through pyrolysis:

(b) Liquefaction through methanol syntliesis: