IGCSE Chemistry Notes

Table of Contents - Syllabus

1. States of matter 8. The periodic table

1.1 Solids, liquids and gases 8.1 Arrangement of elements
1.2 Diffusion 8.2 Group I properties
2. Atoms, elements and compounds 8.3 Group VII properties
2.1 Elements, compounds and mixtures 8.4 Transition elements
2.2 Atomic structure and the Periodic Table 8.5 Noble gases
2.3 Isotopes 9. Metals
2.4 Ions and ionic bonds 9.1 Properties of metals
2.5 Simple molecules and covalent bonds 9.2 Uses of metals
2.6 Giant covalent structures 9.3 Alloys and their properties
2.7 Metallic bonding 9.4 Reactivity series
3. Stoichiometry 9.5 Corrosion of metals
3.1 Formulae 9.6 Extraction of metals
3.2 Relative masses of atoms and molecules 10. Chemistry of the environment
3.3 The mole and the Avogadro constant 10.1 Water
3.a Stoichiometry Formula 10.2 Fertilisers
4. Electrochemistry 10.3 Air quality and climate
4.1 Electrolysis 11. Organic chemistry
4.2 Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells 11.1 Formulae, functional groups and terminology

5. Chemical energetics 11.2 Naming organic compounds

5.1 Exothermic and endothermic reactions 11.3 Fuels
6. Chemical reactions 11.4 Alkanes
6.1 Physical and chemical changes 11.5 Alkenes
6.2 Rate of reaction 11.6 Alcohols
6.3 Reversible reactions and equilibrium 11.7 Carboxylic acids
6.4 Redox 11.8 Polymers
7. Acids, bases and salts 12. Experimental techniques and chemical analysis
7.1 The characteristic properties of acids and bases 12.1 Experimental design
7.2 Oxides 12.2 Acid-base titrations
7.3 Preparation of salts 12.3 Chromatography
12.4 Separation and purification
12.5 Identification of ions and gases

Important keywords/key concepts

Definitions that you need to know
Because → bc, energy → E, volume → v 라고 줄여서 적은 경우가 있습니다 참고해주세요!!
이해 안가는 부분 있으면 디엠 주세요 😉
1 States of matter
1.1 Solids, liquids and gases
Properties of solids, liquids and gases

State Solid Liquid Gas

Density High Medium Low

Changes according to the

Shape Fixed Not fixed
container shape

Volume Fixed Fixed Not fixed

Flows to the shape of the Flows to the shape of the

Ability to flow Does not flow
container container

Does not compress

Ability to be compressed Does not compress Can compress
(For some → slightly)

Arrangement of particles Regular pattern Randomly arranged Randomly arranged

Vibrate and move around Vibrate and move freely in

Movement of particles Vibrate at fixed position each other all directions
Slower than gas particles Fast speed

Energy of particles Low energy Greater energy Highest energy

2D diagram

Changes of state
- Melting
- Requires heat energy which transforms to kinetic energy → allow particles to move
- Occur at specific temperature - melting point
- Boiling
- Requires heat energy which cause bubbles of gas to form below surface of liquid
- Occur at specific temperature - boiling point
- Evaporating
- Occurs over range of temperatures
- Only at surface of liquids where high energy particles can escape
- Larger surface area + warmer liquid surface → quicker liquid can evaporate
- Freezing
- Occurs at specific temperature (because it is reverse of melting)
- Requires significant decrease in temperature
- Condensing
- Occurs over a range of temperatures
- Gas cooled → particles lose energy → group together form liquid
Effects of temperature and pressure on volume of gas
- Temperature increase → volume of gas increases
- Because : particles gain more kinetic energy (heat energy transformed to kinetic energy) → move
faster → impacting the container’s walls more frequently
- Pressure increase → volume of gas decreases (gas stored inside a container squeezed)
Kinetic theory
- Gaseous particles in constant and random motion
- Pressure that gas creates inside closed container → produced by gaseous particles hitting the inside walls
of the container
- Increase in temperature → particles gain more kinetic energy (heat energy transformed to kinetic energy)
→ move faster → impacting the container’s walls more frequently
- Decrease in volume → smaller container → gas particles hit wall more frequently → increase gas pressure
Heating and cooling curves

1.2 Diffusion
- Net movement of particles moving from high to low
concentration (energy input not needed)
- Eventually → concentration of particles is even as they
spread out to occupy
- Higher temperature → faster
- Molecular mass
- Occurs faster in gases than in liquids (gas particles move quicker than liquid particles)
- Different gases diffuse at different rate (due to difference in relative molecular mass)
- Lighter (lower relative mass) gas particles → travel faster, hence further
2 Atoms, elements and compounds
2.1 Elements, compounds and mixtures
- Atom
- Smallest particle of an element
- Element
- A substance made up of only one type of atom
- Compound
- Two or more different elements chemically bonded
- Mixture
- Two or more different elements but not chemically combined
- Can be separated by physical methods (like filtration or evaporation)
- Alloy
- Mixture of two metals which has different properties from the original metal

2.2 Atomic structure and the Periodic Table

- Structure of atom → central nucleus containing protons and neutrons surrounded by electrons in shells
- Subatomic particles

Relative mass (atomic mass unit) Relative charge Location

Proton 1 Positive (+1) Nucleus

Neutron 1 Neutral (0) Nucleus

Electron 1/1840 Negative (-1) Shells

- Atomic number = number of protons

- Mass number (= nucleon number) = number of protons + number of neutrons
- Number of electrons
- In an atom: number of electrons = number of protons
- In an ion: number of electrons = number of protons - charge of ion
- Electronic configuration - each row represents shell of electrons
- 2, 8, 8, (18)
- Group 8 (noble gases) have a full outer shell
- Number of outer shell electrons = group number in Groups 1 to 7
- Number of occupied electron shells = period number

2.3 Isotopes
- Def : atoms of the same element that have the same # of protons but different # of neutrons
- Eg) 126 C, 3517 Cl-
- Isotopes of same element have same chemical properties
- Because they have same number of electrons = same electronic configuration
- Calculating relative atomic mass
(% 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 1 ×𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 1) + (% 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜 2 ×𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜 2)
- 100
2.4 Ions and ionic bonds
Formation of ions
- Ion → electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed by loss or gain of electrons (has charge)
- Metals : lose electrons to become cations → positive ions
- Nonmetals : gain electrons to become anions → negative ions
- For stable arrangement of electrons → atoms will lose or gain electrons for full outer shell
Ionic bonding
- Strong electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions
- Between metals and nonmetals
- Formation of ion represented using dot and cross diagrams
- Eg) NaCl

Structure of ionic compounds → ionic lattice

- Regular lattice arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions
- Eg) Alternative positive Na+ cations and negative Cl- anions
- Each Na+ ion is (strongly) electrostatically attracted to six Cl- ions
Properties
- High melting and boiling points
- Due to strong electrostatic forces acting between oppositely charged ions
- Lot of energy required to overcome them
- Greater charge → stronger electrostatic forces → higher melting point
- Eg) Mg2+ O2- stronger than Na+ Cl-
- Good conductors of electricity when aqueous or molten
- Because particles are free to move and carry charge
- At solid state : particles in fixed position → no charge particles that are free to move

2.5 Simple molecules and covalent bonds

Covalent bonding
- A shared pair of electrons between two nonmetal atoms
- Leading to noble gas electronic configurations
- Electrostatic attraction between the nuclei of the atoms and the shared pair of electrons
- Intramolecular forces/bonds
Single covalent bonds
- Examples → H2, Cl2, H2O, CH4, NH3, HCl
- Single bond → Eg. H2O
- Oxygen atom needs 2 electrons for full outer shell + hydrogen atoms each need 1 electron
- H - O - H (shares one pair of electrons on each side of oxygen)

- Double bond → Eg. carbon dioxide

- Triple bond → Eg. nitrogen

Properties
- Low melting and boiling point
- Strong bonds but intramolecular = don’t need to break these when changing state
- Only weak intermolecular forces acting between molecules (not much energy needed)
- Molecules increase in size → intermolecular forces also increase (since there are more electrons)
→ melting and boiling point increase
- Poor electrical conductivity
- No free ions or electrons to carry charge → makes most covalent compounds insulators

2.6 Giant covalent structures

- Billions of nonmetal atoms joined to adjacent atoms by covalent bonds → forming lattice structure
- Example: allotropes of carbon
- Allotropes → different atomic or molecular arrangements of same element
- Diamond
- Structure
- Each carbon atom bonded to 4 carbon atoms → form tetrahedron
- No intermolecular forces
- Properties
- Does not conduct electricity
- No freely moving charged particles to carry electricity
- Very high melting point
- Large amount of heat energy needed to break lattice
- Extremely hard and dense → can be used as cutting tools
- Graphite
- Structure
- Each carbon atom bonded to 3 carbon atoms → form layers of hexagons
- Have 1 free / delocalised electron per carbon atom
- Properties
 - Can conduct electricity
- Because of free (delocalised) electrons in between the layers
- Are free to move through structure and carry charge
- Very high melting point
- Soft and slippery + less dense → can be used as lubricant
- Covalent bonds within the layer → very strong
- Layers connected to each other → by weak forces
- Layers can slide over each other → makes graphite slippery and smooth
- Silicon (IV) oxide
- Structure
- Each Si atom bonded to 4 oxygen atoms + each O atom bonded to 2 silicon atoms
- Tetrahedron formed with 1 silicon atom and 4 oxygen atoms → similar to diamond
- Properties
- Very strong covalent bonds + no intermolecular forces → similar to diamond
- Very hard + very high boiling point
- Insoluble in water
- Doesn’t conduct electricity

