Electrical Engineering (2004) 86: 275–284
DOI 10.1007/s00202-003-0211-5
O R I GI N A L P A P E R
A. Ž. Rakić Æ T. B. Petrović
Linear robust approach to DC/DC converter
modeling—II: Random switching
Received: 30 September 2003 / Accepted: 31 October 2003 / Published online: 17 January 2004

Springer-Verlag 2004
Abstract Modeling of random switching DC/DC con-
verters is presented including derivation of the linear
time-invariant nominal model and construction of
asymptotic uncertainty bounds, covering both random-
ness effects in control and parametric circuit uncertain-
ties. Developed random noise spectral formulas,
nominal model, and uncertainty bounds of modeling are
validated by means of nonlinear simulation and spectral
analysis.
Keywords DC/DC converter Æ random switching Æ
robust modeling
1 Introduction
DC/DC converters are power electronics switching
devices dedicated to small tolerance DC voltage/current
production [1, 2]. Converters are fed with partially sta-
bilized (high tolerance) DC voltage and their main task
is to maintain nominal output voltage, i.e., to efficiently
eliminate disturbances originating from power supply
and consumption fluctuations. Switching converters are
characterized by a high power efficiency factor, which
favors them against linear stabilizers in high power
supply applications.
The concept of pulse width modulation (PWM) is
used for the linearization of the control signal in the
converter. Noise occurs at the frequency of commuta-
A. Ž. Rakić Æ T. B. Petrović (&)
Faculty of Electrical Engineering,
Control Department,
University of Belgrade,
Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73,
P.O. Box 35–54, 11120 Belgrade,
Serbia and Montenegro
E-mail: petrovic@etf.bg.ac.yu
Tel.: +381-11-3370150
Fax: +381-11-3248681
tions and its multiples, which is inherent in deterministic
switching. Stressed harmonics in the lower frequency
range excite mechanical modes of the supply device and
make unpleasant noise, while in the high frequency
range they produce electromagnetic interference (EMI)
and induce disturbances in supplied devices. Instead of
using standard deterministic PWM, one can use ran-
domness in the DC/DC converter control. Introduction
of randomness enables the transfer of the harmonic
energy of the deterministic approach into the continuum
of the frequency spectrum, easing the problem of
deterministic control.
The random approach to control of power supply
devices began to develop in the 1990s [3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10,
11], having a basis in the statistical theory of commu-
nications from the 1960s. The results of this newer
research are used in the field of spectral density analysis,
affecting the control and other relevant variables in the
device. However, only for the fixed operating point is
considered in the open loop and not the dynamics of the
closed loop in the bandwidth of the regulation. Within
the modern theory of the linear robust control [12, 13,
14, 15, 16], deterministic control establishes the nominal
small-signal linear time-invariant (LTI) model of the
plant (DC/DC converter) along with the bounds of
maximal permitted modeling uncertainty [17, 18, 19].
Robust stability and robust performance are guaranteed
for all perturbed models within the adopted uncertainty
bounds.
The only results concerning the analytical consider-
ation of the closed loop control of a random switching
DC/DC converter, to the authors’ best knowledge, are
contained in [7, 8]. The reason for the application of ad
hoc solutions is the lack of an LTI model of a random
switching DC/DC converter, which is needed for clas-
sical and robust techniques of control (although results
often suggest the need of appropriate random switching
modeling for adequate control). The goal of this paper is
to synthesize the random switching approach to the
control of the converter (aiming to achieve harmonic
amplitude and EMI reduction) while maintaining robust
276
control in the closed loop (obtaining efficient distur-
bance elimination despite high level uncertainty in the
modeling of the plant parameters).
Primarily, this paper analyzes the impact of ran-
domness in control to the relevant plant variables, the
modeling, and the verification of the random switching
