This article was downloaded by: [University of Saskatchewan Library]

On: 27 December 2014, At: 01:12

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number:
1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street,
London W1T 3JH, UK

European Journal of Special

Needs Education
Publication details, including instructions for
authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rejs20

The importance of setting

goals: the effect of
instruction and training on
the technical and intrinsic
quality of goals
Petra Poppes , Carla Vlaskamp , Karin I. de
Geeter & Han Nakken
Published online: 15 Oct 2010.

To cite this article: Petra Poppes , Carla Vlaskamp , Karin I. de Geeter & Han
Nakken (2002) The importance of setting goals: the effect of instruction and
training on the technical and intrinsic quality of goals, European Journal of
Special Needs Education, 17:3, 241-250, DOI: 10.1080/08856250210162149

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08856250210162149

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all
the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our
platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors
make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy,
completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions
and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of
the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis.
The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be
independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and
Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings,
demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever
or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in
relation to or arising out of the use of the Content.
 This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study
purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution,
reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any
form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access
and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-
conditions
Downloaded by [University of Saskatchewan Library] at 01:12 27 December 2014
 Eur. J. of Special Needs Education, Vol. 17, No. 3 (2002), pp. 241–250

The importance of setting goals: the effect of

instruction and training on the technical and
intrinsic quality of goals

PETRA POPPES, CARLA VLASKAMP, KARIN I. DE GEETER and

Downloaded by [University of Saskatchewan Library] at 01:12 27 December 2014

HAN NAKKEN
Department of Special Education, University of Groningen, 9712 TJ Groningen,
The Netherlands

Address for correspondence:

Professor dr Carla Vlaskamp,
Department of Special Education, University of Groningen, Grote Rozenstraat 38,
9712 TJ Groningen, The Netherlands. E-mail: C.Vlaskamp@ppsw.rug.nl

ABSTRACT

Centres for children with intellectual disabilities are required to formulate an

Individual Educational Plan (IEP) for each student. Although goals are considered the
IEP’s most essential component, little emphasis is placed on establishing standards to
guarantee their quality. This study analyses the technical and intrinsic qualities of the
goals that teachers and therapists have formulated for children with profound multiple
disabilities. It also examines the effects of an intervention, consisting of a two-day
course for the staff combined with a monthly training session on the quality of the
goals. The results demonstrated that the quality of the goals increased dramatically
after the implementation of the above-mentioned intervention.

KEYWORDS

IEPs, goals, children with profound multiple disabilities

INTRODUCTION

All educational centres for people with intellectual disabilities in The Netherlands are
required to establish Individualized Educational Plans (IEPs) for their students. The
use of the IEP has proved to be a valuable asset for a variety of reasons (Giangreco
et al., 1994; van Gemert and Vlaskamp, 1997; Collins, Mowbray and Bybee, 1999).

European Journal of Special Needs Education

ISSN 0885-6257 print/ISSN 1469-591X online © 2002 Taylor & Francis Ltd
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
DOI: 10.1080/08856250210162149
 242 European Journal of Special Needs Education, Vol. 17, No. 3 (2002)

IEPs encourage staff to consider their students’ needs more carefully, as well as their
means of meeting them. The use of an IEP is also important in encouraging persons
with intellectual disabilities and their legal representatives to become more involved
in the educational process. Moreover, it makes the process easier to follow and manage
– i.e. there are established guidelines for both staff and persons with disabilities or their
legal representatives on how they should carry out their tasks. Because goals are listed
in the guidelines, it is possible to determine whether efforts have been made to achieve
them and which of the goals have been met. This makes the IEP a useful instrument
for assessing which investments in time and money are worthwhile. Finally, the
literature (Giangreco et al., 1994; van Gemert and Vlaskamp, 1997; Collins et al.,
1999) demonstrates that the use of an IEP helps staff from different Želds work together
towards reaching common objectives.
Downloaded by [University of Saskatchewan Library] at 01:12 27 December 2014