2.7 Metallic bonding

- Electrostatic attraction between the positive ions in a giant metallic lattice and a ‘sea’ of delocalised
electrons
- Regular lattice of metal cations in layers + surrounded by a sea of delocalised valence electrons
- Properties
- High melting point
- Strong metallic bonds between positive metal ion and delocalised electrons → lots of
energy required to break these bonds
- Conduct electricity
- Free electrons available to move through structure and carry charge
- Malleable and ductile
- Layers of positive ions can slide over each other
- Alloys are stronger than pure metals because…
- Different sizes of cations → distorted layers → layers cannot slide over each other
3 Stoichiometry
3.1 Formulae
Formulae
- Chemical formula deduced from relative number of atoms present
- Molecular formula → number and type of different atoms in one molecule
- Eg) H2, H2O
- Ionic / Empirical formula → simplest whole number ratio of the different atoms or ions in a compound
- Eg) NaCl (1:1)
Chemical Equations
- Word equation
- Show reactant and products of chemical reaction using full chemical names
- Arrow → implies conversion of reactants into products
- Symbol equation / Chemical equation / Balanced equation
- Show reactant and product of chemical reaction using chemical symbols and is balanced

3.2 Relative masses of atoms and molecules

Relative atomic mass (Ar)
- Average mass of isotopes of an element compared to 1/12th of the mass of an atom of 12C
Relative molecular (formula) mass (Mr) - sum of relative atomic masses
- (Relative) molecular mass = Σ (relative atomic mass of each atom in the molecular formula)
- Relative formula mass (Mr) → used for ionic compounds
- Eg) H2O
- Molecular mass (Mr) = (2 x H) + (1 x O) = (2 x 1) + (1 x 16) = 2 + 16 = 18 amu
- Doesn’t include stoichiometric number → molecular mass is the same for 2 H2O

3.3 The mole and the Avogadro constant

- Mole → mass in grams which contains Avogadro’s constant number of particles
- Avogadro constant → number of particles in 1 mole of substance
- One mole contains 6.02 x 1023 particles (atoms, ions, molecules)
- Molar mass → mass of 1 mole of a substance
- Eg) A mole of H2O is 18 g of H2O
- Element: equal to relative atomic mass in grams
- Compound: equal to relative formula mass or relative molecular mass in grams
- # of moles = mass / molar mass
- Eg) How many moles in 3.6 g of water
- # moles = 3.6 / ((2x1) + (1x16)) = 3.6/18 = 0.2 moles
- Moles of gases
- # of moles = volume in dm3 / 24.0 at r.t.p (room temperature & pressure)
- 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3
- Eg) 1.5cm3 every 5 seconds, # of moles in 1 min
- 60/5 = 12
- 12 x 1.5 cm3 = 18 cm3 = volume, 18 cm3 = 0.018 dm3
- 0.018 / 24 = 0.00075 moles
Reacting masses
- Example Q: Calculate the mass of magnesium oxide that can be made by completely burning 6.0 g of
magnesium in oxygen in the following reaction: 2Mg (s) + O2 (g) ⟶ 2 MgO (s)
- Calculate moles of magnesium used
- Moles = mass / molar mass = 6 / 24 = 0.25
- Finding ratio from balanced equation
- 1:1 ratio = 0.25 moles Mg produces 0.25 moles MgO
- Calculate mass of MgO
- Mass = moles x molar mass = 0.25 x 40 = 10 g
- Limiting reactants = reactant that is used up first (not in excess)
- Limits duration and amount of product a reaction can produce
- Amount of product directly proportional to amount of limiting reactant
- Eg) 9.2 g of sodium is reacted with 8.0 g of sulphur to produce sodium sulphide, Na2S. Which
reactant is in excess and which is the limiting reactant?
- 2 Na + S → Na2S
- Moles = mass / molar mass, Na 0.4 moles, S 0.25 moles
- To react 0.4 moles of Na → 0.2 moles of S needed
- There’s more than that so S is in excess and Na is limiting reactant
Concentration
- Amount of solute there is in a specific volume of solvent (g / dm3 or mol / dm3)
- Concentration = mass of solute (g) / volume of solution (dm3) = # of moles / volume (dm3)
- Eg) Moles in 3.8 cm3 of 4 M concentration H2SO4
- M = mole per L
- Concentration = # of moles / volume
- 4 = # of moles / (3.8 x 0.001) = 0.0152 moles
- Eg) Calculate the concentration of a solution of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, in mol/dm3, when 80 g is
dissolved in 500 cm3 of water.
- Mr of NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40 g
- 40 g = 1 mole, 80 g = 2 moles
- 2 mol / 0.5 dm3 = 4 mol/dm3
Titration
- Finding concentration of an unknown solution
- Eg) A solution of 25.0 cm3 of hydrochloric acid was titrated against a solution of 0.100 mol/dm3 NaOH
and 12.1 cm3 were required for complete reaction. Determine the concentration of the acid.
- Write equation of reaction
- HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
- Number of moles of NaOH (start the calculation with the one with the most info)
- 12.1 cm3 = 0.012 dm3
- Moles = volume x concentration = 0.012 dm3 x 0.100 mol/dm3 = 1.21 x 10-3 mol
- Deduce the number of moles of acid
- Ratio of HCl and NaOH = 1:1
- Number of moles of HCl = also 1.21 x 10-3 mol
- Concentration of acid
- Concentration = moles / volume (dm3)
- Concentration = 1.21 x 10-3 mol / 0.025 dm3 = 0.0484 mol/dm3
Calculating empirical & molecular formulae
- Calculating empirical formula (formula of ionic compound always empirical)
- C2H6O
- Empirical mass = (2x12 + 6x1 + 16x1) = 46 amu

C H O

Mass 2.4 0.6 1.6

Mr 12 1 16

Mass / Mr 0.2 0.6 0.1

Divide each by smallest

2 6 1
(0.1 in this case)

- Calculating molecular formula

- Actual number of atoms in each element
- Steps:
- Find relative formula mass of empirical formula
- Relative formula mass of molecular formula / relative formula mass of empirical
formula
- Multiply number of each element present in empirical formula by the number from
step 2 to find molecular formula
- Example Q: The empirical formula of X is C4H10S1. The relative formula mass (Mr) of X is 180.
What is the molecular formula of X?
- Mr = (12x4) + (1x10) + (32x1) = 90
- 180/90 = 2, multiply each number by 2
- C4H10S1 → C8H20S2
Percentage yield
- Compares actual yield to theoretical yield
- Actual yield → recorded amount of product obtained
- Theoretical / potential yield → amount of product that would be obtained under perfect
conditions
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
- % yield = 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡
× 100 = 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
× 100
- Why is 100% yield not possible in real life?
- Impure reactants
- Reactant / product loss during transfer (liquid)
- Reactant / product escape (gas)
- Other reactions taking place (instead or after)
- Example Q: Phenol C6H5OH converted into trichlorophenol C6H2Cl3OH if 488 g (actual yield) of
product are obtained from 250 g of phenol
- # of moles = 250 / (12x6+6x1+16x1) = 250/94 = 2.66 moles
- Ratio = 1:1 (potential = 2.66 moles)
- Mass = # of moles x Mr = 2.66 x (12x6+2+16+1+3x35.5) = 2.66x197.5 = 525.35
- % yield = (488/525.35) x 100 = 92.9%
Percentage composition
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 × # 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴
- Percentage of element A = 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
× 100
- Example Q: SiO2
- Si % by mass = (Σ mass Si / Σ mass SiO2) x 100 = ((28x1) / (28+32)) x 100 = 47%
- O2 % by mass = ((16x2) / 60) x 100 = 53%
Percentage purity
- Pure substance → nothing mixed with it
- % purity = (mass of pure substance / total mass of substance) x 100
- Example Q: A sample of lead(II) bromide was made. It weighed 15 g. The sample was found to be
impure and only contained 13.5 g of lead(II) bromide. Calculate the percentage purity of the lead(II)
bromide.
- Total mass = 15 g
- Mass of pure = 13.5
- 13.5 / 15 x 100 = 90 %

3.a Stoichiometry Formula

- (Relative) molecular mass = Σ (relative atomic mass of each atom in the molecular formula)
- # of moles = mass / molar mass
- # of moles = volume in dm3 / 24.0 at r.t.p (room temperature & pressure)
- 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3
- Concentration = mass of solute (g) / volume of solution (dm3)
- Concentration = # of moles / volume (dm3)
- Empirical formula = Find mass/Mr → divide each by smallest value of mass/Mr → ratio
- Percentage yield = (actual mass of product / calculated mass of product) x 100 = (actual yield / potential
yield) x 100
- Percentage of element A = ((relative atomic mass of A x # of atoms of A) / relative formula mass of
compound)) x 100
- Percentage purity = (mass of pure substance / total mass of substance) x 100
4 Electrochemistry
4.1 Electrolysis
- Def : decomposition of ionic compound when molten or aqueous by passage of electric current
- Covalent / ionic compounds when solid → no free ions to carry charge → X electrolysis
- Electrode (PANIC → Positive (is) Anode Negative Is Cathode)
- Rod of metal / graphite through which electric current flows in or out of
an electrolyte
- Electrolyte
- Ionic compound in molten / dissolved solution that conducts electricity,
substance to split into ions using electrolysis
- Anode → positive electrode of an electrolysis cell (anion attracted)
- Cathode → negative electrode of an electrolysis cell (cation attracted)

