Previous Year Questions

Sociology BSS-323
6th semester
Major Perspectives in Sociological Thought

By Utkarsh Tripathi
Note- * means the question is repeated many times in the examinations…..So it’s important

Number of stars denotes how many times it is repeated in the examination.

ATTENTION!!!

It may contain some detailing errors as this is exam oriented content. So, Please proceed with caution.
Ensuring the tiniest of details is something that requires ample time and we don’t have that for now. Even
though all efforts are made to keep it accurate, please verify the facts if you think there’s any error. For
more detailed and elaborative content refer your books and other credible content.

Remember!!

The length of the questions might be varying, sometimes a bit longer, but the main thing
for proper coverage is that the headings much be clear. Have a novel like reading but
memories the headings- that's the most important thing. You can write all of them down
at a single place segregating them topic wise.

Please contribute by sending the scanned question papers so that I will be able to add them for upcoming
batches. Submit them Here https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1eCIGnzhUz47kzdhNMl5BRyldiaSfgOMV

All the best

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE1
2 Marks – Answer in 50 Words
1- What do you mean by central tendency?

Soln.- Central tendency refers to a statistical measure that represents the center
or midpoint of a distribution of values. It indicates where the majority of data
points cluster around. Common measures of central tendency include the mean,
median, and mode, providing insights into the typical or average value in a
dataset.

2- Calculate coefficient of Range from the following data:

200, 210, 208, 160, 220, 250

Soln.-

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE2
3- Write any two limitations of Quartile deviation.

Soln.- Quartile deviation has limitations:

a- Sensitivity to Extreme Values: Quartile deviation is influenced by extreme

values, making it less robust than other measures of dispersion like the range
or interquartile range.
b- Insensitivity to Data Distribution: It may not accurately reflect the spread of
data, especially in asymmetric or skewed distributions.
4- What do you mean by Primary data?

Soln.- Primary data refers to information collected firsthand by the researcher for
a specific purpose or study. It is original data obtained directly from original
sources through methods like surveys, interviews, experiments, or observations.
Primary data is relevant, specific, and tailored to the researcher's needs for an
.00alysis and interpretation.

5- What is frequency Polygon?

Soln.- A frequency polygon is a graph that represents the distribution of data

values in a dataset. It displays the frequencies of different values or ranges of
values along a horizontal axis, with the corresponding frequencies plotted as
points and connected by straight lines to form a polygonal shape.

6- What do you mean by histogram?

Soln.- A histogram is a graphical representation of the distribution of numerical

data. It consists of adjacent rectangles, or bins, whose widths represent intervals
or categories of data values, and heights represent the frequencies or counts of
data points falling into each interval. Histograms provide a visual summary of the
data's distribution.

7- The most frequently occurring value of a data set is called_______

Soln.-Mode

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE3
8- Who has written the book “Survey methods in Social Investigation” ?

Soln.- Moser

9- Write the formula of coefficient of quartile deviation.

Soln.-

10- If mean is 15, and median is 14, then mode is?

Soln.-

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE4
11- Who is the author of the book, “Scientific Social surveys and Research”?

Soln.- P.V. Young

12- What do you mean by secondary data ?

Soln.- Secondary data refers to information collected by someone other than the
researcher, typically for purposes other than the current study. It includes data
gathered from sources like books, journals, databases, or government reports.
Researchers use secondary data for analysis and to complement primary research
findings.

13- Who is the father of statistics?

Soln.- The title "father of statistics" is often attributed to Ronald A. Fisher, a British
statistician, and geneticist. Fisher made significant contributions to the
development of statistical methods and their application in various fields,
particularly in experimental design and analysis of variance.

14- What do you mean by ‘Range’ ?

Soln.- Range refers to the difference between the highest and lowest values in a
dataset. It provides a measure of the spread or dispersion of data. Calculating the
range involves subtracting the lowest value from the highest value. It's a simple
measure of variability but can be influenced by extreme values.

15- Who is the author of the book “Statistical reasoning in sociology”?

Soln.- Mueller and Schuesslet

16- What is the formula for standard deviation?

Soln.-

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE5
 10 MARKS – Answer in 250 Words
1- What do you mean by quartile deviation? Calculate coefficient of quartile
deviation from following data.
Roll no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Marks 20 28 40 12 30 15 50

Ans-

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE6
UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE7
2- Calculate mode from the following data:
C.I. 0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35
F 1 2 5 14 10 9 2

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE8
Soln.-

3- Calculate the mode of following data:

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE9
 C.I. 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
F 3 11 40 45 26 12 8
Soln.- FOR STEPS GO THROUGH Q. NO. 2 10 MARKS

Answer of the given situation is 32.08

4- Calculate the median of following data:

C.I. 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
F 3 5 7 15 10 6 4

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE10
Soln.-

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE11
5- Calculate median from the following data:
C.I. 0-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 80-100
F 3 17 27 20 9
Soln.- FOR STEPS GO THROUGH Q. NO. 4 10 MARKS

Answer of the given situation is 52.22

6- Calculate median form the following data.