An IEP consists of a number of different components. Generally speaking, an

IEP contains a profile or personal description, a perspective or a long-term goal,
one or more short-term goals and a set date for evaluation of both short-term and
long-term goals. Activities that have to be carried out in order to attain short-term
goals are also part of an IEP (Goodman and Bond, 1993; Schippers et al., 1998). Goals
are considered the IEP’s most essential component. Without goals, there is no clear
vision on future needs (Giangreco et al., 1994; van Gemert and Vlaskamp, 1997;
Collins et al., 1999). Determining a goal that is technically suitable and of which the
content is appropriate is a skill which staff must possess in order to establish an
IEP that guarantees quality of education. Goals must exhibit technical quality, they
must be reasonable, understandable, measurable and attainable. It is not only
important that the goal meets these demands, the goal must also possess certain
intrinsic qualities.
Very little research has been conducted concerning the quality of goals listed in
IEPs. Although a search in ERIC and PsyINFO covering the period 1982–2000
obtained 121 hits, the emphasis of these articles was on the structure of the IEPs
and the procedures to be followed. However, a study by Giangreco et al. (1994)
investigated the process of establishing goals. This study demonstrated that the goals
set for IEPs are often formulated in a vague and inconsistent manner. In The
Netherlands, the Public Health Inspectorate evaluated (2000) the quality of IEPs for
persons with profound multiple disabilities in both centres for special education and
in residential facilities. A random sample (n = 411) of a total of 4,730 IEPs showed
that only one in every four met the most elementary standards. A study by Sterkman
et al. (1998) also demonstrated that goals are strongly discipline-related and often
have little, if any, relation with goals established by members of other professions. This
study too found that the established goals were formulated in a vague manner. A lack
of coordination between the various goals greatly increases the chance that they will
not agree with, or will even exclude, one another, or that contradictory means will be
employed to achieve the same goal (de Ruyter, 1999; Van Gemert and Vlaskamp,
1997). Surprisingly, in the available literature there is little information on the skills
needed to correctly formulate goals. The intrinsic and technical characteristics of goals
are usually not even mentioned. Nor, in most cases, is there any kind of instruction
on how to formulate goals which are technically and intrinsically correct. Apparently,
the assumption is made that teachers and therapists will learn how to formulate goals
by experience.
This study will attempt to demonstrate whether a short course, followed by
specialized training, may lead to an improvement in the intrinsic and technical qualities
of goals. The opportunity to conduct this study became possible when a number
of centres for special education applied for a two-day information course on a pro-
gramme that was especially developed for children with profound multiple disabilities
 Goal setting for SEN students in The Netherlands 243

(Vlaskamp, 1999). The course emphasized the type of education envisioned for
children with profound multiple disabilities, as well as the formulation and evaluation
of the goals. Our study investigated whether educating and training teachers and
therapists in establishing goals leads to a discernible improvement in the technical and
intrinsic qualities of the goals described in IEPs.

METHOD

Study Group

Eighteen teachers and sixteen therapists were included in the study. All teachers were
Downloaded by [University of Saskatchewan Library] at 01:12 27 December 2014

fully trained in special education, and therapists were considered specialists in their
Želd. Both teachers and therapists were responsible for the goals in IEPs of 48 children
with profound multiple disabilities, with a range in age from two to 20 years. The
children had profound intellectual as well as severe or profound motor disabilities. All
children were bound to their wheelchairs and had limited use of their hands and arms.
A considerable percentage of the children had severe (usually cerebral) visual impair-
ments, whereas hearing impairments were much less frequent. Almost half of the
children suffered from epilepsy.
During the day, the children in the study participated in the activities of eight
groups at Žve centres for special education throughout The Netherlands. Initially,
seven centres were included in the study. However, two of them deviated from the
programme’s procedures: one reduced the time devoted to instruction by half, while
the other delayed the period between the course and the training (which is supposed
to begin immediately following the course) by more than three months. Data from
these centres were therefore not included in the study. The participating centres
for special education are intended exclusively for children with intellectual disabil-
ities. They do not have separate grades or group programmes, nor do they use a set
curriculum. They only use individualized programmes, based on IEPs. These centres
offer a wide range of activities, such as swimming, the training of various skills and a
variety of therapy (physiotherapy, occupational therapy, speech therapy and musical
therapy). The children beneŽt from the fact that the teachers and therapists at these
centres for special education are professionals in their Želds. All of the centres had
comparative standards and a similar array of activities and therapies. Each group had
an average ratio of two teachers for seven students. The number of activities and hours
of therapy per child were also similar. The children attended the centres from 9 a.m.
until 3.30 p.m.