converter model.
Section 2 considers the nominal modeling of the
plant—DC/DC converter. The repercussions of different
strategies of random switching to the power spectrum of
the control variable are presented in Sect. 3. Section 4
discusses the robust modeling uncertainty bounds of the
random switching converter. Section 5 deals with the
simulation verification of developed spectral formulas
on nonlinear models and our conclusions are presented
in Sect. 6.
2 Nominal model
In the process of random modulation, the switching
control variable D(t)=E(q(t)) can be generated in sev-
eral ways, randomly varying one of three variables of the
modulated control q(t) pulse shape ui(t)ei) (depicted in
Fig. 1). Di is the duty ratio for the ith cycle of the
switching, ei is the position of the start of the impulse in
the ith cycle, and the period of switching is Ti.
The random change of variables ei , Di , or Ti shapes the
frequency spectrum of the output voltage, i.e., reduces
the discrete component (harmonic) on the frequency of
commutations. Important here are the choice of the
variable (ei , Di, or Ti) to be randomized, and the type and
parameters of the probability density function (pdf),
which are all explained in the next section.
The deterministic approach to modeling [20] when
considering random switching control must be changed.
The steady state of the stochastic stationary process is
characterized by the mean value (mathematical expec-
tation) in the function of linear circuitry parameters L,
supply voltage vIN (considered to be nominal—VIN), and
control variable q, having a random character.
Output voltage vOUT and the inductance current iL
are generally nonlinear functions of mentioned vari-
ables, so their mean values are:
Fig. 1 Shape of the ith switching cycle pulse ui(t)ei ) in the control
signal q(t)
VOUT ¼ EðvOUT ðK; VIN ; qÞÞ;
ð1Þ
IL ¼ EðiL ðK; VIN ; qÞÞ:
When determining the mean value in 1, linearization
should not be used, because it could lead to significant
errors in mean (steady state) values as well as in all rele-
vant transfer functions for the small signal, based on the
operation point (control variable mean value). The cor-
rect method is to solve Eq. 1, after establishment of the
equivalent converter circuit and determination of depen-
dencies vOUT(L,VIN,q) and iL(L,VIN,q) analytically or
from the signal shapes of vOUT and iL [3]. Computation of
1 can be simplified by omitting the series parasitic resis-
tances RL of inductance and RC of capacitance, without
introducing any significant errors in calculations of the
steady state.
If the control variable D is decomposed into a sum of
constant offset D0 and a small change of the control d,
which equals zero in the steady state without the presence
disturbances, it follows that the choice of D0 in the steady
state can achieve the desired (mean) value of the output
voltage, in the same way as the deterministic control.
In derivation of the small signal transfer functions
from control d to the output variables, it is assumed that
the continuous modulation noise in the spectrum of the
control variable is caused by the uncertainty in the
robust modeling of the converter. In this way, random
effects are neglected in the nominal model consideration.
Modeling of the uncertainty bounds covering the con-
tinuous noise spectrum of the modulation is tightly
coupled with the validation of the noise spectral for-
mulas and will be discussed in a separate section.
This assumption enables the use of the transfer
functions developed for the deterministic control as the
nominal model of the random switching DC/DC con-
verter, but with parameters D0, VOUT, and IL obtained
from the random treatment mentioned above.
The linear model of the random switching DC/DC
converter for the small signal is presented in Fig. 2a with
the sources of disturbance vin and ig, and the transfer
functions from these disturbances to the state variables.
Continuous noise of the modulation is represented by
the plant input noise signal nq, whose spectral charac-
teristics will be discussed in the next section.
Figure 2b represents the form of plant input multi-
plicative uncertainty of modeling, which covers the
effects of the modulation randomness. lq(s) is the bound