Products formed at the electrodes

Molten lead (II) bromide Concentrated hydrochloric acid

- Pb2+ ions move to cathode + gain electrons - H+ ions move to cathode + gain electrons
- Product: lead (Pb) - Product: hydrogen gas
- Br- ions move to anode + lose electrons - Cl- ions move to anode + lose electrons
- Product: bromine (Br2) - Product: chlorine gas (Cl2)

Sodium chloride solution Dilute sulfuric acid

- H+ ions move to cathode (Na+ ions more reaction

than H) + gain electrons
- H+ ions move to cathode + gain electrons
- Product: hydrogen gas
- Product: hydrogen gas
- Cl- ions move to anode + lose electrons
- OH- ions move to anode + lose electrons
- Product: chlorine gas (Cl2)
- Product: oxygen gas + water
+
- Na , OH- ions remain → react to form NaOH
solution

Copper (II) sulfate solution Aqueous Copper Sulfate - using copper electrodes

- Cu2+ ions move from anode to cathode → reduced

(gain electrons) at cathode
- Cu2+ ions move to cathode (Cu2+ ions less reactive - Product: copper atoms
than H) + gain electrons - Impurities form as sludge below anode
- Product: copper (Cu) - Cathode:↑ in mass as it gain pure copper
- OH- ions move to anode + lose electrons - Anode: ↓ in mass as it loses copper ions
- Product: oxygen + water - Concentration of Cu2+ ions in solution is constant
- (SO42- ions not halide ions) because…
+ 2-
- H + SO 4 ions remain → react to form H2SO4 - ↑ in mass by cathode = ↓ in mass by
(sulfuric acid) anode
- Copper deposited on cathode = copper
ions lost from anode
Negative Electrode (Cathode) → metals or hydrogen
- Positively charge H+ ions + metal ions (cations +) → attracted to negative electrode (gain electrons)
- Metal or hydrogen gas form at cathode
- If hydrogen more reactive than metal (on reactivity series) : metal formed
- If hydrogen less reactive than metal : hydrogen formed (2 H+ + 2e- → H2)
Positive Electrode (Anode) → nonmetals
- Negatively charge OH- ions + non-metal ions (anions -) → attracted to positive electrode
- Non-metal form at anode
- If dilute or no halide ions (eg. SO4) : OH- discharged → form oxygen gas + water
- If concentrated : halide ion (eg. Cl-, Br-) discharged → form halogen
- Eg) concentrated barium chloride solution → Cl- ions discharged more readily → chlorine gas
produced at anode
- Other negative ion remains in solution
Ionic Half Equations
- Ionic half equations → show oxidation and reduction of ions involved
- Oxidation → when substance loses electrons / reduction → when substance gains electrons
- As ions come into contact with electrode → electrons lost or gained + form neutral substances
- At cathode → positively charged ions gain electrons (reduced)
- At anode → negatively charged ions lose electrons (oxidised)

Anode Reaction Cathode Reaction

Molten Lead Bromide 2Br- → Br2 + 2e- Pb2+ + 2e- → Pb

Concentrated Aqueous 2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e- 2H+ + 2e- → H2

Sodium Chloride

Dilute Sulfuric Acid 4OH- → O2 + 2H2O + 4e- 2H+ + 2e- → H2

Electroplating
- Process where surface of one metal is coated with layer of different metal
- Cathode → object to be electroplated
- Anode → made from pure metal you want to coat object with
- Electrolyte → aqueous solution of soluble salt of pure metal at anode
- Eg) Iron being electroplated with tin
- At anode → tin atoms lose electrons to form tin ions in solution
- At cathode → tin ions gain electrons to form tin atoms → deposit on strip of iron metal +
coating iron
Uses of electroplating
- To make metal more resistant to corrosion or damage
- To improve the appearance of metals (cutlery and jewellery)
4.2 Hydrogen–oxygen fuel cells
- Fuel cells → electrochemical cell in which a fuel donates electrons at one electrode and oxygen gains
electrons at the other electrode
- Hydrogen–oxygen fuel cells → uses hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity with water as the only
chemical product
- 2 H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2 H2O (g)
- Anode : H2 → 2H+ + 2e-
- Cathode : O2 + 4H+ + 4e- → 2 H2O

Hydrogen Fuel Cells Petrol engines

- No pollution (only product = water)

- Cheap
Advantages - Release more energy per kg
- Stations readily available
- Quieter (less noise pollution)

- Expensive materials used

- Hydrogen difficult and expensive to
store
- Burning of petrol → produces CO2
- Only small number of hydrogen
Disadvantages + oxides of nitrogen
filling stations
- Limited source
- Hydrogen often obtained by methods
that involve combustion of fossil fuels
→ release pollutants + CO2

5 Chemical energetics
5.1 Exothermic and endothermic reactions
- Exothermic reaction
- Transfers thermal energy to surroundings leading to increase in temperature of surroundings
(from system to surroundings)
- Eg) combustion, oxidation, neutralisation
- More energy released than absorbed (more energy released when bonds form than break)
- Change in energy negative → products have less energy than reactants
- Negative ΔH value
- Endothermic reaction
- Takes in thermal energy from surroundings leading to decrease in temperature of surroundings
(from surroundings to system)
- Eg) electrolysis, thermal decomposition, first stages of photosynthesis
- More energy absorbed than released
- Change in energy positive → products have more energy than reactants
- Positive ΔH value
Reaction pathway diagrams
- Graphical representations of relative energies of reactants and products in chemical reactions
- X-axis → reaction pathway (like time) / Y-axis → energy of reactants and products
- Difference in height between energy of reactants and products = overall energy change of reaction
- Exothermic reaction
- Energy of product lower than reactants (more energy released than absorbed)
- Because thermal energy has been transferred to surroundings
- Endothermic reaction
- Energy of product higher than reactants (more energy absorbed than released)
- Because thermal energy has been taken in from surroundings
- Activation energy (Ea)
- Minimum energy that colliding particles must have to react
- For particles to react → must come into contact in a collision
- Minimum amount of energy required for successful collision (for
particles to react)
- Greater initial rise → more energy required to get the reaction going
- Enthalpy change (ΔH)
- Transfer of thermal energy during a reaction
- Exothermic reaction → negative / endothermic reaction → positive
- Use of catalysts
- Speed up reactions + allow reaction to take place at lower temperature
- By providing an alternative pathway with lower activation energy
- Bond breaking & bond forming
- Bond forming → exothermic process
- Energy transferred to surroundings as new bond is formed
- Bond breaking → endothermic process
- Energy needs to be taken in from surroundings to break chemical bonds
- Bond energy calculations
- Bond energy → E required to break 1 mole of specific bond or E given out when bond is formed
- Calculate how much heat would be released or absorbed in a reaction (energy of reaction)
- Method
- Add all bond energies for all bonds in reactants → ‘energy in’
- Add all bond energies for all bonds in products → ‘energy out’
- Enthalpy change (ΔH) = Energy taken in - Energy given out
- Σ Bonds broken - Σ Bonds made
- Example
- 2HBr → H2 + Br2
- H - Br → 366 KJ / mole, H - H → 436 KJ / mole, Br - Br → 193 KJ / mole
- Energy in = 2 x 366 = 732 KJ / mole
- Energy out = 436 + 193 = 629 KJ / mole
- Enthalpy change (ΔH) = 732 - 629 = + 103 KJ / mole (endothermic reaction)
6 Chemical reactions
6.1 Physical and chemical changes

Physical change Chemical change

New chemical substances (different properties to

reactants)
New substance? No new chemical substance
- Colour change, precipitate formed, bubbles
of gas produced

Reverse? Often easy to reverse Most are very difficult to reverse

Melting, evaporating Energy changes → given out (exothermic) or taken in

Examples Making mixture from substances (endothermic)
Dissolving a solute in a solvent Eg) Combustion - exothermic

6.2 Rate of reaction

Rate of reaction
- Rate of reaction → speed with which reactants turn into products (how fast they are used/formed)
- Units of rate of reaction → amount of substance per unit of time
Collision theory
- For a reaction to occur…
- Particles must collide + collision must have sufficient energy to cause reaction (E > Ea)
- Increasing # of successful collisions → greater proportion of reactant particles collide to form product
- Rate of reaction → depends on how many successful collisions there are in given unit of time
Explaining rates using collision theory
- Concentration of reactants in solutions (increasing → increase rate of reaction)
- More reactant particles in given volume → more frequent and successful collisions per unit time
→ increase rate of reaction
- Pressure of reacting gases (increasing → increase rate of reaction)
- Same number of particles occupy smaller space → increase concentration
- More reactant particles in given volume → more frequent and successful collisions per unit time
→ increase rate of reaction
- Surface area of solid reactants (increasing → increase rate of reaction)
- More surface area of particle exposed to other reactant → higher number of collisions per unit
time → increase rate of reaction
- Temperature (increasing → increase rate of reaction)
- Particles have more kinetic energy than required activation energy
- More frequent collisions + higher proportion of particles will have greater energy than
activation energy → more successful collisions per unit time → increase rate of reaction
- Use of catalysts including enzymes
- Catalysts → increases rate of reaction + unchanged at the end of reaction
- Provides different pathway for reaction to occur → decreases activation
energy of reaction (Ea)
- Higher proportion of reactant particles have greater energy than
activation energy → more successful collisions per unit time
Investigating rate of reaction
- Commonly used techniques
- Measuring mass loss on a balance
- Measuring volume of gas produced
- Measuring a reaction where there is a colour change at the end of reaction

