BSEd (Sci) SESE 116: Microbiology & Parasitology

Coun• Cont•nt (L•ctur• Not••J

6. Helminths
• multicellular
• eukaryotic
• worm-like parasites
• hermaphroditic (have both male and female reproductive parts in the same
organism) and bisexual (meaning there are distinct male and female, each with
representative reproductive organs)
• classified under kingdom Animalia

Parasites

Protozoa Metazoa
(helminths)

Sarcoclina Sporozoa Mastigophora Ciliata

(amebas) (sporozoans) (flagellates} (ciliates)

Platyhelminthes Nemathelminthes
(flatworms) (roundworms)

Trematoda Cestoda
(flukes) (tapeworms)

A. General Characteristics
Sizes of Helminths
• All helminths are relatively large(> 1 mm long); some are very large (> 1 m
long).

Bacteria
Spirochete Viruses

Gram positive coccus @

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Fungi
Mold
It
Gram negative rod
Prions

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Yeast Plasmodium in red
(spores) blood cell (malaria)

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• Prion • Amino

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• Worms

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• Amebae • Bacteria
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acid

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METERS
(Log Kale)
Structure of Helmfnths
• have well-developed organ systems and most are active feeders
• Some helmfnths are hermaphrodites; others have separate sexes

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1. Flatworms
Oral
sucker . ::\~Aplcelpapilla_ __ ,,
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Brain

Female
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canal

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External structure Internal structure
FASCIOLA- MIRACIOIUM LARVA
a) blood fluke (Schistosoma) b) liver fluke (Fasciola)

scolex

sucker

neck
oglottid

Immature
proglottid--::c;...-"

e 2006 HtrNm-'l'tbsur. ... c.

c) tapeworm (Taenia)
2. Roundworm

• IYl$icle

CopiAato,y SK ,_ Tai
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fig. 1.,1 ; (A) malt (8) Adult female

Helmtnth Classtftcatton and Nomenclature

Nomenclature
• Follows the binomial nomenclature system
• Ex. Schistosoma mansonl
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Classification
Platyhelminthes Nemathelmtnthes
ltemalOde costodc oomato<le

1. Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
• flattened and covered with plasma membrane
a. Trematodes (flukes)
• Adult flukes are leaf-shaped flatworms with bilateral
symmetry.
• With prominent oral and ventral suckers help maintain position
in situ.
• Flukes are hermaphroditic except for blood flukes.
• The life-cycle includes a snail intermediate host.
Ex. blood flukes (Schistosoma mansoni), liver fluke(Fasciola
hepatica)
b. Cestodes (tapeworms)
• adult tapeworms are elongated and segmented
• hermaphroditic
• inhabit the intestines
• with scolex (bearing suckers and hooks for attachment) and
proglottid (each segment in the strobili, containing a complete
sexually mature reproductive system)
• Ex. beef tapeworm (Taenia saginata), pork tapeworm (Taenia
solium), fish tapeworm (Diphyllobothrium latum)

2. Nemathelminthes (roundworms)
• cylindrical and covered with cuticle
a. Nematodes (roundworms)
• Adult and larval roundworms have long thin unsegmented
tube-like, cylindrical bodies with anterior mouths and
longitudinal digestive tracts.
• Adult roundworms form separate sexes with well-developed
reproductive systems
• They inhabit intestinal and extraintestinal sites.
Ex. Ascaris (Ascaris lumbricoides), hookworm (Ancylostoma
duodenale), pinworm (Enterobius vermicularis), whipworm
(Trichuris trichiura), filarial worm (Wuchereria bancrofti)

Helminth Reproduction
• Helminths generally reproduce sexually by:
o male and female members that reproduce sexually fertilizing the
eggs of their partner, or
o hermaphroditic sexual reproduction
• In rare cases, a helminth will reproduce using parthenogenesis ("virgin
birth", a process where an unfertilized egg will develop into an offspring

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if a mate is not available for fertilization. The eggs are then shed from
the host's body, where they hatch tn the soil and seek out a new host.
• Unlike other pathogens (viruses, bacteria, protozoa and fungi), helminths
do not proliferate within their hosts.

life Cycle of Helminths

1. Eggs stage
• Helminth produce eggs that embryonate in utero or outside the
host.

2. Larvae stage
• The emergent larvae undergo molting before they mature as adult
male or female worms.
• Larvae may be ingested by intermediate hosts or penetrate host
tissues and become encysted larvae.
• When eaten by definitive hosts, they excyst and form adult
helminth.

3. Adult stage
• Adult worms infect definitive hosts (those in which sexual
development occurs)

Intermediate host vs. Definitive host

intermediate host
o the organism in which a parasite lives shortly before moving
to definitive host
definitive host
o the organism in which a parasite becomes mature and
reproduces sexually

trematode cycle cestode cycle nematode cycle

egg-miracidium-sporocyst-redia-cercaria-{metaoercaria}- egg - metacestode - adult egg - larvae (L 1-L4)- adult
adult

••

B. Pathogenicity

Parasitic helminths can:

1. Cause direct tissue damage from worm activity

Intestinal worms cause a variety of pathologic changes in the mucosa,
some reflecting physical and chemical damage to the tissues. Hookworms
(Ancylostoma and Necator) actively suck blood from mucosal capillaries. The
anticoagulants secreted by the worms cause the wounds to bleed for
prolonged periods, resulting in considerable blood loss.