C.I. 20-21 21-22 22-23 23-24 24-25 25-26 26-27 27-28 28-29
F 8 10 11 16 20 25 16 9 6
Soln.- FOR STEPS GO THROUGH Q. NO. 4 10 MARKS

Answer of the given situation is 25.45

7- Discuss the stages of data analysis.

Soln.- Stages of Data Analysis

a- Data Preparation: In this initial stage, data is collected from various sources
and prepared for analysis. This involves cleaning the data to remove errors,
inconsistencies, and missing values. Data is organized, formatted, and
transformed to facilitate analysis.
b- Descriptive Analysis: Descriptive analysis involves summarizing and exploring
the characteristics of the dataset. This includes calculating measures of
UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE12
 central tendency (mean, median, mode), dispersion (range, variance,
standard deviation), and visualizing data using graphs or charts.
c- Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA): EDA focuses on uncovering patterns,
trends, and relationships within the data. Techniques such as scatter plots,
histograms, and correlation analysis are used to identify insights and
generate hypotheses for further investigation.
d- Inferential Analysis: Inferential analysis involves making inferences or
predictions about a population based on sample data. This includes
hypothesis testing, confidence intervals, and regression analysis to assess the
significance of relationships and draw conclusions about the population.
e- Interpretation and Presentation: In this final stage, the findings from the
analysis are interpreted and presented to stakeholders. Conclusions are
drawn, implications are discussed, and recommendations are made based on
the insights gained from the data analysis. Visualizations, reports, and
presentations are used to communicate the results effectively.
f- Validation and Iteration: Throughout the data analysis process, it is essential
to validate findings and ensure the reliability and accuracy of results. This
may involve testing alternative hypotheses, conducting sensitivity analyses,
and iterating on the analysis to refine interpretations and conclusions.
8- Discuss the characteristics of statistics.

Soln.-Characteristics of Statistics:

a- Statistics deals with numerical data, enabling precise analysis and

comparison of social phenomena.
b- It aims for impartial representation of data, relying on systematic methods to
ensure accuracy and reliability.
c- Acknowledges diversity in data, measuring dispersion around central
tendencies to understand heterogeneity.
d- Provides tools for drawing conclusions about populations based on sample
data, enhancing predictive capabilities.

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE13
 e- Recognizes and quantifies errors, ensuring transparency and reliability in
research outcomes.
f- Applicable across disciplines, statistics offers versatile tools for problem-
solving and decision-making.
g- Summarizes data characteristics and draws inferences about populations,
supporting evidence-based analysis.
h- Adapts to technological advancements and research paradigms, staying
relevant and responsive to emerging challenges.
i- Facilitates partnerships between statisticians and diverse stakeholders,
fostering cross-disciplinary knowledge exchange and application.
j- Upholds ethical standards in data collection, analysis, and dissemination,
prioritizing integrity and respect for research participants' rights.

In summary, statistics embodies objectivity, precision, adaptability, and ethical

responsibility, serving as a cornerstone for evidence-based decision-making and
knowledge generation in various fields.

9- Define median discuss its merits and demerits of it.

Soln.- The median is a measure of central tendency that represents the middle
value of a dataset when arranged in ascending or descending order. It divides the
dataset into two equal parts, with half of the observations lying below and half
above the median.

Merits of Median:

a- Robustness to Outliers: The median is robust to outliers or extreme values in

the dataset. Unlike the mean, which can be heavily influenced by outliers,
the median remains stable and provides a more accurate representation of
central tendency in skewed distributions.
b- Applicability to Ordinal Data: The median is suitable for ordinal data or
ranked variables, where numerical values represent ordered categories

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE14
 rather than exact quantities. It preserves the ordinal relationship among
values and offers a meaningful summary measure for such data.

Demerits of Median:

a- Insensitivity to Variability: The median ignores the variability or spread of

data points around the central value. It only considers the middle value(s)
without accounting for the magnitude or frequency of other observations,
potentially leading to loss of information about the distribution.
b- Limited Statistical Efficiency: The median is less statistically efficient
compared to the mean, especially for large datasets. It utilizes less
information from the dataset, resulting in higher variability and larger
standard errors, which can affect the precision of statistical estimates and
hypothesis testing.

In summary, while the median offers advantages such as robustness to outliers

and suitability for ordinal data, it has limitations including insensitivity to variability
and lower statistical efficiency compared to the mean. Researchers should
consider the nature of the data and the specific research objectives when choosing
between the median and other measures of central tendency.

10- What do you mean by Secondary data? Discuss the merits and demerits of
secondary data.

Soln.- Secondary data refers to information that has already been collected,
processed, and published by other sources for purposes other than the current
research. It is data that is readily available for analysis without the need for
primary data collection.