Effect of surface area on rate of reaction

- Add hydrochloric acid into conical flask

- Use delivery tube to connect flask to measuring
cylinder placed upside down in trough
- Add calcium carbonate → measure v of gas
produced (v of water displaced) in a fixed time
- Repeat using different forms of calcium carbonate
(eg. calcium carbonate powder, crashed form)

Effect of concentration of solution on rate of reaction

- Decant sodium thiosulfate solution into flask

- Decant hydrochloric acid into beaker
- Draw cross on paper + place underneath the flask
- Add acid to flask and start stopwatch
- Stop stopwatch when cross is no longer visible
- Repeat using different concentrations of sodium
thiosulfate solution

Effect of temperature on rate of reaction

- Heat hydrochloric acid using water bath

- Add hydrochloric acid into conical flask
- Add strip of Mg and start stopwatch
- Time when Mg strip fully reacts and disappears
- Repeat at different temp and compare results

Effect of catalyst on rate of reaction

- Using upside down measuring cylinder (method 1)

- Repeat without using catalyst + compare results

Monitoring changes in mass

- Reaction can be performed in open flask on a

balance to measure loss in mass of reactant
- Cotton wool placed in mouth of flask
- Allows gas out + prevents materials
(liquid) being ejected from flask)
- Not suitable for gases with small relative formula
mass (Mr) → bc loss in mass too small to measure
Interpreting data
- X-axis → time from start of reaction, Y-axis → total mass/volume of product
- Curve steepest initially → becomes less steep → eventually becomes horizontal
- Rate of reaction slows over time as reactants are being used up
- Horizontal line → indicates end of reaction
- Amount of product formed in a reaction determined by limiting reactant
- Amount of limiting reactant increase → amount of product formed
increase
- Amount of reactant in excess increase → amount of product formed remains the same
- Tangent to slope → shows gradient at any point on curve
- Steeper slope → faster rate of reaction

6.3 Reversible Reactions

Reversible reactions
- Reaction occur in both directions → forward reaction (form products) + reverse reaction (form reactants)
- Rate of forward reaction = rate of reverse reaction
- Concentration of reactants and products no longer changing (in closed system)
Hydrated and anhydrous salts
- Hydrated salts → contain water of crystallisation (indicated with dot between salt and water molecules)
- Anhydrous salts → lost water of crystallisation, become dehydrated
Hydrated cobalt(II) chloride ⇌ anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride + water
- Hydrated pink cobalt (II) chloride crystals → heated → turn blue (water of crystallisation lost)
- Anhydrous blue cobalt (II) chloride crystals → added to water → turn pink
Concept of Equilibrium
- Equilibrium → molecules on left and right of equation are changing into each other by chemical reactions
constantly and at same rate
- Only reactants present at beginning → rate of forward reaction at highest (bc concentrations are highest)
- Equilibrium position → relationship between concentration of reactants and products at equilibrium state
Le Chatelier’s Principle
- When a change is made to conditions of a system of equilibrium → system moves to oppose the change
- Position of equilibrium shift right when forward reaction is favoured + increase in products formed
- Position of equilibrium shift left when reverse reaction is favoured + increase in reactants formed
Effect of temperature on equilibrium
- Increase in temperature : equilibrium moves in endothermic direction to reverse change
- Decrease in temperature : equilibrium moves in exothermic direction to reverse change
Effect of pressure on equilibrium
- Increase in pressure : equilibrium shifts in direction of smaller # of molecules of gas to decrease pressure
- Decrease in pressure : equilibrium shifts in direction of larger # of molecules of gas to increase pressure
- Eg) 2NO2 (g) ⇌ N2O4 (g) : equilibrium to right
Effect of concentration on equilibrium
- Increase in concentration : equilibrium shifts to right to reduce the effect of increase in conc of reactant
- Decrease in concentration : equilibrium shifts to left to reduce the effect of increase in conc of product
Effect of catalyst on equilibrium
- Xt affect position of equilibrium but increases rate at which equilibrium is reached
The Haber Process → ammonia manufactured in exothermic reaction
- Hydrogen from methane + nitrogen from air
- N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g)
- Gases cooled + ammonia turns into liquid
- Unreacted gas recycled
Conditions in the Haber Process
- Temperature : 450℃
- Higher temp → favours reverse reaction as it is endothermic→ lower yield of ammonia
- Lower temp → favours forward reaction as it is exothermic → higher yield of ammonia but rate
of reaction too low
- Pressure : 200 atm
- Lower pressure → favours reverse reaction (system try to increase pressure by creating more
molecules) → higher yield of reactants
- Higher pressure → favours forward reaction (system try to decrease pressure by creating less
molecules) → higher yield of products (but dangerous + expensive equipment needed)
- Catalyst: iron
- Increases both forward and backward reactions by same amount
- By providing alternative pathway requiring lower activation energy
Contact Process
- Concentrated sulfuric acid used in → car batteries, fertilisers, soaps, detergents
- Production of sulfur dioxide (burning sulfur to oxidise the sulfur or roasting sulfide ores)
- S + O2 → SO2
- Oxidation of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide using vanadium(V) oxide V2O5 (catalyst)
- 2SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2SO3
- Sulfur trioxide into concentrated sulfuric acid after more processes
Conditions in the Contact Process
- Temperature: 450℃
- Forward reaction = exothermic → increasing temperature shifts position of equilibrium to left
- Higher temperature → lower yield of sulfur trioxide
- Pressure: 2 atm
- Increase in pressure → shifts position of equilibrium to right (smaller # of gaseous molecules)
- However → position of equilibrium lies far to right → so no need for high pressure
- High pressures → dangerous and expensive equipment needed + cause sulfur dioxide to liquefy
- Catalyst : vanadium (V) oxide

6.4 Redox
- Redox reactions → involving simultaneous oxidation & reduction (gain and loss of electrons)
- Oxidation → gain of oxygen, lose electrons, increase in oxidation number
- Reduction → loss of oxygen, gain electrons, decrease in oxidation number
- Example: Identifying the loss and gain of oxygen in an equation
- zinc oxide + carbon → zinc + carbon monoxide (ZnO + C → Zn + CO)
- Zinc oxide reduced (lost oxygen) & carbon atom oxidised (gained oxygen)
- Names using oxidation numbers
- Charge on ion shown by Roman numeral after element’s name (for transition elements)
 - Roman numeral = oxidation number of element
- Example : Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu
- Ions present in equation:
- Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) + SO22-(aq) →Zn2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + Cu(s)
- Spectator ions (do not change) → SO42-(aq) = can be removed
- Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
- Can split reaction into two half equations (by adding in electrons)
- Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e- (oxidised)
- Cu2+(aq) +2e- → Cu(s) (reduced)
- Identifying Redox Reactions
- Redox reactions identified by changes in oxidation number when reactant goes to product
- Oxidation number → number assigned which indicates degree of oxidation (or reduction)
- +/- sign followed by a number
- Rules
- Oxidation number of any uncombined element = 0
- Many atoms or ions have fixed oxidation number in compounds
- Group 1 elements → always +1 & group 2 elements → always +2
- Fluorine → always -1
- Hydrogen → always +1 (except metal hydrides like NaH → -1)
- Oxygen → always -2 (except peroxides → -1, F2O → +2)
- Oxidation number of element in monoatomic ion = always same as charge
- Sum of oxidation number in compound = 0
- Sum of oxidation number in ion = equal to charge on ion
- Identifying Redox Reactions by Colour Changes
- Potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4
- Oxidising agent → used to test for presence of reducing agents
- Acidified potassium manganate added to reducing agents:
- Purple to colourless
- Potassium iodide, KI
- Reducing agent → used to test for presence of oxidising agents
- Added to acidified solution of oxidising agent (eg. aqueous chlorine or hydrogen
peroxide): turns red-brown (due to formation of I2)
- Potassium iodide oxidised as it loses electrons (2I- → I2 + 2e-)
- Oxidising agent
- Oxidises another substance → becomes reduced in process
- Gains electrons as another substance loses electrons
- Reducing agent
- Reduces another substance → becomes oxidised in process
- Loses electrons as another substance gains electrons
- Important in chemical industry because → means of extracting metals from ores
- Example : CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
- Hydrogen reducing the CuO + itself oxidised (lost electrons) → reducing agent = hydrogen
- H2 → 2H+ + 2e-
- CuO reduced to Cu by gaining electrons + oxidised hydrogen → oxidising agent = CuO
- Cu2+ +2e- → Cu
7 Acids, Bases & Salts
7.1 The characteristic properties of acids and bases
Acids
- pH values below 7 + sour taste + corrosive
- Acids added water → form positively charged hydrogen ions (H+)
Typical reactions of acids
- Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen
- Acid + Base → Salt + Water (neutralisation)
- Metal oxides & metal hydroxides (alkalis) → can act as bases
- Acid + Metal Carbonate → Salt + Carbon Dioxide + Water
Bases & Alkalis
- pH values above 7
- Bases → oxides or hydroxides of metals
- Alkalis → water-soluble bases
- Alkali added to water → form negative hydroxide ions (OH-)
Typical reactions of bases
- Acid + Base → Salt + Water (neutralisation)
- Alkali + Ammonium salts → Salt + Water + Ammonia
Indicators

Indicator Colour in acid Colour in alkali

Litmus red blue

Thymolphthalein colourless blue

Methyl orange red yellow

- Synthetic indicators (Eg. thymolphthalein & methyl orange)