the
uncertainty, while Dq is the unity normed quantity
of
(
Dq
\1) of the unknown perturbation, matching the
unstructured uncertainty of modeling. The problem of
modeling uncertainty bounds will be discussed in a
separate section.
3 Random control and spectrum of the control variable
In this section spectral characteristics of the control var-
iable q(t) are considered. A suitable variable for consid-
eration of spectral characteristics is the power spectrum,
 277

Fig. 2 a Linear nominal

converter model; b uncertainty
robust modeling

rather than the Fourier transform of the signal, because it Double summing can be transformed in summing
is also random for the random signal of interest. over i and all possible differences k=j)i (k=0, ±1, ±2,
Randomness of ei and Di do not affect the periodicity ...):
of the sequence of the modulated control signal q(t), so
random pulse position modulation (RPPM) and random 1
P þN
P
Sq ðxÞ ¼ lim Eð2W Ui ðx; ei ; Di ; Ti Þ
pulse width modulation (RPWM) are periodic modula- W !1 k i¼
N ð7Þ
tions, while techniques that include varying of the period 
Uiþk ðx; eiþk ; Diþk ; Tiþk Þejxðniþk
ni Þ Þ:
of switching are called aperiodic modulations.
Taking the stationarity of the process into account,
3.1 Power spectrum of the nonoverlapping sequence all the members in the sum over i give the same math-
of random rectangular pulses ematical expectation. Also:
!
Control q(t) can be written as the infinite sum of controls XþN
ui in every single switching cycle: Eð2W Þ ¼ E Ti ¼ ð2N þ 1ÞEðTi Þ ¼ ð2N þ 1ÞT
N !1
i¼
N
X
þ1
qðtÞ ¼ ui ðt
ni ; ei ; Di ; Ti Þ: ð2Þ ð8Þ
i¼
1
where T stands for the mathematical expectation of the
Let Ui(x,ei ,Di,Ti) be the Fourier transform of the switching period E(Ti).
signal ui(t,ei ,Di,Ti). The power spectrum Sq(x) of the It follows that the spectrum is given by
signal q(t) can be obtained via derivation of the auto- 
correlation function and making its Fourier transform. 1
P
Sq ðxÞ ¼ lim E ð2N þ1ÞT ð2N þ 1Þ Ui ðx; ei ; Di ; Ti Þ
The alternative method, which does not involve the time N !1 k
domain consideration, will be used henceforth. It starts 

from the Wiener–Khintchine relation: Uiþk ðx; eiþk ; Diþk ; Tiþk Þejxðniþk
ni Þ ð9Þ
 
1  2
Sq ðxÞ ¼ lim E Xq2W ðxÞ ; ð3Þ and the general relation that provides the starting point
W !1 2W
for further development of periodic and aperiodic power
where Xq2W(x) stands for the Fourier transform of the spectra is:
signal q(t) clip spreading in time from )W to +W. Let 
the number of the pulses in the clip be 2N+1, i.e., 1 Xþ1

Sq ðxÞ ¼ E Ui ðx; ei ; Di ; Ti ÞUiþk :
T k¼
1
X
þN

qðtÞ ¼ ui ðt
ni ; ei ; Di ; Ti Þ: ð4Þ
i¼
N
 ðx; eiþk ; Diþk ; Tiþk Þejxðniþk
ni Þ : ð10Þ

The Fourier transform of this signal is: The Fourier transform of the control pulse ui(t, ei , Di,
Ti) is, according to its definition:
X
þN
Xq2W ðxÞ ¼ Ui ðx; ei ; Di ; Ti Þe
jxni ð5Þ R
þ1
i¼
N Ui ðx;ei ; Di ; Ti Þ ¼ e
jxtui ðt;ei ; Di ; Ti Þdt

1
and the power spectrum Sq(x) is consequently:
  R i Ti
ei þD xDi Ti  jxDi Ti
1 
¼ e
jxt dt ¼ x2 sin 2 e
2 e
jxei
Sq ðxÞ ¼ lim E Xq2W ðxÞXq2W ðxÞ ei
W !1 2W
 Ui ðx;ei ; Di ; Ti Þ ¼ U0 ðx;Di ;Ti Þe
jxei ;
1 X þN X þN ð11Þ
¼ lim E Ui ðx; ei ; Di ; Ti Þ
W !1 2W i¼
N j¼
N where U0(x, Di, Ti) is the Fourier transform of the

rectangular pulse with unity intensity (amplitude), width
 e
jxni Uj ðx; ej ; Dj ; Tj Þe jxðnj
ni Þ ; ð6Þ DiTi, and start time zero.
The mathematical expectation of the DC value of the
where the asterisk represents the complex conjugate. control variable q(t) is expressed through the expectation
278
   
of the Fourier transform of the typical signal shape 11 EðUi ðxÞÞ ¼ E U0 ðxÞe
jxei ¼ U0 ðxÞE e
jxei
for x=0: ¼ U0 ðxÞPe ðxÞ ð16Þ
 þW 
R   
EðqÞ ¼ lim E 2W 1
qðtÞdt 2   
W !1