Merits of Secondary Data:

1- Cost and Time Efficiency: Secondary data is readily available, saving time and
resources required for primary data collection. Researchers can access

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE15
 existing datasets without the need to conduct surveys or experiments,
reducing research costs and accelerating the research process.
2- Large Sample Size: Secondary data often comes from large-scale surveys,
administrative records, or official statistics, providing access to extensive
datasets with a large sample size. This allows for more robust statistical
analysis and enhances the generalizability of research findings.

Demerits of Secondary Data:

1- Quality and Reliability Concerns: The quality and reliability of secondary

data may vary depending on the source and methods of data collection.
Researchers must critically evaluate the accuracy, completeness, and
relevance of secondary data to ensure its suitability for the research
objectives.
2- Limited Control over Data Collection: Researchers have limited control over
the design and methods of data collection in secondary data sources. This
lack of control may lead to potential biases, inconsistencies, or missing
information in the dataset, affecting the validity and reliability of research
findings.

In summary, while secondary data offers advantages such as cost and time
efficiency and access to large sample sizes, it also poses challenges related to data
quality, reliability, and control over data collection processes. Researchers should
carefully assess the merits and demerits of secondary data and employ
appropriate strategies to mitigate potential limitations in their research.

11- What are the objects of classification of data? Explain.

Soln.- Objects of Classification of Data:

a- Simplification: The primary objective of classifying data is to simplify

complex information by organizing it into meaningful categories or groups.
Classification reduces the complexity of data, making it easier to analyze,
interpret, and communicate.
UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE16
 b- Organization: Classification facilitates the systematic organization of data
according to specific criteria or attributes. By arranging data into structured
categories, classification enhances the clarity and coherence of information,
enabling efficient retrieval and referencing.
c- Comparison: Classification enables comparison between different groups or
categories of data, allowing researchers to identify patterns, trends,
similarities, and differences. By grouping similar data together, classification
facilitates comparative analysis and evaluation of relationships within and
between datasets.
d- Summarization: Classifying data enables the summarization of information
by condensing large datasets into manageable summaries or aggregates.
Classification aggregates data into meaningful subsets, providing concise
representations of key characteristics or trends within the dataset.
e- Interpretation: Classification enhances the interpretability of data by
structuring it according to relevant attributes or dimensions. By organizing
data into meaningful categories, classification aids in understanding the
underlying patterns, associations, and implications of the data, facilitating
informed decision-making and analysis.
f- Prediction: Classification supports predictive analytics by identifying patterns
or trends within data that can be used to make predictions or forecasts. By
categorizing data based on past observations or known attributes,
classification helps anticipate future outcomes or behaviors, guiding strategic
planning and decision-making processes.

In summary, the objects of classification of data include simplification,

organization, comparison, summarization, interpretation, and prediction.
Classification enables researchers to structure and analyze data effectively,
facilitating comprehension, decision-making, and knowledge generation in various
fields.

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE17
 15MARKS – Answer in 500 Words
1- What do you mean by graphical representation? Explain the merits and
demerits of graphical representation.

Soln.- Graphical representation refers to the visual depiction of data using graphs,
charts, diagrams, or maps. It involves transforming numerical or qualitative
information into visual formats that are easier to understand, interpret, and
communicate. Graphical representations enhance the presentation and analysis of
data, making complex information more accessible and comprehensible to
stakeholders.

Merits of Graphical Representation:

a- Clarity and Simplicity: Graphical representations simplify complex data by

presenting it visually, making it easier to understand and interpret. Clear and
simple visuals help stakeholders grasp key insights and trends quickly,
enhancing comprehension and retention of information.
b- Visual Comparison: Graphical representations facilitate comparisons
between different categories, variables, or time periods. Charts, graphs, and
diagrams enable stakeholders to visualize relationships, patterns, and trends,
allowing for more informed decision-making and analysis.
c- Enhanced Communication: Visuals are effective communication tools that
transcend language barriers and appeal to diverse audiences. Graphical
representations convey information more intuitively and memorably than
text alone, enabling researchers to communicate complex concepts and
findings more effectively.
d- Insightful Analysis: Graphical representations aid in exploratory data analysis
by revealing patterns, outliers, and relationships within the data.
Visualizations such as scatter plots, histograms, and box plots provide
insights into distributions, trends, and variability, guiding further analysis and
interpretation.
UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE18
Demerits of Graphical Representation:

a- Simplification of Data: Graphical representations may oversimplify complex

data, leading to loss of detail or nuance. Visuals condense information into
easily digestible formats, but this simplification can obscure important
nuances or outliers that may be relevant to the analysis.
b- Potential for Misinterpretation: Misleading or inaccurate graphical
representations can lead to misinterpretation of data. Poorly constructed
visuals, incorrect scaling, or selective presentation of data may distort the
true meaning or implications of the information, undermining the credibility
and validity of the analysis.
c- Subjectivity and Bias: Graphical representations may reflect the biases or
preferences of the creator, influencing how the data is perceived or
interpreted. Design choices such as color, scale, and labeling can subtly shape
stakeholders' perceptions and conclusions, introducing subjectivity into the
analysis.
d- Complexity of Interpretation: Some graphical representations, particularly
advanced or specialized visualizations, may be difficult for stakeholders to
interpret accurately. Complex charts or diagrams require a level of statistical
literacy and domain knowledge to understand fully, limiting their accessibility
and utility for diverse audiences.