Instruments

The quality of the goals was measured by the degree to which they met technical and
intrinsic criteria. The technical criteria (see Table 1) were those which met the accepted
requirements of goals as generally mentioned in the literature (Goodman and Bond,
1993; Giangreco et al., 1994; Schippers et al., 1998). A goal must be measurable in
terms of meeting Žxed standards – in other words, there must be a clear description
of what situation or skill should be attained. Goals must be applicable and realistic,
necessitating a clear description of the activities to be carried out to meet the objective.
The goal description should also mention the individual responsible for executing
the activities in order to attain the goal. An evaluation date must also be set. Setting
a date prevents the formulation of goals whose standards are either too low or too
 244 European Journal of Special Needs Education, Vol. 17, No. 3 (2002)

Table 1: Technical criteria

1. The goal describes the desired result

2. An activity is provided
3. Evaluation criteria are established and an evaluation date is set
4. Those involved in executing the plan are mentioned

Table 2: Intrinsic criteria

Downloaded by [University of Saskatchewan Library] at 01:12 27 December 2014

5. There must be a relation between the proŽle or personal description,

the perspective or need for education and the established goals
6. There must be a relation between the various goals
7. When there is more than one goal, a sequence must be established

demanding. Evaluation criteria are necessary for determining whether the goal has
been achieved.
Intrinsic criteria are of equal importance in contributing towards the quality of the
goals. Intrinsic criteria emphasize the importance of a link between the profile or
personal description, the perspective or long-term goals and the short-term goals. Two
intrinsic criteria have been added which are geared speciŽcally towards the group of
individuals in our study. For children with profound multiple disabilities it is of vital
importance that a relation is established between the goals (both intradisciplinary as
well as interdisciplinary) in order to ensure the continuity in the individual care process
(Ware and Healey, 1994; Vlaskamp, 1999). Teachers and therapists must agree with
the goals’ contents. Moreover, in order to prevent the inclusion of goals which either
contradict or exclude one another, it is essential that they be listed according to their
degree of importance or conditionality. The intrinsic criteria are listed in Table 2.
The established goals were judged by two independent observers on the basis of
technical and intrinsic criteria. The observers, all qualiŽed child psychologists, were
familiar with the situation in these centres for special education. They were trained to
pass judgement on the established goals. Training ended after an agreement of over
80 per cent was found three times in succession.
The percentage of agreement of the results for each variable was calculated by
dividing the number of agreements by the total number of agreements and disagree-
ments and multiplying the outcome by 100. The Žnal rates of reliability varied from
80.7 to 99.6 per cent, with an average rate of 87.3 per cent. All variables met the
generally accepted criterion of 80 per cent.