- Used to show endpoint in titration because they have sharp change of colour
- Not litmus → because it goes through purple transition colour (unclear endpoint)
Neutralisation Reactions
- Acids added to water → form positively charged hydrogen ions (H+)
- Presence of H+ ions → what makes a solution acidic
- Alkalis added to water → form negatively charged hydroxide ions (OH-)
- Presence of OH- ions → what makes aqueous solution alkali
- Neutralisation reactions → occurs when acid and alkali reacts (acid + base → salt + water)
- H+ ions react with OH- ions to produce water
The pH scale
- Numerical scale (1-14) used to show how acidic or alkaline a solution
- Same as measuring amount of ions present in solution
- Lower pH (acids below 7) → more acidic (more hydrogen ions = lower pH)
- Higher pH (alkalis above 7) → more alkaline (more hydroxide ions = higher pH)
- Logarithmic → change of 1 on scale represents change in conc by a factor of 10
- Eg) acid with pH 3 = ten times concentration of H+ ions that an acid of pH 4
Universal indicator → used to measure pH
- (acidic) brown → red → orange → yellow → green (neutral) → blue → violet (alkaline)
Proton Transfer
- Acids = proton donors → ionise in solutions producing protons (H+ ions)
- Bases = proton acceptors → accept protons donated by acid
Strong and weak acids
- Strong or weak depending on how many H+ ions they produce when dissolved in water
- Strong acids
- Completely dissociate (ionise) in water → produce solutions of very low pH
- Eg) HCl, H2SO4
- Eg) HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
- Weak acids
- Partially dissociate (ionise) in water → produce pH values closer to middle (still below 7)
- Eg) ethanoic acid (CH3COOH), propanoic acid (CH3CH2COOH)
- Eg) CH3CH2COOH ⇌ H+ + CH3CH2COO-
- Equilibrium lies to left → indicates high concentration of intact acid molecules, low
concentration of H+ ions in solution
- Effect of concentration on strong and weak acids
- Concentrated solution of acid → contains higher # of acid molecules per dm3 of solution
- But concentration doesn’t necessarily mean that acid is strong (could be made from weak acid)

7.2 Oxides
Classifying Oxides
- Oxides → compounds made from one or more atoms of oxygen combined with one other element

Acidic oxides Basic oxides

- Non-metal element combines with oxygen - Metal element combines with oxygen
- React with bases to form salt and water - React with acids to form salt and water
- Dissolved in water → produce acidic solution - Dissolved in water → produce basic solution
- Eg) SO2, NO2, SiO2 - Eg) CuO, CaO

Amphoteric oxides Neutral oxides

- Oxides that can behave as both acidic and basic

(to produce salt and water) - Oxides do not react with either acids or bases
- Depends on other reactant - Eg) N2O, NO, CO
- Eg) Al2O3, ZnO (also their hydroxides)

7.3 Preparation of Salts

- Salts → compound formed when hydrogen atom in acid is replaced by metal
- Name : first part from metal + second part from acid
- #1 : Excess metals / carbonate → (insoluble + soluble in excess) - soluble salt
- Acid + metal → salt + hydrogen (eg. sulfuric acid + zinc → zinc sulphate + hydrogen)
- Add metal to acid, filter excess metal, heat to evaporate some water, crystallisation
- #2 : Alkali (soluble base) by titration → (soluble + soluble) - soluble salt
- Acid + alkali → salt + water (eg. HCl + NaOH→ sodium chloride + water)
- Add acid & indicator (phenolphthalein) into conical flask + add alkali into burette
 - Add alkali to conical flask until indicator changes colour (colourless to pink)
- Record volume of alkali added → repeat using same volume of alkali & acid without indicator
- Heat to evaporate some water + crystallisation
- #3: Insoluble salts by precipitation → (soluble + soluble) - insoluble salt
- Dissolve soluble salts in water, mix together, filter to remove precipitate (salt), wash, dry
Solubility Rules

Salts Solubility Except

Sodium, potassium, All -

ammonium, nitrates

Chlorides Most are soluble Silver, lead(II)

Sulfates Most are soluble Barium, calcium, lead(II)

Carbonates Most are insoluble Carbonates of sodium, potassium, ammonium

Hydroxides Most are insoluble Hydroxides of sodium, potassium, ammonium, calcium

Hydrated & Anhydrous Salts

- Salts prepared → water retained with structure during crystallisation → affects crystal’s shape & colour
- Hydrated salts → salts that contain water within structure (chemically combined with water)
- Anhydrous salts → salts that contain no water in structure
Water of Crystallisation
- Water molecules included in structure of some salts during crystallisation process
- Hydrated compound → compound containing water of crystallisation
- When writing chemical formula of hydrated compounds:
- Water of crystallisation separated from main formula by dot
- Show number of moles of water contained within one mole of hydrated salt
- Eg) CuSO4∙5H2O → contains 5 moles of water in 1 mole of hydrated salt
- Conversion of anhydrous compounds to hydrated compounds → reversible
- Anhydrous to hydrated → add water (exothermic) (temperature increase)
- Eg) CuSO4 + 5H2O → CuSO4∙5H2O
- Hydrated to anhydrous → heat (endothermic)
- Eg) CuSO4∙5H2O → CuSO4 + 5H2O
8 The Periodic Table
8.1 Arrangement of elements
- Arrangement of elements in periods and groups and in order of increasing atomic number
- Period → horizontal rows → show number of shells of electrons
- Group → vertical columns → show number of outer electrons
- Group number corresponds to # of electrons it will lose / gain to achieve full outer shell
- Left side of periodic table → metals + right side of periodic table → nonmetals
- Periodic trends → same group = similar chemical properties (bc same # of electrons in outer shell)
- Position of element used to predict properties

8.2 Group 1 properties - alkali metals

Symbol Physical appearance Hardness Stored Reach with water

Li Silvery white Soft, can cut by knife Kerosene / Mineral Oil Reacts intensely

Ball on surface fizzing,

Na Silvery white Soft, can cut by knife Kerosene / Mineral Oil
moving

Soft, white with silver Crust lightly tough, Lilac flame, fast reaction,
K Mineral Oil
lustre inside very soft violent

Rb Soft, silvery white, metallic Very soft Dry Mineral Oil Vigorously with sparks

Cs Silvery white, ductile Softest of all metals Kerosene / Mineral Oil Rapid reaction, explosion

- Physical properties
- Soft and easy to cut
- Shiny silver surfaces inside (outside grey due to oxidation)
- Conduct electricity
- Density increases down the group
- Melting point decreases down the group
- Chemical properties
- React vigorously with water to produce alkaline metal hydroxide solution + hydrogen gas
- Reactivity increases down the group
- Alkali metals lose 1 electron to be stable
- Go down the group → more electron shells → distance increases → weaker attraction
between nucleus and valence electron → easier to lose valence electron

8.3 Group 7 properties - halogens

- Diatomic nonmetals (form molecules of two atoms)
- Properties of halogens
- Density increases down the group
- At rtp : Cl (pale yellow-green gas), Br (red-brown liquid), I (grey-black solid)
- Melting and boiling point increases down the group
- Colour of halogens become darker down the group
 - Reactivity decreases down the group
- Halogens gain 1 electron to be stable
- Go down the group → number of shells increase → decreases force of attraction
between nucleus and outer electrons → harder to gain outer electron
- Displacement reaction : more reactive element displaces less reactive element from a compound

Chlorine (Cl2) Bromine (Br2) Iodine (I2)

Potassium chloride
X No reaction No reaction
(KCl)

Chloride displaces bromide ions

Potassium bromide
Yellow- orange colour of X No reaction
(KBr)
bromine seen

Potassium iodide Chlorine displaces iodide ions Bromine displaces iodide ions
X
(KI) Brown colour of iodine seen Brown colour of iodine seen

- Eg) 2 KBr (aq) + Cl2 (aq) → 2 KCl (aq) + Br2 (aq)

- Ionic equation: 2 Br- (aq) + Cl2 (aq) → 2 Cl- (aq) + Br2 (aq)
- Half equation:
- 2 Br- → Br2 + 2 e- (losing 2 electrons - oxidised)
- Cl2 + 2 e- → 2 Cl- (gaining 2 electrons - reduced)

8.4 Transition elements

- Very hard and strong metals
- Good conductors of heat and electricity
- Properties
- Coloured compounds (Eg. Copper oxide, copper sulphate)
- Black = colour, white = no colour
- Catalysts → speed up reactions
- Different oxidation states
- Can form more than one stable ion
- Eg. Iron (II) → lose two electrons to form Fe2+ → oxidation number of +2
- Eg. Iron (III) → lose three electrons to form Fe3+ → oxidation number of +3
- Transition metals in different oxidation states have different properties and colours
- High densities (relative to group 1,2,7,8 elements)
- High melting points (relative to group 1,2,7,8 elements)

8.5 Noble gases

- Nonmetals in group 8 or group 0
- Very low melting and boiling points
- Unreactive bc. all have full outer shells → extremely stable electronic configuration
- Monatomic gases → do not need more electrons to be stable (is already stable by itself)
9 Metals
9.1 Properties of Metals

Physical properties of metals Physical properties of non-metals

- Conduct heat and electricity - Do not conduct heat and electricity

- Malleable (hammered into diff shapes) + ductile
(drawn into wires)
- Tend to be lustrous (shiny)
- High density + high melting points
- Form positive ions (lose electron)
- Form basic oxides
- Brittle when solid (easily break up)
- Tend to be dull and non reflective
- Low density + low melting points
- Form negative ions (gain electron)
- Except for hydrogen
- Form acidic oxides