In conclusion, graphical representation offers numerous benefits for presenting,

analyzing, and communicating data, including clarity, comparability, and
insightfulness. However, it is essential to be mindful of the limitations and
potential pitfalls of graphical representations to ensure accurate, objective, and
meaningful interpretation of data.

2- Explain the meaning of central tendency. Discuss the various methods of

measuring it.

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE19
Soln.- Central tendency refers to a statistical measure that represents the center
or typical value of a dataset. It provides a single value around which the data
points tend to cluster. Central tendency indicates the most representative or
average value in a distribution and is used to summarize and describe the
characteristics of a dataset.

Methods of Measuring Central Tendency:

a- Mean: The mean, also known as the arithmetic average, is calculated by

summing all the values in a dataset and dividing by the total number of
observations. It is sensitive to extreme values and is widely used in various
fields due to its simplicity and ease of calculation.
b- Median: The median is the middle value in a sorted dataset, separating the
higher half from the lower half of observations. It is less affected by extreme
values than the mean and provides a more robust measure of central
tendency, especially for skewed distributions.
c- Mode:The mode is the most frequently occurring value or values in a
dataset. It represents the value that appears with the highest frequency and
is particularly useful for categorical or nominal data. Unlike the mean and
median, the mode can be calculated for any type of data, including discrete
and continuous variables.
d- Weighted Mean: The weighted mean is calculated by multiplying each value
by its corresponding weight (or frequency) and summing the products before
dividing by the total weight. It is used when different observations have
varying degrees of importance or significance.
e- Geometric Mean: The geometric mean is calculated by taking the nth root of
the product of n values in a dataset, where n is the total number of
observations. It is commonly used for data with multiplicative relationships,
such as growth rates or ratios.
f- Harmonic Mean: The harmonic mean is calculated by dividing the total
number of observations by the sum of reciprocals of the values in the

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE20
 dataset. It is useful for averaging rates or speeds and tends to be influenced
more by smaller values in the dataset.

In summary, central tendency provides a single value that represents the typical or
average value in a dataset. Various methods, such as the mean, median, and
mode, are used to measure central tendency, each offering unique advantages and
suitability for different types of data and distributions.

3- Calculate the mode of following data:

C.I. 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
F 6 9 10 16 12 8 7
Soln.- FOR STEPS GO THROUGH Q. NO. 2 10 MARKS

Answer of the given situation is 36

4- What do you mean by statistics? Discuss its importance and limitations in

social research.

Soln.- Statistics is the branch of mathematics concerned with the collection,

analysis, interpretation, and presentation of numerical data. It involves techniques
for summarizing data, making inferences about populations based on sample
observations, and testing hypotheses to draw conclusions about relationships and
patterns in the data. Statistics plays a crucial role in various fields, including social
research, economics, medicine, and engineering.

Importance of Statistics in Social Research:

a- Data Collection and Analysis: Statistics provides methodologies for collecting

and analyzing data in social research. Surveys, experiments, observational
studies, and qualitative research methods rely on statistical techniques to
organize, summarize, and interpret data effectively.
b- Descriptive and Inferential Analysis: Statistics enables researchers to
describe and summarize complex social phenomena using numerical
measures such as averages, percentages, and frequencies. Descriptive

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE21
 statistics provide insights into the distribution, variability, and central
tendency of social variables. Inferential statistics allow researchers to make
inferences and draw conclusions about populations based on sample data,
supporting hypothesis testing and theory development.
c- Identifying Patterns and Trends: Statistical techniques aid in identifying
patterns, trends, and relationships within social data. Exploratory data
analysis, regression analysis, and correlation analysis reveal insights into
social dynamics, behavior, and interactions, guiding further research and
policy formulation.
d- Evidence-Based Decision Making: Statistics provides empirical evidence and
quantitative insights that inform evidence-based decision-making in various
social domains. Policymakers, government agencies, and organizations use
statistical data to evaluate interventions, allocate resources, and address
social issues effectively.

Limitations of Statistics in Social Research:

a- Sampling Bias: Sampling bias occurs when the sample selected for analysis
does not accurately represent the population of interest, leading to biased or
inaccurate results. It limits the generalizability of findings and undermines
the validity of statistical inferences.
b- Measurement Error: Measurement error arises from inaccuracies or
inconsistencies in the measurement process, such as flawed instruments,
response bias, or human error. It introduces noise and reduces the reliability
and validity of statistical analyses, affecting the accuracy of research findings.
c- Assumption Violation: Statistical analyses often rely on assumptions about
the distribution of data, the independence of observations, and the
homogeneity of variance. Violations of these assumptions can lead to invalid
conclusions and misleading interpretations of results, compromising the
integrity of social research.