Procedure

After the children’s parents granted the centres permission to release their children’s
IEPs, the researchers received the IEPs of 48 children. The goals listed in their IEPs,
all set before the training was given, were then evaluated on their technical and intrinsic
qualities.
An intervention in the centres was carried out successively, but all within ten weeks
after the evaluation of the IEPs. The intervention consisted of a two-day course
 Goal setting for SEN students in The Netherlands 245

followed by on-the-job training in the formulation of goals. The total length of the
course was six hours, divided into three-hour sessions each day. Approximately three
hours were devoted to theory. During this session, the following topics were discussed:
the necessity of setting goals for children with profound multiple disabilities and the
intrinsic and technical criteria. Every topic was accompanied by exercises ; for example,
participants were given a list of goals and asked to determine whether the goals met
the technical criteria. Another three hours of the course were devoted to practising in
real-life situations. The participants brought their own case histories and discussed
with colleagues and the supervisor whether the goals they had set for their students
met the intrinsic and technical criteria. Subsequently, new goals were set for the
students.
The courses were provided to all teachers, therapists, psychologists and managers.
Downloaded by [University of Saskatchewan Library] at 01:12 27 December 2014

The number of participants ranged from ten to 30, depending on the number of groups
at the centre concerned. The courses were followed by on-the-job training where the
participants practised formulating and evaluating goals for each student. With the
supervision of a psychologist, the participants would on a monthly basis evaluate a
goal for each child and discipline and formulate new goals. The psychologist provided
detailed instructions on formulating goals in general, as well as in speciŽc situations.
Twelve months after the intervention, the goals listed in the IEPs were again evaluated
on their technical and intrinsic qualities by the same two independent observers.
The same 18 teachers and 16 therapists participated in both trials. The number of
children was almost the same (48 in the pre-test and 49 in the post-test study
respectively). The study was conducted using a one-group pre-test/post-test design
(Cook and Campbell, 1979).

RESULTS

Results from the Pre-test Trial

The results of the pre-test trial provide an analysis of the situation before the
intervention. The data showed that no goals had been determined for 15 IEPs (31 per
cent) in the study. For these 15 children some data concerning age, medical history
and the situation at home were available, but goals were not set. Only the 33 children
for whom an IEP including goals was available were included in the study. A total of

Table 3: Number and type of goals in pre-test trial

Centre Type of goal formulated

Centre no. No. of goals No. of children Result Activity Condition

1 47 5 2 35 10
2 55 8 9 35 11
3 82 10 27 49 6
4 146 6 50 56 40
5 95 4 73 19 3
Total 425 33 161 (38%) 194 (46%) 70 (16%)
 246 European Journal of Special Needs Education, Vol. 17, No. 3 (2002)

425 goals had been determined for these 33 children, an overall average of 13 goals
per child. The number of goals per child ranged from three to 42.
The 425 goals were evaluated according to the technical criteria for establishing
goals (see Table 3). Only 161 of the 425 goals (38 per cent) could be deŽned as a result
or effect, as, for example: ‘Karen chooses one of the two kinds of sandwiches available.’
The remaining goals did not meet the criterion ‘describing the desired result or effect’.
A total of 194 of the established goals (46 per cent) could be deŽned as activities, such
as ‘playing games’ or ‘stimulating the development of the senses’. The other 70 goals
(16 per cent) met the deŽnition of a condition, such as ‘at meals, Richard must sit to
the right of Maria’.
Only the 161 goals which met the deŽnition for result or effect were included in
the further technical analysis. Goals formulated as activities cannot be achieved with
Downloaded by [University of Saskatchewan Library] at 01:12 27 December 2014

activities, and it is also not logical to supply goals described as conditions with
evaluation criteria or evaluation dates.
Activities for attaining goals were provided for 33 (nearly 20 per cent) of the 161
goals. For example, to achieve the goal: ‘Lars drinks from a cup’, the following activity
was described: ‘we’ll put a cup of milk in Lars’s hands and help him to drink from it
by bringing the edge of the cup to his mouth.’ No activities were established for the
remaining 80 per cent of the goals.
Not one of the IEPs that were evaluated provided either evaluation criteria or an
evaluation date. Ten of the goals set an evaluation limit, such as ‘this goal should be
evaluated the next time we discuss the child’, or ‘the effect should be studied a year
from now’. For six of these ten goals an evaluation was expected within six months,
while a limit of 12 months was established for the other four. The names of the teachers
or therapists who were to assist in realizing the goals were listed in 23 per cent of the
cases. When we compared the results obtained in the various centres for special
education (see Table 4), we noticed that one centre had a much higher percentage of
goals formulated as results than the others. A possible explanation is that this centre
for special education worked with the Portage programme (Bluma et al., 1976). In this
programme, lists are provided describing the objectives to be chosen.
All 425 goals were included in the analysis of their intrinsic criteria. We included
goals which are not considered results-oriented in our analysis because it is possible