- Chemical Properties of Metals

- Reactivity with cold water + steam
- Metals react with cold water → form metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas
- Metals react with steam → form metal oxide and hydrogen gas
- Reactivity with acids
- Most metal react with dilute acids
- Reactivity with oxygen
- Unreactive metals (eg. gold, platinum) → do not react with oxygen
- Reactive metals (eg. alkali metals) → react easily with oxygen
- Copper and iron → react with oxygen but slowly

9.2 Uses of Metals

- Uses of Aluminium
- Manufacture of aircraft → low density
- Manufacture of overhead electrical cables → low density + good electrical conductivity
- Food containers → resistant to corrosion
- Uses of Copper
- Electrical wires → good electrical conductivity + ductility

9.3 Alloys and their properties

- Alloy → mixture of two or more metals or metal with a non-metal such as carbon
- More strength, hardness or resistance to corrosion or extreme temperatures
- Common alloys and their uses
- Brass (mixture of copper and zinc)
- Stronger → used in instruments, ornaments, door knobs
- Stainless steel (mixture of iron and other elements like chromium, nickel, carbon)
- Hardness + resistances to corrosion → used in cutlery
- Aluminium mixed with copper, manganese and silicon → for aircraft body production
- Bc. alloy is stronger but still has low density
- Explaining the Properties of Alloys
- Atoms of different sizes → distorts regular arrangements of atoms in metals
- More difficult for layers to slide over each other → usually harder than pure metals
9.4 Reactivity Series
Reactivity Series
- Mnemonic : Please Stop Calling Me A Cute Zebra I Like Her Called Sexy Goldfish

Metal Reaction with cold water Reaction with acid Reaction with oxygen Extraction

Most reactive

Potassium Reacts violently Reacts violently Reacts quickly in air

Sodium Reacts quickly Reacts violently Reacts quickly in air

Extracted using
Calcium Reacts less strongly Reacts vigorously Reacts readily
electrolysis

Magnesium Slow reaction (reacts with steam) Reacts vigorously Reacts readily

Aluminium Slow reaction (reacts with steam) Reacts readily Reacts readily

Carbon

Very slow reaction (reacts slowly

Zinc Reacts less strongly Reacts
with steam)
Extracted with
carbon reduction
Very slow reaction (reacts slowly
Iron Reacts less strongly Reacts
with steam)

Hydrogen

Extracted with
Copper No reaction with water or steam No reaction Reacts
carbon reduction

Silver No reaction with water or steam No reaction Reacts

Found natively
Gold No reaction with water or steam No reaction No reaction

Least reactive

Reactions of Metals
- Reaction with cold water : metal + water → metal hydroxide + hydrogen (gas)
- Reaction with steam : steam + water → metal oxide + hydrogen (gas)
- Reaction with dilute acids : metal + acid → salt + hydrogen (gas)
- Reaction with oxygen : metal + oxygen → metal oxide (lower reactivity → react more slowly)
- Aluminium : high reactivity series but slow reaction bc. forms protective layer of aluminium oxide
Explaining Reactivity
- Tendency of metal to lose electrons (to form ions) → measure of how reactive the metal is
- Metal high up on series → loses electrons easily → more reactive
Displacement reactions between metals and aqueous solutions of metal salts
- Metal displace another metal that is below it in reactivity series from solution of its salts

9.5 Corrosion of metals

Rusting of Iron
- Rust → chemical reaction between iron, water, oxygen to form hydrated iron(III) oxide
- Iron + water + oxygen → hydrated iron(III) oxide
Rust prevention methods - barrier methods (grease, oil, paint, plastic)
- If coatings are wash away / scratched → iron exposed to water and oxygen → rust
Sacrificial Protection
- More reactive metal attached to less reactive metal
- More reactive metal oxidise (corrode first) → protect less reactive metal from corrosion
- Eg) Zinc more reactive → lose electrons more easily, sacrificed to protect steel (zinc needs to be replaced)
Galvanising
- Process where iron to be protected is coated with layer of zinc
- Done by electroplating or dipping into molten zinc
- If coating is damaged or scratched → iron still protected by sacrificial protection

9.6 Extraction of Metals

Extraction of Metals
- Metal ore → rock containing enough of metal to make it worth while extracting
- More reactive than carbon (aluminium) → extracted by electrolysis
- Less reactive than carbon (iron) → extracted in blast furnace
Extraction of Iron from Hematite (blast furnace)
- Materials : iron ore (hematite), coke (impure form of carbon), limestone
- Steps
- Coke burnt → form carbon dioxide (exothermic reaction = produce heat)
- C + O2 → CO2
- Carbon dioxide reduced to carbon monoxide
- C + CO2 → 2 CO
- Iron (III) oxide reduced by carbon monoxide
- Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2 Fe + 3 CO2
- Thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate (limestone) → form CaO, CO2
- CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
- Calcium oxide reacts with silicon dioxide (impurity in iron ore) to form slag
- CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3
- Molten slag floating on top of molten iron
Extraction of Aluminium from Bauxite (electrolysis)
- Overall equation : 2 Al2O3 → 4 Al + 3O2
- Steps
- Bauxite purified to produce aluminium oxide
- Aluminium oxide dissolved in molten cryolite
- Role of cryolite → lower melting point + increase conductivity
- Because… Al3O2 → very high mp = lots of energy + expensive
- Electrolysis (graphite electrodes)
- At cathode (negative electrode) : aluminium ions gain electrons (reduction)
- Product : aluminium (Al3+ + 3e- → Al)
- At anode (positive electrode): oxide ions lose electrons (oxidation)
- Product : oxygen (2O2- → O2 + 4 e-)
- Carbon in graphite anodes reacts with oxygen → produce CO2
- Carbon anodes need to be replaced regularly because… react with oxygen
10 Chemistry of the environment
10.1 Water
Chemical tests for water
- Using cobalt(II) chloride (blue to pink)
- Anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride + water ⇄ hydrated cobalt(II) chloride
- CoCl2 (s) + 6 H2O (l) ⇄ CoCl2 · 6H2O (s)
- Using copper(II) sulphate (white to blue)
- Anhydrous copper(II) sulphate + water ⇄ hydrated copper(II) sulphate
- CuSO4 (s) + 5H2O (l) ⇄ CuSO4 · 5H2O (s)
Test for purity of water
- Pure substances melt and boil at specific + sharp temperatures (exact bp and mp = pure)
Distilled water
- Water heated to form vapour → then condensed back to liquid
- Used in practical chemistry → bc it contains very few impurities
Substances in water from natural sources
- Substances that water from natural sources may contain : dissolved oxygen, metal compounds, plastics,
sewage, harmful microbes, nitrates from fertilisers, phosphates from fertilisers and detergents
Beneficial & harmful substances in water
- Beneficial substances : dissolved oxygen (essential for aquatic life), metals providing essential nutrients
- Harmful substances : some metal compounds (toxic), plastics (harm aquatic life), sewage (contains
harmful microbes which can cause disease), nitrates & phosphates from fertilisers (eutrophication)
Water treatment
- Untreated water → soluble impurities (dissolved calcium, metallic compounds, inorganic pollutants),
insoluble impurities (soil, pieces of plants, organic matter)
- Sedimentation (remove solids)
- Mud, sand, other particles fall to bottom of tank due to gravity → form layer of sediment
- Filtration (remove solids)
- Passing water through layers of sand and gravel → trap solid particles
- Use of carbon (remove tastes and odours)
- Water passed through carbon (in form of charcoal) → remove tastes + odours
- Chlorination (kill microbes)
- Adding chlorine to water supply → kills bacteria and other unwanted microorganisms

10.2 Fertilisers
- Ammonium salts & nitrates commonly used as fertilisers
- NPK fertilisers → Nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus (for improved plant growth)
- Nitrogen → makes chlorophyll and protein → promotes healthy leaves
- Potassium → promotes growth + healthy fruits and flowers
- Phosphorus → promotes healthy roots

10.3 Air quality and climate

Composition of air
- 78% nitrogen (N2), 21% oxygen (O2)
- Remainder → mixture of noble gases + water vapour + argon (Ar) + carbon dioxide (CO2)
Investigating percentage of oxygen in air
- Only gas reacting with copper = oxygen
- % of oxygen in air = (v of oxygen left in air / starting v of air) x 100
Air pollution
- Carbon dioxide
- Source: complete combustion of carbon-containing fuels (fossil fuels)
- Effects: increase global warming, leading to climate change
- Carbon monoxide
- Source: incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuels (fossil fuels)
- Effects: toxic, combining with haemoglobin in blood → prevent from carrying oxygen
- Particulates / soot / carbon
- Source: incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuels (fossil fuels)
- Effects: risk of respiratory problems and cancer
- Methane
- Source: waste gases digestive processes of animals, decomposition of vegetation
- Effects: Increase global warming, leading to climate change
- Oxides of nitrogen
- Source: reaction of nitrogen with oxygen in high temperatures (in car engines)
- Effect: dissolve in rain to form acid rain, photochemical smog, respiratory problems
- Sulphur dioxide
- Source: combustion of fossil fuels containing sulphur compounds (in power stations)
- Effect: acid rain
Effects of greenhouse gases
- Sun emits energy in form of radiation → enters Earth’s atmosphere
- Greenhouse effect
- Thermal energy absorbed by greenhouse gases → re-emitted in all directions
- Reduce thermal energy lost into space + traps in Earth’s atmosphere → keep Earth warm
- Enhanced greenhouse effect
- Concentration of greenhouse gases in atmosphere increase due to human activity
- More thermal energy trapped in atmosphere → cause average temperature rise (global warming)
- Consequences of global warming
- Climate change, water levels rise (leading to flooding), extinction of species, migration of
species, spread of diseases, loss of habitat (glaciers, low-lying areas)
Reducing the effects of environmental issues
- Climate change
- Planting more trees, reduction in livestock farming, decreasing use of fossil fuels, increasing use
of hydrogen & renewable energy (instead of fossil fuels)
- Acid rain
- Use catalytic converters in vehicles → used to remove oxides of nitrogen
- Eg. 2CO + 2NO → 2CO2 + N2
- Reduce emissions of sulphur dioxide → using low-sulphur fuels and flue gas desulphurisation
(reacting sulphur + calcium oxide to remove flue gas)
Photosynthesis
- Reaction btw CO2 and H2O to produce glucose and O2 in presence of chlorophyll, using E from light
- 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 (endothermic reaction)
11 Organic Chemistry
11.1 Formulae, Functional Groups & Terminology
Organic Formulae
- Organic compounds → contain carbon
- Hydrocarbon → compound that contains only hydrogen and carbon atoms
General Formulae
- Used to work out formula of compound from different homologous series from number of carbon atoms