W  E jUi ðxÞj2 ¼ E U0 ðxÞe
jxei  ¼ E jU0 ðxÞj2
R þN
þW P
¼ lim E 2W 1
ui ðt
ni ; ei ; Di ; Ti Þdt ¼ jU0 ðxÞj2 ð17Þ
W !1
W i¼
N 
P
þ N where P
(x) is the Fourier transform of the pdf p(e) of
1
¼ lim ð2N þ1ÞT E Ui ð0; ei ; Di ; Ti Þ the random variable ei . Finally, the spectrum of the
N !1 i¼
N
1 RPPM is
¼ lim ð2N þ1ÞT ð2N þ 1ÞEðUi ð0; ei ; Di ; Ti ÞÞ  
N !1 j2 2 2

¼ 1 SqRPPM ðxÞ ¼ jU0 ðxÞ 1
jPe ðxÞj2 þ jU0 ðxÞjT 2jPe ðxÞj
T EðUi ð0; ei ; Di ; Ti ÞÞ: ð12Þ T
P 
þ1 
 d x
k 2pT ð18Þ
k¼
1

3.2 Periodic modulation where the first component represents the continuous
part of the spectrum, introduced by the random modu-
The main feature of periodic modulation is the constant lation, while the second component describes the dis-
switching period: ("i)Ti=T=const. Also, if the indi- crete spectrum. The distribution function p(e) is chosen
vidual realizations of the modulation random parameter so that the quantity | Pe (x)|2 in the second component of
are cycle independent, the mathematical expectation in relation 18 in the desired frequency range is less than
Eq. 10 enters the product of expectations, except the unity, reducing the random modulation harmonics
element with k=0: confronted to deterministic PWM, which makes the real
  gain of the random modulation. The price of the har-
1
Sq ðxÞ ¼ E jUi ðxÞj2 monic reduction is the introduction of the continuous
T spectrum, which is, in fact, the plant input noise for the
Xþ1      feedback control system and which has to be considered
þ EðUi ðxÞÞE Uiþk ðxÞ E ejxkT : in the control synthesis.
k¼
1 k6¼0

ð13Þ
3.2.2 Random pulse width modulation (RPWM)
Application of Poison’s equality
In random pulse width modulation, the duty ratio Di is
X  
þ1
1 Xþ1
2p randomly changed around the nominal (specified) con-
ejxkT ¼ d x
k ; ð14Þ trol D(t), with no change in the pulse position (ei ” 0),
k¼
1
T k¼
1 T
and the cycle period kept constant. Taking the above
addition and subtraction of the proper element with into account, mathematical expectations E(Ui(x)) and
k=0 in the sum, gives the power spectrum of the peri- E(|Ui(x)|2), applied to Eq. 11, turn into:
odic modulation:
  1  
2 E ðU i ðx ÞÞ ¼ E ðU 0 ðx ÞÞ ¼ E 1
e
jxTDi
Sq ðxÞ ¼ T1 ½E jUi ðxÞj2
jEðUi ðxÞÞj2 þ jEðUiTðxÞÞj jx
P 
þ1  1
 d x
k 2p ¼ ð1
PD ðT xÞÞ ð19Þ
T : ð15Þ jx
k¼
1
   
E jUi ðxÞj2 ¼ E U0 ðxÞU0 ðxÞ
3.2.1 Random pulse position modulation (RPPM) 1   
¼ 2
E ejxTDi þ e
jxTDi
x2
Position modulation is characterized by the random 2
change of the position ei of the pulse within the ¼ 2 ð1
RefPD ðT xÞgÞ ð20Þ
switching cycle period, the deterministic change of duty x
ratio Di depending of specified control D(t), and the where PD(Tx) is the Fourier transform of the pdf p(D),
fixed period of switching Ti=T=const. In order to with the frequency argument scaled by the constant cycle
obtain the power spectrum of the control q(t) on the period T.
basis of the generic equation for the periodic modulation The spectrum of the random PWM is given by:
15, the mathematical expectations E(Ui(x)) and h i
E(|Ui(x)|2) need to be determined for the typical shape SqRPWM ðxÞ ¼ 12 2ð1
RefPD ðT xÞgÞ
j1
PD ðT xÞj2
of the control signal 11 when position modulation is x T
P 
þ1 
applied. As the only random variable is ei , the desired þ 21 2 j1
PD ðT xÞj2 d x
k 2p
T : ð21Þ
expectations are: x T k¼
1
 279
 