Table 4: Technical criteria per centre

Centres Activity Evaluation Evaluation Participants

criteria date/limit

Centre no. No. of goals Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No

formulated as
a result

1 2 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 2
2 9 8 1 0 9 0 9 2 7
3 27 23 4 0 27 8 19 26 1
4 50 0 50 0 50 0 50 1 49
5 73 0 73 0 73 0 73 0 73
Total 161 33 128 0 161 10 151 29 132
 Goal setting for SEN students in The Netherlands 247

to establish a relationship between the known needs of the children and goals which
are formulated as activities or conditions.
In order to evaluate whether the goals met the criterion ‘there must be a relationship
between the proŽle or personal description and the established goals’, we Žrst had to
determine whether the 33 available IEPs included a proŽle or personal description.
We found that 22 (67 per cent) of the 33 IEPs contained neither. Moreover, 13 of
these 22 IEPs had not included actual goals for the child. The other nine IEPs had
formulated the child’s needs for assistance or instruction. However, there was no
clear relationship between these needs and the goals described in the IEPs. Although
the remaining IEPs did include a proŽle or personal description, the proŽles were much
too condensed and consisted almost exclusively of medical information. This prevented
the researchers from gaining a clear understanding of the relationship between the
Downloaded by [University of Saskatchewan Library] at 01:12 27 December 2014

child’s needs and the perspectives or need for care listed. It was not possible to establish
a connection between proŽle/personal description, perspective and the established
goals. Since a perspective was lacking in nearly all the IEPs, it was impossible to
establish a relation between the goals.
The last criterion, ‘the goals are listed in order of conditionality or importance’, was
not met in a single instance. Not one of the IEPs established an order of priorities.

Results of the Post-test Study

The results of the post-test trial describes the situation after intervention and training.
It includes the 486 goals formulated by the same 18 teachers and 16 therapists who
participated in the pre-test trial. The goals were first evaluated according to their
technical aspects, which are listed in Table 5. Ninety-two per cent of the 486 goals met
the criterion ‘described as a result or effect’. The remaining 8 per cent were formulated
as activities, while none was described as a condition.
Only the goals which could be deŽned as results or effects were included in the
subsequent analysis of technical criteria. All goals described an activity that had to be
performed to meet the desired objective. Nearly all goals (98 per cent) had established
evaluation criteria at the start. In 94 per cent of the cases, an evaluation date was
given. All goals indicated who would be responsible for their execution (see Table 6).
We then evaluated the 49 IEPs to discover whether they met the required intrinsic
qualities. All of the IEPs included a personal description or proŽle. In accordance with

Table 5: Number of correctly formulated goals in the post-test study

Centres Goal formulated as:

Centre no. No. of goals No. of children Result Activity Condition

1 154 14 137 17 –
2 80 8 78 2 –
3 98 14 93 5 –
4 79 7 70 9 –
5 75 8 69 6 –
Total 486 51 447 39 –
 248 European Journal of Special Needs Education, Vol. 17, No. 3 (2002)

Table 6: Post-test results of technical criteria at each centre

Centres Activity Evaluation Evaluation Description of

criteria date/limit those involved

Centre no. No. of goals Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No

formulated as
a result

1 137 137 0 132 5 122 15 137 0

2 78 78 0 74 4 71 7 78 0
Downloaded by [University of Saskatchewan Library] at 01:12 27 December 2014

3 93 93 0 92 1 89 4 93 0

4 70 70 0 69 1 70 0 70 0

5 69 69 0 69 0 69 0 69 0

Total 447 447 0 436 11 421 26 447 0

the information provided in the personal descriptions, a long-term goal was established
for each child (perspective), on the basis of which short-term goals were set as well.
All goals were derived from these perspectives. Of the 447 goals, 380 (85 per cent) were
found to be related to the perspective. For the remaining 67 goals (15 per cent), no
relationship could be established with the long-term goals. In all IEPs which included
more than one goal, the goals were listed according to their degree of importance or
conditionality.