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BSEd (Sci) SESE 116: Microbiology & Parasitology
Cou,..• Cont•nl (L•ctur• Note•)

2. Stimulate Immune response

All helminths are "foreign bodies" not only in the sense of being large and
invasive but also in the immunologic sense: they are antigenic and therefore
stimulate immunity. Hypersensitivity-based, granulomatous responses to eggs
trapped in the liver cause a physical obstruction to blood flow, which leads
to liver pathology. Hypersensitivity-based inflammatory changes probably
also contribute to the lymphatic blockage associated with filarial infections
(Brugia, Wuchereria).

3. Divert host nutrients

Diversion of host nutrients by competition from worms and interference
with normal digestion and absorption may well aggravate undernutrition.

4. Undertake extensive migration through body tissues and cause more

damage and hypersensitivity
The skin, lungs, liver, and intestines are the organs most affected.
Petechial hemorrhages, pneumonitis, eosinophilia, urticaria and pruritus,
organomegaly, and granulomatous lesions are among the signs and symptoms
produced during these migratory phases.

C. Source and Mode of Transmission

Sources of Helminths
• Helminths are worldwide in distribution, usually in countries with poor
sanitation
• Distribution of diseases caused by helminths are determined by climate,
hygiene, diet, and exposure to vectors.

Modes of Transmission
The four main modes of transmission by which the larvae infect new hosts are:

1. fecal-oral transmission/accidental
• eggs or larvae passed in the feces of one host and ingested with
food/water by another (e.g. ingestion of Trichuris eggs leads directly to
gut infections in humans, while the ingestion of Ascaris eggs
and Strongyloides larvae leads to a pulmonary migration phase before gut
infection in humans).
2. transdermal transmission/active penetration
• infective larvae in the soil (geo-helminths) actively penetrating the skin
and migrating through the tissues to the gut where adults develop and
produce eggs that are voided in host feces (e.g. larval hookworms
penetrating the skin, undergoing pulmonary migration and infecting the
gut where they feed on blood causing iron-deficient anemia in humans)
3. vector-borne transmissfon/zoonotfc
• larval stages taken up by blood-sucking arthropods or undergoing
amplification in aquatic mollusks (e.g. Onchocerca microfilariae ingested
by blac,kflies and injected into new human hosts, Schistosoma eggs release
miracidia to infect snails where they multiply and form cercariae which
are released to infect new hosts).
4. predator-prey transmission
• encysted larvae within prey animals (vertebrate or invertebrate) being
eaten by predators where adult worms develop and produce eggs
(e.g. Dracunculus larvae in copepods ingested by humans leading to
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BSEd (Sci) SESE 116: Microbiology & Parasitology

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guinea worm infection, Taenla cysticerci in beef and pork being eaten by
humans, Echinococcus hydatid cysts fn offal being eaten by dogs).

D. Impacts and Applications of Helmfnths to Human Health and the Environment

Negative Impacts
1. impaired growth and malnutrition
Helminths impair the nutritional status of the people they infect. The
tapeworm Diphyllobothrium latum can cause vitamin B12 deficiency
through direct absorption.
2. anemia
• Worms feed on host tissues, including blood, which leads to a loss
of iron and protein
3. organ blockage
• Helminths lead to acute abdomen, mechanical intestinal
obstruction, gastrointestinal hemorrhage, gastrointestinal
perforation, obstructive jaundice, pancreatitis, and appendicitis
4. other health problems
• Helminthiasis results to abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, poor
cognitive development, flatulence, vomiting, restlessness, trouble
sleeping, allergy, weaken immune system etc.

Positive Impact
Helminth therapy
• Helminth therapy is an "experimental treatment" involving
intentional infection with live parasitic worms. As helminths can
alter a person's immune response, some people believe that
helminthic therapy may, one day, help doctors treat some
autoimmune and allergic diseases.
Note:
An "experimental treatment" is one that has been through basic
laboratory testing and approval by the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) to be tested in humans. Experimental
treatments are not yet available from healthcare providers.

• Researchers are studying these intestinal worms as possible

treatments for many conditions involving inflammation (e.g.
allergic conditions, asthma) and non-viral autoimmune diseases in
humans including celiac disease, Crohn's disease, multiple
sclerosis, ulcerative colitis, and atherosclerosis.
• Parasites sometimes change the body in ways that help them
survive. Helminths give off substances that can alter or suppress
your immune system, so it is harder for you to fight these
substances off like how immunosuppressant medications work.
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2 Worksheets/Laboratory or Learning Activities
1 SUMMATIVE TEST
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