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE22
 d- Interpretation Challenges: Statistical analyses may be complex and
challenging to interpret, particularly for non-expert audiences.
Misinterpretation of statistical findings, misrepresentation of uncertainty,
and overlooking contextual factors can lead to erroneous conclusions and
misguided policy decisions.

In summary, while statistics plays a vital role in social research by providing tools
and techniques for data collection, analysis, and interpretation, it is essential to
acknowledge its limitations and potential pitfalls. Researchers must exercise
caution in applying statistical methods, critically evaluate findings, and consider
the broader context to ensure the validity and relevance of their research in
addressing social issues.

5- Define quartile. Calculate quartile deviation and its coefficient from the
following data:
Class 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
Freq. 4 15 28 16 7

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE23
Soln.-

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE24
UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE25
6- What do you mean by graph? Discuss its importance in social research.

Soln.- A graph is a visual representation of data that uses symbols, lines, bars, or
other graphical elements to illustrate relationships, patterns, or trends in the data.
Graphs provide a visual summary of information, making complex data sets more
accessible and comprehensible to researchers and stakeholders.

Importance of Graphs in Social Research:

a- Visual Representation: Graphs offer a visual representation of social data,

allowing researchers to convey complex information in a clear, concise, and
intuitive manner. Visuals help stakeholders grasp key insights and trends
quickly, enhancing comprehension and retention of information.

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE26
 b- Comparison and Contrast: Graphs facilitate comparisons between different
categories, variables, or time periods within social data. By visually
contrasting data points or groups, graphs enable researchers to identify
patterns, trends, and disparities, supporting evidence-based decision-making
and analysis.
c- Exploration and Discovery: Graphs aid in exploratory data analysis by
revealing patterns, outliers, and relationships within social data.
Visualizations such as scatter plots, histograms, and box plots provide
insights into distributions, trends, and variability, guiding further exploration
and hypothesis generation.
d- Communication and Presentation: Graphs serve as effective communication
tools for presenting research findings to diverse audiences. Visuals transcend
language barriers and appeal to stakeholders of varying backgrounds and
expertise levels, enhancing engagement and understanding of social research
findings.

Types of Graphs Used in Social Research:

a- Bar Graphs: Bar graphs represent categorical data using rectangular bars of
equal width. They are used to compare discrete categories or show changes
over time in social variables, such as survey responses or demographic
characteristics.
b- Line Graphs: Line graphs display trends or patterns over time by connecting
data points with lines. They are commonly used in longitudinal studies or
time-series analyses to visualize changes in social indicators, such as
economic trends or population growth.
c- Pie Charts: Pie charts depict proportions or percentages of a whole using
sectors of a circle. They are useful for illustrating the composition of
categorical data in social research, such as the distribution of ethnicity or
political affiliation within a population.

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE27
 d- Scatter Plots: Scatter plots display individual data points as dots on a two-
dimensional graph, with one variable plotted on the x-axis and another on
the y-axis. They are used to visualize relationships or correlations between
social variables, such as income and education level.
e- Histograms: Histograms represent the distribution of continuous data using
adjacent bars. They are used to visualize the frequency or density of social
variables, such as income distribution or age demographics within a
population.

In summary, graphs play a crucial role in social research by providing visual

representations of data that facilitate exploration, comparison, and
communication of research findings. By presenting complex information in an
accessible format, graphs enhance understanding and engagement among
stakeholders, ultimately contributing to evidence-based decision-making and
policy formulation in social contexts.

7- What do you mean by histogram and frequency graphs? Discuss the necessary
precautions in the construction of graphs.

Soln.- A histogram is a graphical representation of the distribution of numerical

data. It consists of adjacent rectangles, or bins, whose widths represent intervals
or categories of data values, and heights represent the frequencies or counts of
data points falling into each interval. Histograms provide a visual summary of the
data's distribution, revealing patterns, trends, and variability.

Frequency graphs, also known as frequency distributions or frequency tables,

display the frequency or number of occurrences of each value or category within a
dataset. They organize data into groups or intervals and indicate how often each
group occurs. Frequency graphs are used to summarize categorical or numerical
data and provide insights into the distribution and patterns of the data.