Table 7: Comparison of pre-test and post-test studies (n = 32)

Pre-test Post-test

Number of goals 425 486

Described as result 161 447

Described as activity 33 447

Evaluation criteria provided 0 436

Evaluation date or limit provided 10 421

Staff mentioned 35 447

Number of care plans 33 49

Correlation between personal description and need for

care/perspective 0 49

Correlation between need for care/perspective and goals 0 380

Order of importance 0 49
 Goal setting for SEN students in The Netherlands 249

Comparison between Pre-test and Post-test Studies

The results of the pre-test study demonstrated that not one of the 425 goals which were
described in the IEPs met all of the technical criteria; nor did any of them meet all of
the intrinsic criteria. The pre-test results differ dramatically from those of the post-test
study (see Table 7). In the post-test study, 421 of the 486 goals met all of the technical
requirements. The results of the intrinsic analysis showed that 85 per cent of the
established goals corresponded to the child’s personal description and perspective,
compared to 0 per cent in the pre-test study. Moreover, unlike in the pre-test study,
each IEP listed the established goals in order of importance.
The results clearly demonstrate that providing a short course of approximately six
hours, together with a monthly training session of around an hour per month, is
Downloaded by [University of Saskatchewan Library] at 01:12 27 December 2014

sufŽcient to effectuate a dramatic increase in both the technical and intrinsic qualities
of the goals. Since this study analyses the effect of the course in combination with the
training, no conclusions can be drawn concerning the effectiveness of either single
component (course or training).

DISCUSSION

When interpreting the results of this study, some caveats should be made. During the
pre-trial study, there was no information available on the means used to determine
the IEPs, only the text of the Žnal document was given. Therefore it was not possible
to find out on what grounds these goals were formulated. It is plausible that the
formulation of the goals was incorrect, but not the intentions. Secondly, a relation
between the goals could not be established because, in most cases, a perspective or
personal description was lacking. However, this does not necessarily mean that a
relation did not exist, only that it was not apparent in the IEPs.
Centres for special education are required to establish, as well as work with, IEPs.
It is therefore surprising that this requirement does not provide for an evaluation
of their quality. The effects of this omission are disturbing, particularly in the case
of children with profound multiple disabilities who are to a great extent dependent
on others, and hence on the goals that others have established for their beneŽt. Goals
are an essential element in all IEPs. Clearly formulated goals lead to IEPs of good
quality, which in turn improve the quality of the education or support provided.
Whether clearly formulated goals eventually lead to an improvement of quality of life
is not directly implied, although this connection has been made by several authors
(Borthwick-Duffy, 1990; Goode and Hogg, 1994), especially in relation to individuals
with profound multiple disabilities.
However, it is reasonable to assume that these individuals depend on the quality
of their IEP, and a poor quality of IEP may directly inuence their quality of life. In
this study, a considerable improvement in the correct formulation of goals has been
demonstrated due to a comparatively small investment in training of teachers and
therapists. So far, both centres for special education and the Dutch government have
paid a great deal of attention to the procedures to be followed in drafting IEPs.
Teachers and therapists are provided with courses and information on the steps to be
followed but speciŽc training which emphasizes the importance of setting goals for
children with multiple disabilities, and the manner in which goals should be
formulated, is lacking. Nevertheless, teachers and therapists are expected to determine
well-deŽned goals on their own. Our study has demonstrated that this has led to the
formulation of goals which do not meet the required standards. Evidently, more must
be done to develop understandable, measurable and attainable goals. Providing
 250 European Journal of Special Needs Education, Vol. 17, No. 3 (2002)

teachers and therapists with speciŽc training during which they learn how to formulate
goals is important. This study points out that considerable beneŽts can be obtained
from even a limited amount of instruction and training.