3.3 Aperiodic modulation
E jUi ðxÞj2 ¼ x12 Eðð1
e
jxDi Ti Þð1
ejxDi Ti ÞÞ
ð27Þ
As opposed to the periodic modulation, aperiodic ones ¼ x22 ð1
RefPT ðDxÞgÞ:
incorporate the change of the cycle period Ti cycle by
cycle, according to some random law. Specialization of The power spectrum of the aperiodic modulation
Eq. 10 for aperiodic modulations, if the change of Ti is with the deterministic duty ratio Di has the final shape of
independent between the cycles, is given by: the functional dependency on the Fourier transform of
"   X the Ti pdf PT(x):

1    "
1 2
Sq ðxÞ¼ E jUi ðxÞj þ EðUi ðxÞÞE Uiþk ðxÞe
jxTiþk
T k¼
1 SqDFIX ðxÞ ¼ 1
RefPT ðDxÞg :
  Xþ1      #
Ekþ1 ejxTi þ E Ui ðxÞejxTi E Uiþk ðxÞ ð1
PT ðDxÞÞðPT ðxÞ
PT ðð1
DÞxÞÞ
k¼1 þRe
# 1
PT ðxÞ

k
1 jxTi

E e : ð22Þ ð28Þ

Replacing k=)k for the sum of negative k and

computing the sum gives: 3.3.2 Aperiodic modulation with deterministic on-time DiTi
  EðU ðxÞÞEU ðxÞejxTiþk  
1
Sq ðxÞ ¼ E jUi ðxÞj þ 2 i iþk
In order to obtain control via deterministic on-time of
T 1
E ð e
jxTi Þ
jxTi
   the switch and random varying of the switching period
EðUi ðxÞe ÞE Uiþk Ti only, the control variable D(t) is multiplied by the
þ ð23Þ
1
EðejxTi Þ constant of the switching period mathematical expec-
Considering the equality tation T=E(Ti), and a new deterministic variable is
     obtained:
ab a b ab ab ab
þ  ¼ þ ¼ 2Re AðtÞ ¼ T  DðtÞ: ð29Þ
c c c c c
Keeping in mind that A is not random variable, the
one can obtain the general expression for the spectral mathematical expectations entering the power spectrum
density of aperiodic modulations: expression have the following values:
"
1  
EðUi ðxÞÞ ¼ EðU0 ðxÞÞ ¼ U0 ðxÞ ð30Þ
Sq ðxÞ ¼ E jUi ðxÞj2
T
(   )# EðUi ðxÞe
jxTi Þ ¼ EðU0 ðxÞe
jxTi Þ ¼ U0 ðxÞPT ðxÞ ð31Þ
EðUi ðxÞÞE Uiþk ðxÞejxTiþk
þ2Re ð24Þ  2   2   2
1
PT ðxÞ E Ui ðxÞ ¼ E U0 ðxÞ ¼ U0 ðxÞ : ð32Þ
where PT(x) is the Fourier transform of the random The power spectrum of the aperiodic modulation
period’s pdf p(T), while T=E(Ti). with deterministic on-time A=DiTi has the final form:
 