Precautions in the Construction of Graphs:

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE28
 a- Select Appropriate Graph Type: Choose the most suitable graph type based
on the nature of the data and the research objectives. Consider factors such
as the type of variables (categorical or numerical), the distribution of data,
and the relationships being explored.
b- Ensure Data Accuracy: Verify the accuracy and integrity of the data before
constructing graphs. Check for errors, outliers, missing values, and
inconsistencies in the dataset. Ensure that the data accurately represents the
phenomena being studied to avoid misleading interpretations.
c- Define Clear and Consistent Categories: Define clear and consistent
categories or intervals for grouping data in the graph. Ensure that categories
are mutually exclusive and exhaustive, with no overlap or gaps between
intervals. Use meaningful labels and units to enhance the interpretability of
the graph.
d- Choose Appropriate Scaling: Choose appropriate scaling for the axes of the
graph to ensure that the data is displayed clearly and accurately. Select
scaling that accommodates the range and distribution of the data without
distorting or exaggerating the visual representation.
e- Avoid Misleading Visuals: Avoid using misleading visual elements, such as
truncated axes, distorted scales, or inappropriate chart types. Ensure that
the graph accurately represents the data without exaggerating or minimizing
key features or trends.
f- Label Axes and Provide Context: Label the axes of the graph clearly and
provide context or explanations to help interpret the data. Include relevant
units, titles, and descriptions to convey the meaning and significance of the
graph effectively.
g- Use Consistent Formatting: Maintain consistency in formatting and design
elements across different graphs and visualizations within the research
report or presentation. Use consistent colors, fonts, and styles to enhance
clarity and coherence.

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE29
 h- Review and Validate: Review the constructed graph carefully to ensure
accuracy, clarity, and relevance to the research objectives. Validate the graph
against the original data and verify that it effectively communicates the
intended message to the audience.

By following these precautions, researchers can construct graphs that accurately

and effectively represent the data, facilitating meaningful analysis, interpretation,
and communication of research findings.

8- What do you mean by primary data? Distinguish between primary and

secondary data.

Soln.- Primary data refers to original data collected firsthand by researchers or

individuals directly from the source. It is specific to the research objectives and is
gathered through methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, experiments,
or focus groups. Primary data is fresh, tailored to the research needs, and provides
direct insight into the phenomenon under study.

Distinguishing between Primary and Secondary Data:

Source of Data:

a- Primary Data: Primary data originates directly from the source, collected by
the researcher for a specific purpose.
b- Secondary Data: Secondary data is data that has already been collected and
published by someone else for their own research or administrative
purposes.

Originality:

a- Primary Data: Primary data is original and specific to the research objectives,
as it is collected firsthand by the researcher.
b- Secondary Data: Secondary data is pre-existing and has been collected for
purposes other than the current research, making it less tailored to the
specific research needs.
UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE30
Collection Method:

a- Primary Data: Primary data is collected through methods such as surveys,

interviews, experiments, observations, or focus groups, tailored to the
research objectives.
b- Secondary Data: Secondary data is typically collected through administrative
records, official statistics, publications, or databases maintained by
government agencies, organizations, or research institutions.

Control over Data Quality:

a- Primary Data: Researchers have full control over the collection process and
can ensure the quality, accuracy, and reliability of primary data.
b- Secondary Data: Researchers have limited control over the quality of
secondary data, as it is collected by others. The accuracy and reliability of
secondary data depend on the methods and procedures used by the original
data collectors.

Time and Cost:

a- Primary Data: Collecting primary data can be time-consuming and expensive,

as it involves designing research instruments, recruiting participants, and
conducting data collection activities.
b- Secondary Data: Using secondary data is often more cost-effective and time-
efficient, as it involves accessing and analyzing pre-existing data without the
need for primary data collection.

Flexibility and Customization:

a- Primary Data: Primary data offers flexibility and customization, allowing

researchers to design data collection methods and instruments tailored to
their specific research objectives and hypotheses.

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE31
 b- Secondary Data: Secondary data may offer less flexibility and customization,
as researchers must work with the data available and may have limited
control over its content or format.

In summary, primary data is original data collected firsthand by researchers for

specific research purposes, while secondary data is pre-existing data collected by
others for different purposes. Both types of data have their advantages and
limitations, and researchers must carefully consider their research objectives,
resources, and constraints when deciding which type of data to use in their
research.

9- Discuss the utility of social research.

Soln.- Social research plays a vital role in advancing knowledge, understanding

social phenomena, and addressing societal challenges. Its utility extends across
various domains, including academia, policymaking, social advocacy, and
community development. Below are some key aspects of the utility of social
research:

Informing Policy and Decision-Making:

Social research provides empirical evidence and insights that inform policymaking
and decision-making processes at local, national, and international levels.
Research findings help policymakers understand social issues, assess the
effectiveness of existing policies, and develop evidence-based interventions to
address complex challenges such as poverty, inequality, healthcare, education, and
environmental sustainability.

Improving Social Services and Programs:

Social research helps identify the needs, preferences, and experiences of

individuals and communities, guiding the design and implementation of social
services and programs. Research findings inform the development of interventions
aimed at improving healthcare, mental health services, social welfare, housing,

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE32
education, and employment opportunities, leading to better outcomes for
vulnerable populations.

Fostering Social Innovation and Entrepreneurship:

Social research fuels innovation and entrepreneurship by generating insights into

emerging trends, consumer behaviors, market dynamics, and social preferences.
Research findings inspire social entrepreneurs, businesses, and nonprofit
organizations to develop innovative solutions, products, and services that address
unmet needs, drive economic growth, and create positive social impact.