Displayed Formulae Structural Formulae

Shows spatial arrangement of all atoms Way the atoms in a molecule are arranged
Definition
and bonds in molecule Identical groups bracketed together

Diagram

Homologous Series
- Family of organic compounds with similar chemical properties due to presence of same functional group
- Functional group : group of atoms that determine chemical properties of homologous series

General Characteristic of Homologous Series

- Same functional group
- Same general formula
- Differing from one member to the next by -CH2- unit
- Trend in physical properties
- Similar chemical properties
Saturated & Unsaturated Compounds
- Saturated compounds → molecules which all C-C bonds are single bonds (alkanes)
- Unsaturated compounds → molecules which one or more C-C bonds are not single bonds (alkenes)
Structural Isomers
- Compounds with same molecular formula but different structural formula
- Molecular formula → actual number of atoms of each elements in compound
(eg. C4H10 C4H8)

11.2 Naming Organic Compounds

- Prefix (stem) → # of carbon atoms present in longest continuous chain in compound
- Suffix (end part) → what functional group
- Each carbon numbered + numbers used to describe where functional group is
- Eg) But-1-ene (C=C bond in first position)
- Ester → made from unbranched alcohols and carboxylic acids (containing up to four carbon atoms)
11.3 Fuels
- Fuel → substance which releases heat energy when burned
- Common fossil fuels → coal, natural gas, petroleum - hydrocarbons (obtained from crude oil)
- Methane → main constituent of natural gas
Petroleum (crude oil)
- Petroleum → mixture of hydrocarbons (itself = not useful)
- Separation of petroleum into useful fractions by fractional distillation
- Different hydrocarbons → different carbon chain lengths (longer carbon chains → higher bp)
- Why fractional distillation → bc. molecules in fraction have similar properties and bp
- High bp (bigger hydrocarbons) → collected at lower section of fractionating column
- Low bp (smaller hydrocarbons) → collected at top of fractionating column as gases
- Refinery gases, gasoline, naphtha, kerosene (paraffin), diesel, fuel oil, lubricating oil, bitumen
- Mnemonic : Real Guns Never Kill Deer For Large Bullets
Properties of fractions obtained from petroleum change from bottom to top of fractionating column
- Decreasing chain length
- Lower viscosity (ability to flow) (flows more easily) : # of carbon atoms decrease → attraction decrease
- Lighter colour : colour of liquid gets lighter (as it gets thinner and less viscous)
- Lower boiling point : molecular size decrease → intermolecular attraction decrease → less heat required
to separate molecules → boiling point decrease
- Higher volatility (tendency to vaporise) : molecular size decrease → intermolecular attraction decrease →
hydrocarbon liquids more volatile
Uses of fractions
- Refinery gas (heat, cook), gasoline (car fuel), naphtha (produce chemicals), kerosene (jet fuel), diesel oil
(diesel engine fuel), fuel oil (ship fuel, home heating system), lubricating oil (lubricants, polishes, waxes),
bitumen (roads)
11.4 Alkanes
- Alkanes → saturated hydrocarbons (CnH2n+2)
- Bonding → single covalent
- Properties : generally unreactive (except in terms of combustion & substitution by chlorine)
- Combustion
- Complete combustion → gives carbon dioxide + water
- Incomplete combustion → gives carbon monoxide + water
- Substitution reaction → atom or group of atoms replaced by another atom or group of atoms
- Hydrogen atom replaced with halogen atom

- Photochemical reaction → ultraviolet light providing activation energy (Ea)

11.5 Alkenes
- Alkenes → unsaturated hydrocarbons (CnH2n)
- Bonding → includes double carbon-carbon covalent bond
- Manufacture of alkenes
- Cracking : larger alkanes broken down into simpler alkanes, alkenes, hydrogen
- Alkene → used to make polymers, hydrogen → used to make ammonia
- Reason : smaller hydrocarbons → more useful as fuels than larger hydrocarbons
- Conditions : (450~800) (chromium oxide catalyst)
- Chemical test → aqueous bromine (orange coloured solution)
- Alkane + aqueous bromine → remain as orange solution
- Alkene + aqueous bromine → alkene decolourise bromine → turn colourless
- Because of C=C double bond → addition reaction occur (no more aqueous bromine)
- Addition Reactions
- Atoms of simple molecule added across C=C double bond
- Only one product formed

Ethene + bromine → 1,2 - dibromoethane

Bromine or aq (original brown colour of bromine → turn
bromine colourless)
⇒ Test for presence of alkene

Hydrogen (nickel Ethene + hydrogen + (nickel catalyst + temp)

catalyst) → ethane

Steam (presence of Ethene + steam (H2O) → ethanol

acid catalyst) 300 degrees, 60 atm, phosphoric acid catalyst

11.6 Alcohols
- General formula : CnH2n+1OH
- Contain hydroxyl (-OH) functional group
- Manufacture of ethanol (C2H5OH) (CH3CH2OH)
 - #1 : Fermentation of aqueous glucose
- Conditions : 25-35℃ + presence of yeast + absence of oxygen
- Anaerobic respiration of yeast : C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + ATP
- Stops when concentration of alcohol reaches 15%
- #2 : Hydration : catalytic addition of steam to ethene
- Conditions : 300℃ + 60 atm + phosphoric acid catalyst (H3PO4)
- Mixture of ethene and steam passed over hot catalyst → gaseous ethanol condensed
into liquid

Fermentation Hydration

- Fast rate of reaction

- Low temperature + pressure
- Produce pure ethanol
required (use less E)
Advantages - Continuous process → efficient than
- Use renewable resources
batch process
- Simple set up
- No greenhouse gas produced

- Slow rate of reaction

- Pollutants form from burning of fossils
- Produce dilute solution → require
- High temperature + pressure required
further processing
Disadvantages → increase energy input + cost
- Batch process → new reaction set
- Use non-renewable resources
up every time → inefficient
- Complicated set up
- Produce carbon dioxide

- Combustion of ethanol
- Alcohols burn in excess oxygen → produce CO2 and H2O
- Uses of ethanol → solvent, fuel for cars, drinks, make other organic chemicals

11.7 Carboxylic Acids

- General formula : CnH2n+1COOH
- All carboxylic acids = weak acid → typical acid properties + partially ionised in aq solution

Ethanoic acid + metal → metal salt (_____ ethanoate) + hydrogen gas

Metals
Eg) Ethanoic acid + sodium metal → sodium ethanoate + hydrogen gas
(Metal + acid → salt + hydrogen)
- 2CH3COOH + 2Na → 2CH3COONa + H2

Ethanoic acid + base → (neutralisation reaction) salt + water

Bases
Eg) Ethanoic acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium ethanoate + water
(Base + acid → salt + water)
- CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa + H2O

Ethanoic acid + carbonate → metal salt + carbon dioxide + water

Carbonates
Eg) Ethanoic acid + sodium carbonate → sodium ethanoate + carbon
(Carbonate + acid → salt + carbon
dioxide + water
dioxide + water)
- 2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 → 2CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O
 - Formation of ethanoic acid by oxidation of ethanol
- #1 : With acidified aqueous potassium manganate (VII) = oxidising agent
- Ethanol heated with acidified potassium manganate→ produce ethanoic acid
- CH3CH2OH (aq) + 2[O] → CH3COOH (aq) + H2O (l)
- Oxidising agent represented by symbol of oxygen in square brackets [O]
- Solution change from purple to colourless
- #2 : By bacterial oxidation during vinegar production (acid fermentation by bacteria)
- Produce weak solution of vinegar (ethanoic acid)
- C2H5OH (aq) + O2 (g) → CH3COOH (aq)+ H2O (l)
- Ester
- Carboxylic acid react with alcohol → form ester + water
- Conditions : heat + concentrated sulfuric acid catalyst
- Esterification
- Esters → compounds with functional group R-COO-R
- Ethanoic acid + ethanol (+conc. sulfuric acid catalyst) → ethyl ethanoate + water
- CH3COOH (aq) + C2H5OH (aq) ⇌ CH3COOC2H5 (aq) + H2O (l)
- Naming esters
- First part of name → length of carbon chain in alcohol + ‘-yl’
- Second part → length of carbon chain in carboxylic acid + ‘-oate’
- Eg) pentanol and butanoic acid → pentyl butanoate
- Mnemonic : ABC (Alcohol Before Carboxylic acid)