3.3.1 Aperiodic modulation with deterministic duty ratio Di U ðxÞ2 PT ðxÞ
AFIX 0
Sq ðxÞ ¼ 1 þ 2Re ð33Þ
This modulation technique is characterized by deficiency T 1
PT ðxÞ
in the pulse position change (ei ” 0) and the random
change of the cycle period Ti. However, for every
switching cycle, the duty ratio Di is kept according to
deterministic control D(t), which means that the switch 4 Uncertainty modeling
is on in every switching cycle for different times DiTi,
suiting random Ti and deterministic Di. To obtain the In the context of the robust modeling of the random
power spectrum, one needs to calculate the mathemati- switching DC/DC converter, the most convenient
cal expectations E(Ui(x)), EðUi ðxÞ  e
jxTi Þ, and uncertainty representation is the multiplicative input
E(|Ui(x)|2) for the signal shape 11: uncertainty, because neglected continuous modulation
j   j noise is effectively added to the uncertainty of modeling
EðUi ðxÞÞ ¼ 1
E e
jxDi Ti ¼ ð1
PT ðDxÞÞ ð25Þ in the plant input, i.e., the uncertainty of the control
x x
system, which really is the case with the random
  j  
jxTi    modulation.
E Ui ðxÞe
jxTi ¼
E e
E e
jxTi e
jxDT
x Multiplicative input uncertainty is represented in
j Fig. 2b, where: lq(s) is the bound of random modeling
¼
ðPT ðxÞ
PT ðð1
DÞxÞÞ ð26Þ
x uncertainty, containing the continuous noise spectrum
280
of the control q, and Dq is the unknown but normed
perturbation of random modeling.
One should realise that from the very beginning of
the uncertainty consideration of the random switching
converter, the random switching effects in control are
added to the effects of the uncertainty in modeling
of the converter, which are not related to the nature
of control, but to the component tolerances of the
converter itself. No correlation in these effects
enables simple addition of the modeling uncertainty
because of random effects in control to the parametric
uncertainty of the deterministic switching converter
modeling.
Using the same guidelines as for deterministic mod-
eling [20], the random switching multiplicative input
uncertainty bound on low frequencies has the value of
the maximal excursion of the control variable in the
process of random switching control. As this value is
assumed to be significantly greater than the frequency
peak of the continuous noise spectrum in the bandwidth
of the control, the random switching effect in control can
be included in the uncertainty description just by
adequate increase of the deterministic switching uncer-
tainty bound DC gain in amount given to the random-
ization effects.
Therefore, random effects can be included into the
uncertainty bound of converter modeling in two ways:
1. Keeping the deterministic uncertainty bound of
modeling, and ensuring that one part of the modeling
uncertainty covers parametric uncertainty, while the
other one covers the random effects, effectively nar-
rows the permitted tolerance of the linear circuit
elements;
2. Adding the net effect of random uncertainty model-
ing to deterministic bound and keeping the dynamics
that describe asymptotic behavior of the modeling
uncertainty in deterministic case.
Comparison of the deterministic and random uncer-
tainty bound of modeling and their applicability in the
modeling of the random switching DC/DC converter are
conducted on the diagrams of the experimental and
theoretical power spectrum of the control variable q, and
the proposed multiplicative uncertainty bounds.
It is assumed that two conditions will be fulfilled:
1. The uncertainty bound of random switching con-
verter covers deterioration of the experimental spec-
trum from that theoretically anticipated, enabling
controller synthesis for the existing parametric
uncertainty level of the deterministic switching con-
verter with random control uncertainty added,
2. The uncertainty bound of deterministic switching
modeling fully covers the effects of random control,
enabling use of existing controllers for deterministic
switching converters, noting that the allowed
parametric uncertainty of modeling effectively drops
for the value given to the random uncertainty
covering.
5 Model verification
5.1 Aims and conception of the verification
Random control produces the following unknown
effects to deterministic control: continuous modulation
noise and dependency of the state variables on the pdf of
the chosen random variable. Therefore, analysis of the
impact of different random strategies on mean values,
the continuous random noise spectrum, and harmonics
of the control signal, output voltage, and inductance
current is needed. Verification of the random switching
DC/DC converter model has two main aims:
1. To validate spectral formulas of different random
control strategies for the spectrum of the direct con-
trol variable q(t);
2. To validate the model for the small signal of the
DC/DC converter in order to investigate spectral
characteristics of the output voltage and inductance
current of the converter.
Realization of the first aim will be achieved through
comparison of the spectra of the proposed formulas for
the control variable and Monte-Carlo simulations on the
nonlinear Simulink (The MathWorks Inc., Natick, MA,
USA) model of the plant.
The second aim of the verification will be attained
indirectly. The model of the DC/DC converter used for
the small signal is the LTI system. Propagation of the
input signal with the spectrum Sin(x) through the LTI
system with the transfer function H(x), output signal is
obtained with the spectrum Sout(x), obeying the
Wiener–Khintchine law:
Sout ðxÞ ¼ jH ðxÞj2 Sin ðxÞ: ð34Þ
Hence, the power spectrum of the output voltage vout
is:
Svout ðxÞ ¼ jPv ðxÞj2 Sq ðxÞ ð35Þ
and the power spectrum of the inductance current iL is:
SiL ðxÞ ¼ jPi ðxÞj2 Sq ðxÞ: ð36Þ
The power spectrum comparison for the output volt-
age and the inductance current, predicted by Eqs. 35 and
36, with those obtained from Monte-Carlo simulations
will validate the proposed model of the DC/DC converter
for the small signal in the random control setup.
5.2 Issues on simulation setup and realization
Prototype buck DC/DC converter parameters are:
fsw=50 kHz, VIN=10 V, IG=10 A, VOUT=5 V,
R=0.5 W, L=50 lH, RL46 mW, C=4,700 lF,
RC24 mW.
 281