Promoting Social Justice and Equity:

Social research plays a crucial role in advocating for social justice, human rights,
and equity. Research findings uncover systemic injustices, discrimination, and
disparities based on factors such as race, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status,
and sexual orientation. Social research informs advocacy efforts, policy reforms,
and grassroots movements aimed at challenging structural inequalities and
promoting equality of opportunity and access to resources.

Enhancing Community Development and Empowerment:

Social research empowers communities by amplifying their voices, strengths, and

aspirations. Participatory research approaches involve community members in all
stages of the research process, fostering collaboration, capacity-building, and local
ownership of development initiatives. Research findings inform community-led
initiatives, advocacy campaigns, and policy reforms aimed at addressing
community needs and aspirations.

Advancing Knowledge and Scholarship:

Social research contributes to the advancement of knowledge and scholarship in

various academic disciplines, including sociology, anthropology, psychology,
political science, economics, and public health. Research findings enrich
theoretical frameworks, challenge existing paradigms, and generate new insights
UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE33
into human behavior, social structures, and cultural dynamics, fostering
intellectual inquiry and interdisciplinary collaboration.

In summary, social research serves as a powerful tool for understanding, analyzing,

and addressing complex social issues, driving positive change, and building more
inclusive, equitable, and sustainable societies. Its utility lies in its ability to inform
policymaking, improve social services, foster innovation, promote social justice,
empower communities, and advance knowledge and scholarship, ultimately
contributing to positive social transformation and human well-being.

10- Define Mode. Discuss its merits and demerits.

Soln.- Mode is a measure of central tendency that represents the most frequently
occurring value or values in a dataset. It identifies the value or values that appear
with the highest frequency, indicating the most common observation(s) in the
dataset.

Merits of Mode:

a- Simple to Calculate: Mode is straightforward to calculate and interpret,

making it accessible even to individuals with limited statistical knowledge. It
involves identifying the value(s) with the highest frequency, requiring
minimal computational effort.
b- Useful for Categorical Data: Mode is particularly useful for categorical or
nominal data, where values represent distinct categories or groups. It
provides insights into the most prevalent categories or responses within the
dataset, aiding in the description and summary of categorical variables.
c- Robust to Outliers: Unlike the mean, which can be influenced by extreme
values or outliers, mode is robust to outliers. It is not affected by the
magnitude of extreme values and remains stable even in the presence of
skewed distributions or irregular data patterns.
d- Applicable to Any Data Type: Mode can be calculated for any type of data,
including discrete and continuous variables. While it is commonly used for
UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE34
 categorical data, it can also be applied to numerical data, especially when
grouped into intervals or classes.

Demerits of Mode:

a- Not Unique: In some cases, a dataset may have multiple modes, resulting in
a bimodal, trimodal, or multimodal distribution. This lack of uniqueness
makes mode less precise as a measure of central tendency compared to the
mean or median.
b- Insensitive to Small Changes: Mode may not reflect small changes or
variations in the dataset, especially when values have similar frequencies. In
datasets with narrow peaks or clustered distributions, mode may not capture
subtle differences in the distribution of values.
c- Limited Usefulness for Continuous Data: Mode may be less informative for
continuous data, particularly when the data exhibit a smooth or continuous
distribution. Unlike the mean or median, which provide a more precise
estimate of central tendency for continuous variables, mode may not
accurately represent the central value of the dataset.
d- Does Not Consider All Data Points:

Mode only considers the most frequent value(s) in the dataset and does not take
into account the entire range of data points. As a result, mode may overlook
valuable information contained in less frequent values or outliers, limiting its
ability to provide a comprehensive summary of the dataset.

In summary, while mode offers simplicity and ease of interpretation, it has

limitations, including its lack of uniqueness, insensitivity to small changes, limited
usefulness for continuous data, and failure to consider all data points. Researchers
should consider these merits and demerits when choosing mode as a measure of
central tendency and complement its use with other statistical measures for a
more comprehensive analysis of the dataset.

11- What is Mean? Discuss its merits and demerits.

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE35
Soln.- The mean, often referred to as the arithmetic average, is a measure of
central tendency that calculates the average value of a dataset by summing all
values and dividing by the total number of observations.

Merits of Mean:

a- Sensitive to All Data Points: The mean takes into account all data points in
the dataset, giving equal weight to each observation. It provides a
comprehensive summary of the dataset by considering the contribution of
every value to the average.
b- Useful for Continuous Data: The mean is particularly useful for continuous
numerical data, where values are spread across a range of possible
outcomes. It provides a precise estimate of central tendency for such data,
reflecting the balance point of the distribution.
c- Mathematically Convenient: The mean has mathematical properties that
make it convenient for statistical analysis and inference. It is the most
commonly used measure of central tendency in statistical calculations and
serves as a foundation for many statistical techniques.
d- Balances Positive and Negative Deviations: The mean balances positive and
negative deviations from the average, ensuring that the sum of deviations
above the mean equals the sum of deviations below the mean. This property
makes the mean a stable and reliable measure of central tendency.