11.8 Polymers
Polymers
- Def : large molecules built up from many smaller molecules called monomers
- Each repeat unit connected to adjacent units via covalent bonds
- Formation of poly(ethene) : addition polymerisation using ethene monomers
- Addition polymerisation → addition of many monomers to make long chain polymer
Addition Polymers
- Formed by joining up many monomers + only occur in monomers that contain C=C bonds
- One of bonds in each C=C bond breaks + forms bond with adjacent monomer → polymer only
containing single bonds formed
- Name of polymer : poly- + name of monomer in brackets
- Polymer from monomer : double bond to single bond, add continuation bonds, add subscript n
- Monomer from polymer : find repeating unit, single bond to double bond, remove continuation bonds
Condensation Polymers
- Formed when two different monomers are linked together with removal of small molecule (usually water)
- Deducing polymer from monomer and monomer from polymer
- Polyamides (nylon) → dicarboxylic acid and diamine
- Polyesters (PET) → dicarboxylic acid and diol
Difference between addition polymers and condensation polymers
- Addition polymerisation → polymer molecule only
- Condensation → polymer molecules + one water molecule per linkage
Forming Nylon
 - Nylon → polyamide with amide links, made from dicarboxylic acid and diamines
- Amide linkage : OCNH
Forming PET
- PET → polyester with ester links, made from dicarboxylic acid diols
- Ester linkage : COO

Plastics & Disposal of plastics

- Plastics → made from polymers
- Properties of plastics → implications for disposal
- Take long time to degrade, release heat E, produce CO2 and CO,
recycling difficult + expensive
- Neg. effects of plastics : disposal in landfill sites, accumulation in oceans,
toxic gases from burning
- PET re-polymerised → PET converted back into monomers
- Enzymes in microbes breakdown PET into monomers / same one by catalyst + solvents + heat
- Monomers polymerised into new PET → saves resources + energy + reduce carbon footprint
Proteins
- Proteins → natural polyamides + form from amino acid monomers
- Amino acids → small molecules containing NH2 and COOH functional groups
- Joined together via condensation polymerisation to form proteins
- Proteins can be hydrolyzed back to amino acids by boiling with HCl

12 Experimental techniques and chemical analysis

12.1 Experimental design
Time, temperature, mass and volume
- Time (stopwatch or stop clock), temperature (thermometer or digital probe), mass (digital balance)
- Volume : liquids (burettes, volumetric pipettes, measuring cylinders), gases (gas syringes)
Advantages & disadvantages of method & apparatus

Apparatus choice Advantage Disadvantage

- More precise readings

Temperature probe - Can be corroded by some reagents
- Easily take multiple repeat readings
Thermometer - More expensive to replace
- Automatic sampling

Volumetric pipette - Harder to use

- Pipette measures very accurately
Measuring cylinder - Only measures one fixed volume

Gas syringe - Pistons can stick

- Gas syringes easy to set up
Inverted cylinder - Limited volume can be collected
- Keeps gas dry
(for collecting gases) - Delicate + expensive

- Less wasteful of reagents - Hard to see what’s happening

Microscale
- Saves E - Lose a lot of material in separating +
Normal scale quantities
- Safer purifying products
Solutions

Term Meaning

Solvent Substance that dissolves solute

Solute Substance that is dissolved in solvent

Solution Mixture of one or more solutes dissolved in solvent

Saturated solution Solution containing maximum concentration of solute dissolved in solvent at a specified temperature

Residue Substance that remains after evaporation, distillation, filtration, or other process

Filtrate Liquid or solution that has passed through a filter

12.2 Acid–base titrations

Acid-base titrations
- Method of analysing concentration of solutions, amount of alkali needed to neutralise acid (vice versa)
1. Solution + few drops of an indicator into conical flask using volumetric pipette
2. Add second solution using a burette (swirl while adding) until indicator just changes colour
3. Record volume left and calculate
Indicators

Indicator Colour in acid Colour in alkaline Colour in neutral

Litmus solution Red Blue Purple

Litmus paper : red Stays red Turns blue No change

Litmus paper : blue Turns red Stays blue No change

Methyl orange Red Yellow Orange

Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink Colourless

Thymolphthalein Colourless Blue Colourless

12.3 Chromatography
Paper chromatography
- Used to separate substances with different solubilities in a given solvent
- Pencil line drawn on chromatography paper → spots placed on it → paper lowered into solvent (pencil
line above level of solvent)
- Solvent front → distance of how far solvent has travelled on chromatography paper
- Different substances have different solubilities → travel at different rates (higher solubility → further)
Interpret simple chromatograms
- Include known compound as reference spot → help match up unknown spots to identify it
- Pure substances → show up with only one spot
Locating agent
- React with sample and produce coloured product : for colourless substances (amino acids)
Retention factor (Rf) values
- Identify unknown substances by comparing with Rf values of known substances (Rf value always same)
- Rf = distance travelled by substance / distance travelled by solvent

12.4 Separation and purification

Filtration
- Used to separate undissolved solid from mixture of solid and liquid
- Method : filter paper placed in filter funnel, mixture poured in, solid particles left as residue
Crystallisation
- Used to separate dissolved solid from solution
- Method : solution heated (evaporation, saturated solution), crystallisation, wash, dry
Simple distillation
- Used to separate liquid and soluble solid from solution or pure liquid from mixture of liquids
- Method
- Solution heated, pure water evaporates → produce vapour that
rises through neck of flask
- Vapour passes through condenser → cools + condenses
- Turns into pure water collected in beaker
- Water evaporated from solution → only solid solute left behind
Fractional distillation
- Used to separate two or more liquids that are miscible with one another (eg. ethanol and water)
- Miscible → completely uniform mixture when added together
- Method
- Solution heated to temperature of substance with lowest boiling point
(rise + evaporate first)
- Vapours pass through condenser → cools and condenses
- Turns into liquid → collected in a beaker
- All of substance evaporated and collected → leave behind other
component of mixture
- Example for water and ethanol
- Ethanol boiling point → 78°C, water boiling point → 100°C
- Mixture heated until 78°C → ethanol boils + distils out of mixture + condenses into beaker
- Temperature starts to increase to 100°C → heating should be stopped (ethanol separated)
Similarities & differences between simple and fractional distillation
- Similarities : both techniques used to separate liquids by evaporating + condensing it to be collected
- Differences : fractional → requires extra funnel, simple → requires boiling point to be more far apart
Assessing purity
- Pure substance melt and boil at specific and sharp temperatures
- Impurities : increase boiling point, decrease melting point
Separation example Separation example
12.5 Identification of ions and gases
Identification of anions

Anion Test Result

Effervescence (formation of gas bubbles in a liquid)

Carbonate (CO3 2-) Add dilute acid and test the gas released
Gas produced is CO2 which turns limewater milky

Cl - → White precipitate formed

Chloride (Cl -) Acidify with dilute nitric acid
Br - → Cream precipitate formed
for halide ions Add aqueous silver nitrate
I - → Yellow precipitate formed

Gas given off is ammonia

Add aqueous NaOH and aluminium foil
Nitrate (NO3) Has a pungent smell
Warm gently and test the gas released
Turns moist red litmus paper → to blue

Sulphate / Sulfate Acidify with dilute nitric acid

White precipitate formed
(SO4 2-) Add aqueous barium nitrate

Sulphite / Sulfite Add dilute acid Gas decolourises purple acidified aqueous
(SO3 2-) Warm gently and test the gas released potassium manganate (VII) solution

Identification of cations

Metal cation Effect of adding NaOH Effect of adding ammonia solution

White precipitate White precipitate

Aluminium (Al 3+)
Dissolves in excess, form colourless solution Insoluble in excess

Ammonium (NH 4+) Ammonia produced if warmed X

White precipitate
Calcium (Ca 2+) Very faintly visible white precipitate
Insoluble in excess

Chromium (III) Grey-green precipitate

Green precipitate → forms green solution in excess
(Cr 3+) Insoluble in excess

Light blue precipitate Light blue precipitate

Copper (II) (Cu 2+)
Insoluble in excess Soluble in excess to form dark blue colour

Green precipitate Green precipitate

Iron (II) (Fe 2+)
Insoluble in excess Insoluble in excess

Red-brown precipitate Red-brown precipitate

Iron (III) (Fe 3+)
Insoluble in excess Insoluble in excess

White precipitate White precipitate

Zinc (Zn 2+)
Dissolves in excess, form colourless solution Dissolves in excess, form colourless solution
Identification of gases

Gas Appearance of gas Test Result

Colourless
Ammonia (NH3) Damp red litmus paper Turn blue
Pungent smell

Colourless
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Bubble through limewater Limewater turns milky / cloudy
Odourless

Pale green
Chlorine (Cl2) Damp blue litmus paper Turns red and quickly is bleached
Choking smell

Colourless Hold a lighted splint in mount of

Hydrogen (H2) Burns with a ‘squeaky pop’ sound
Odourless test tube

Colourless
Oxygen (O2) Hold a glowing splint Splint relights
Odourless

Colourless Add to acidified aqueous

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) Turn from purple to colourless
Pungent choking smell potassium manganate (VII)

Flame tests
- Work well for metal cations (especially group 1)
- Method
- Dip clean platinum or nichrome wire into concentrated HCl, hold in hot bunsen flame
- Moisten clean wire by dipping it into acid again
- Dip it into salt (metal) so that some salt sticks to it
- Hold in clear part of blue bunsen flame → observe colour

Cations Colour

Lithium - Li + Red

Sodium - Na + Yellow

Potassium - K + Lilac

Calcium - Ca 2+ Orange-red

Barium - Ba 2+ Light green

Copper (II) - Cu 2+ Blue-green