The operation point calculation, according to 1, is: Because all of the spectral formulas are brought to
  the same form as the dependencies on the Fourier
R RVIN RVIN
VOUT ¼ E RþR L
qvIN ¼ RþR L
EðqÞ ¼ RþR L
D0 transform of the pdfs of the random variables, the
) D0 ¼ RþR L VOUT
 0:55 Fourier transform of the uniform distribution for all
 R V
IN
strategies is required:
1 VIN VIN
IL ¼ E RþR qvIN ¼ RþR EðqÞ ¼ RþR D0 ¼ 10A:  
sin emax
L L L
eR

jxe 1 2 x
max emax
ð37Þ RPPM : Pe ðxÞ ¼ e de ¼ emax  e
jx 2 ;
0 emax 2 x
Using the proposed random switching model, the emax ¼ 0:2T
nominal converter model is the same as for the deter- ð42Þ
ministic switching unit [20]. It is given by the transfer
function from the control variable d to the output voltage R max
DþD 1 sinðDmax xÞ
jxD
vout and to the inductance current iL, respectively: RPWM:PD ðxÞ¼ e
jxD dD¼ e ;
D
Dmax 2Dmax Dmax x
 s 
Dmax ¼ 0:1
9:16 þ1
Pv ðsÞ ¼ 2 8865 ð38Þ ð43Þ
s s
þ þ1
21062 2487 R max
T þDT 1 sin ðDTmax xÞ
jxT
 s  D=AFIX : PT ðxÞ ¼ e
jxT dT ¼ e ;
T
DTmax 2DTmax DTmax x
18:31  þ1 DTmax ¼ 0:1T :
Pi ðsÞ ¼ 496 : ð39Þ
s2 s ð44Þ
þ þ 1
21062 2487 Verification of the converter model relies fully on the
For the verification of the spectral formulas of the power spectrum comparison of calculated (spectral for-
random modulations (RPPM, RPWM, aperiodic modu- mulas) and simulated spectra. Simulation (using Simu-
lations with deterministic duty ratio—DFIX, and deter- link) is based on numerical algorithms for solving
ministic on-time—AFIX), uniform distribution for differential equations in the discrete time, which brings
adequate random variables will be used. Uniform distri- one to the field of digital signal processing and power
bution is directly supported in the Simulink (The Math- spectrum estimation. The power spectrum is estimated
works Inc.) and can be easily implemented (or it is already by the Welch method of classical (nonparametric) esti-
supported) on most digital signal processor (DSP) plat- mation (Signal Processing Toolbox, The MathWorks
forms, commonly used in the control of the converters. Inc., Natick, MA, USA).
All the strategies of the random control are realized The simulation step is set according to maximal error
with the excursion of the random variable within the of the time interval of the 1% switching period
boundaries of ±10% of the nominal value. This pro- (T=2Æ10)5s), i.e., the step is chosen to be 2Æ10)7s. The
vides a reasonable compromise between the room given simulation duration of 70,000Æ2Æ10)7s provides enough
to the random effects and contraction of the available samples (215=32,768) for the quality power spectrum
control action to 80% for the periodic modulation and estimation of the control signal q, output voltage vout
variation of the switching frequency of ±10% for the and inductance current iL, after all transients ended and
aperiodic modulation. This amount of change can be the converter steady state is established.
implemented without the intervention on the existing The timing of the modulation signal is obtained
hardware, developed for deterministic control, but with through comparison with the free-running counter
the control system redesign. (repeating sequence block or the integrator with the
The deterministic bound of uncertainty is found to be external reset signal). Because the simulation time is
[20]: discrete, the timer resolution, inherent in the hardware
s realization, is also simulated.
þ1
DET
lMI ðsÞ ¼ 0:5  s9000 : ð40Þ
þ1
36000 5.3 Results and discussion
Following the guidelines given above, the uncertainty
Comparison of the results of proposed formulas for
bound of the random modeling is raised by 10% in DC
power spectral density of the control variable with
value for random effects, the deterministic dynamics
RPPM, PRWM, DFIX, and AFIX modulation is given
remain and the random bound is given by:
in Figs. 3, 4, 5, and 6 respectively, where curves 1 rep-
s resent theoretically anticipated power spectral density
þ1
9000
lq ðsÞ ¼ 0:6  s : ð41Þ (PSD), curves 2 the estimated PSDs from the simulation,
þ1 curves 3 the random uncertainty bound (Eq. 41), while
36000 curves 4 are the deterministic uncertainty bound of
282
Fig. 3 PSD Sq with RPPM
modeling (Eq. 40). Figures 7, 8, 9, and 10, present the
PSDs of the output voltage (curves 1 and 2 representing
theoretical and estimated respectively) and inductance
current (curves 3 and 4 representing theoretical and
estimated respectively).
Simulation showed correspondence between theory
and the power spectra of the control variable, obtained
via experiment, and state variables: output voltage and
inductance current, so fully verifying all segments of the
proposed model. Disagreements between simulation
spectra and predictions are the results of error caused by
discretization of the simulation time and delay in the
signal generation (timer resolution), owing to the finite
signal sequence length and variance of the spectrum
estimation, leakage of the spectrum components, and
the effect of the windowing. Variations in the results
concerning the spectra are credited to the continuous
noise of the modulation. Theoretically obtained har-
Fig. 4 PSD Sq with RPWM
Fig. 5 PSD Sq with DFIX
monics in the multiples of the switching frequency are
not included in the analysis, so disagreements between
theoretical and simulation spectra appear in close
proximity to those frequencies. The harmonic part of the
spectrum, which is not significant for the converter
modeling in the bandwidth of the control, is verified
through the integration of the PSD signal around mul-
tiples of the switching frequency, in the frequency range
dictated by the frequency resolution of the spectral
estimation method and applied window function.
Results in the available literature also showed similar
good agreement between theory and simulation, so for
modeling in the bandwidth of the control this is of no
further interest.
Robust control of the random switching converter is
possible even with the controllers developed for the
deterministic switching, but with the decrease of the
maximal allowed parametric modeling uncertainty
Fig. 6 PSD Sq with AFIX
 283