Demerits of Mean:

a- Sensitive to Outliers: The mean is sensitive to extreme values or outliers in

the dataset, which can significantly influence its value. Outliers pull the mean
toward them, potentially skewing its accuracy and making it less
representative of the central tendency, especially in skewed distributions.
b- Affected by Skewed Distributions: In skewed distributions, where data are
asymmetrically distributed, the mean may not accurately represent the
central value of the dataset. Skewness distorts the mean, pulling it away

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE36
 from the center of the distribution and potentially misrepresenting the
average.
c- Inappropriate for Categorical Data: The mean is not suitable for categorical
or ordinal data, where values represent categories or ranks rather than
numerical quantities. Calculating the mean for such data may produce
meaningless results, as it assumes a continuous scale of measurement.
d- Not Robust to Non-Normality: The mean's validity relies on the assumption
of normality or symmetric distribution of data. In non-normal distributions,
such as skewed or multimodal distributions, the mean may not accurately
represent the central tendency and can lead to misleading interpretations.

In summary, while the mean offers a comprehensive and mathematically

convenient measure of central tendency, it has limitations, including sensitivity to
outliers, skewed distributions, and inappropriate use for categorical data.
Researchers should consider these merits and demerits when interpreting mean
values and complement its use with other measures of central tendency, such as
the median or mode, to ensure a robust analysis of the dataset.

12- Define dispersion and discuss its importance in social research.

Soln.- Dispersion, also known as variability or spread, refers to the extent to which
data points deviate from the central tendency, such as the mean, median, or
mode. It measures the degree of scatter or distribution of values within a dataset
and provides insights into the diversity, variability, and heterogeneity of the data.

Importance of Dispersion in Social Research:

a- Understanding Diversity and Variability: Dispersion helps researchers

understand the diversity and variability of social phenomena within a
population or sample. By quantifying the spread of data points around the
central tendency, dispersion measures the extent to which individuals,
groups, or communities differ from one another in terms of various social
attributes, behaviors, or outcomes.
UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE37
 b- Assessing Data Quality: Dispersion serves as a quality control measure by
indicating the consistency, reliability, and validity of the data. High levels of
dispersion suggest greater variability among observations, raising questions
about data accuracy, consistency, and representativeness. Researchers can
use dispersion metrics to assess the quality of data collection methods,
identify outliers or errors, and ensure the integrity of the dataset.
c- Identifying Patterns and Trends: Dispersion helps identify patterns, trends,
and relationships within social data. Variability in social indicators such as
income, education, employment, or health outcomes can reveal disparities,
inequalities, or structural barriers affecting different population groups.
Understanding the distribution of social variables enables researchers to
identify areas of concern, formulate hypotheses, and conduct further
analysis to uncover underlying factors or mechanisms driving observed
patterns.
d- Comparing Groups and Subpopulations: Dispersion facilitates comparisons
between groups, subpopulations, or time periods within social research.
Differential levels of variability across demographic, geographic, or socio-
economic categories highlight disparities, differences, or similarities in social
outcomes and experiences. Dispersion metrics enable researchers to assess
the magnitude and significance of group differences, informing policy
interventions, targeted interventions, or resource allocation strategies.
e- Evaluating Intervention Effectiveness: Dispersion helps evaluate the
effectiveness of social interventions, programs, or policies by measuring
changes in variability over time or across intervention groups. Decreases in
dispersion following intervention implementation may indicate reduced
variability or increased homogeneity in social outcomes, suggesting
successful intervention outcomes or narrowing of disparities. Conversely,
persistent or widening dispersion may signal inequities, inefficiencies, or
unintended consequences of interventions, prompting reassessment or
modification of intervention strategies.

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE38
In summary, dispersion plays a crucial role in social research by providing insights
into the diversity, variability, and heterogeneity of social phenomena. It helps
researchers understand data quality, identify patterns and trends, compare
groups, and evaluate intervention effectiveness, ultimately informing evidence-
based decision-making, policy formulation, and social change initiatives aimed at
addressing societal challenges and promoting human well-being.

13- Calculate median from the following data.

C.I. 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
F 4 9 19 11 7
Soln.- FOR STEPS GO THROUGH Q. NO. 4 10 MARKS

Answer of the given situation is 26.31

14- What is mean? Calculate the mean from the following data.
C.I. 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60
F 4 6 10 8 15 7
Soln.-

Share your feedbacks here-_brigade_041

Disclaimer-

 This content is completely owned by me. It doesnot

belongtoanyotherplaceorinaffiliationwithanyotherperson,websi
teororganization.
 All of this content is compiled In mypersonal
capacity.(Alltherightsreserved)
 This is not intended to have any sort ofcompetitionwithany
existingwebsiteorOrganization but only inspired with a

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE39
 vision tohelpyouallin need.

Allthebest for theexam

Signingoff……………………………………………………

UPSAINIANAKHILESH PAGE40