REFERENCES

BLUMA, S., SHEARER, M. S., FROHMAN, A. H. and HILLIARD, J. (1976). The Portage
Guide to Early Education. Revised edn. Portage: Cooperative Educational Service Agency
No. 12.
BROTHWICK-DUFFY, S. A. (1990). ‘Quality of life of person with severe or profound
mental retardation’. In: SCHALOCK, M. J. (Ed.) Quality of Life: Perspective and Issues.
Washington, DC: AAMR.
Downloaded by [University of Saskatchewan Library] at 01:12 27 December 2014

COLLINS, M. E., MOWBRAY, C. T. and BYBEE, D. (1999). ‘Establishing individualized

goals in a supported education intervention: program inuences on goal-setting and
attainment’, Research on Social Work Practice, 9, 4, 483–508.
COOK, T. D. and CAMPBELL, D. T. (1979). Quasi Experimentation. Chicago: Rand
McNally Colle.
van GEMERT, G. H. and VLASKAMP, C. (1997). ‘Individuele planning’. In: VAN ZORG,
G. H., van GEMERT and MINDERAA, R. B. (Eds) Zorg voor mensen met een
verstandelijke handicap. Assen: Van Gorcum.
GIANGRECO, M. F., DENNIS, R. E., EDELMAN, S. W. and CLONINGER, C. J. (1994).
‘Dressing your IEPS for the general education climate: analyses of IEP goals and objectives
for students with multiple disabilities’, Remedial and Special Education, 15, 5, 288–296.
GOODE, D. and HOGG, J. (1994). ‘Towards an understanding of holistic quality of life in
people with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities’. In: GOODE, D. (Ed.) Quality
of Life for Persons with Disabilities: International Perspectives and Issues. Cambridge,
Mass.: Brookline Books.
GOODMAN, J. F. and BOND, L. (1993). ‘The individualized education program: a
retrospective critique’, Journal of Special Education, 26, 4, 408–422.
INSPECTIE VOOR DE GEZONDHEIDSZORG (2000). Ernstig meervoudig gehandicapt en
dan? Een onderzoek naar de kwaliteit van voor mensen met meervoudig complexe
handicaps. The Hague: Inspectie voor de Gezondheidszorg.
de RUYTER, D. (1999). ‘Kwaliteit van plannen en plannen voor kwaliteit’. In: BAARTMAN,
H., VAN DER LEIJ, A. and STOLK, J. (Eds). Het perspectief van de orthopedagoog.
Houten/Diegem: Bohn Staeu Van Loghum.
SCHIPPERS, A. P., LAKERVELD, A., CRUM, M., TEN HORN, G. H. M. M., NAKKEN, H.
and van GEMERT, G. H. (1998). ZIP Zelfevaluatie Individuele zorg- en begeleiding-
splannen. Groningen: Stichting Kinderstudies.
STERKMAN, K., VLASKAMP, C., REYNDERS, K. and NAKKEN, H. (1998). Het
verbeteren van de interdisciplinaire zorg voor meervoudig gehandicapten. Verloop en
resultaten van fase 1 en 2 van een onderzoek in samenwerking met de stichting Haags
Tyltylcentrum. Groningen: Stichting Kinderstudies.
VLASKAMP, C. (1999). Een eigen perspectief. Een programma voor mensen met ernstige
meervoudige beperkingen. Assen: Van Gorcum.
WARE, J. and HEALEY, I. (1994). ‘Conceptualizing progress in children with profound and
multiple learning difŽculties’. In: WARE, J. (Ed.) Educating Children with Profound
Multiple and Learning DifŽculties. London: David Fulton.