Fig. 7 PSDs Svout and SiL with RPPM Fig. 9 PSD Svout and SiL with DFIX

caused by the tolerance of the linear circuitry. Robust

controllers developed directly for the random switching
converter show similar dynamic properties, but with the
same level of robustness to the parametric uncertainty as
for the deterministic switching device.

6 Conclusion

The aim of randomness introduction into the control of

DC/DC converters is to reduce the discrete components
of the output voltage power spectrum on the multiples
of the switching frequency, and consequently decrease
the electromagnetic emission, acoustic noise, and noise
induced in supplied devices. These undoubted gains in
performance of devices are paid for in the field of the
converter control, because random modulation itself
introduces noise in the continuum of the spectrum, and
Fig. 10 PSD Svout and SiL with AFIX

so also in the bandwidth of the control. Classical

Fig. 8 PSD Svout and SiL with RPWM
methods of control do not give satisfactory results in the
environment of the random control, as modern robust
methods can be applied only after adequate robust
analysis and the modeling of the random switching
DC/DC converter as a plant. This paper has proposed a
model of the converter in the context of random mod-
ulation of the control variable. Power spectrum formu-
las for the periodic and aperiodic random control were
developed. Methodology for construction of DC/DC
converter nominal model was proposed, uncertainty
bounds of the modeling considered, and the model
verified by the simulation.
Further research should be directed to robust mod-
eling of the parallel operating random switching
converters and the synthesis of different types of
adequate robust controllers for both single and parallel
operating units.
284
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