heart

Cross section of a four-chambered heart.

The rhythmic noises accompanying heartbeat are called heart sounds. Normally, two
distinct sounds are heard through the stethoscope: a low, slightly prolonged “lub”
(first sound) occurring at the beginning of ventricular contraction, or systole, and
produced by closure of the mitral and tricuspid valves, and a sharper, higher-pitched
“dup” (second sound), caused by closure of aortic and pulmonary valves at the end of
systole. Occasionally audible in normal hearts is a third soft, low-pitched sound
coinciding with early diastole and thought to be produced by vibrations of the
ventricular wall. A fourth sound, also occurring during diastole, is revealed by
graphic methods but is usually inaudible in normal subjects; it is believed to be the
result of atrial contraction and the impact of blood, expelled from the atria, against
the ventricular wall.

Heart “murmurs” may be readily heard by a physician as soft swishing or hissing

sounds that follow the normal sounds of heart action. Murmurs may indicate that
blood is leaking through an imperfectly closed valve and may signal the presence of a
serious heart problem. Coronary heart disease, in which an inadequate supply of
oxygen-rich blood is delivered to the myocardium owing to the narrowing or
blockage of a coronary artery by fatty plaques, is a leading cause of death worldwide.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaThis article was most recently revised and updated by Meg
Matthias.
biomarker
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biomarker
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Daniel Hartmann
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June 4, 2024, 12:26 AM ET (Medical Xpress)
New biomarkers may enable personalized influenza vaccination schedule
biomarker, a measurable and quantifiable biological parameter that serves as an
indicator of a particular physiological state. In a medical context, a biomarker is a
substance whose detection indicates a particular disease state or a response to a
therapeutic intervention. Examples include the presence of specific pathological
entities, cytological or histological characteristics, genetic mutations, or proteins.
Alterations at the level of messenger ribonucleic acid(mRNA) and protein expression
may also serve as biomarkers. Decades of research have produced molecular markers
that serve as tools for health-related assessments, epidemiologic studies, and
the diagnosis of disease, ranging from cancer to cardiovascular, neurological, and
inflammatory diseases.

The ability to effectively treat and cure a disease is often directly dependent on the
capability to detect it at its earliest stage. Especially for cancer, there has been a great
need to improve early diagnostics, since the disease is often diagnosed in advanced
stages, which delays timely treatment and can lead to a poor prognosis. Increasing
interest in assessing cancer risk, monitoring disease, predicting recurrence, and
determining the efficacy of treatments has coincided with developments in the fields
of genomics and proteomics. As a result, molecules associated with different types of
cancers have been uncovered with a variety of technologies,
including DNA and tissue microarray, two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, mass
spectrometry, and protein assays coupled with advanced bioinformatic tools.

For clinical implementation and routine use, the ideal biomarker is highly specific for
a particular disease condition and is measurable in easily accessible body fluids, such
as saliva, serum, or urine. Thus, a cancer biomarker, for example, may be associated
with a specific response of the body to cancer, or it may be a substance secreted by
the malignancy itself and easily detected in a body fluid. Examples of routinely used
cancer biomarkers include CA 15–3 (breast cancer), CA 125 (ovarian cancer), and
PSA (prostate cancer).

Clinically reliable biomarkers, however, are rare, and most candidate biomarkers are
found in many different types of disease. To refine the discovery process, biomarker
pattern proteome analysis can be used to study the expression profiles of hundreds of
proteins in parallel. Thus, several relatively nonspecific biomarkers can be combined
in order to provide a more specific disease index.

A platform that holds special promise for the discovery of

biomarkers combines protein arrays with SELDI-TOF-MS (surface-enhanced laser
desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry). This approach
distinguishes between disease and disease-free states by allowing for the analysis of
complex protein mixtures and expression differences between proteins. Applying
computational methods, the generated multiple proteomic spectra are superimposed
to detect changes in protein expression and their association with disease conditions.
Daniel Hartmann
brain
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brain summary
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Human Organs

The Human Body

The Human Brain
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What Are the Symptoms of a Stroke?

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brain
anatomy
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Also known as: encephalon
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right cerebral hemisphere of the human brain

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William Williams Keen

Harvey Williams Cushing

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June 2, 2024, 10:31 PM ET (News-Medical)
Scientists locate the source of stuttering in the brain
brain, the mass of nerve tissue in the anterior end of an organism. The
brain integrates sensory information and directs motor responses; in higher
vertebrates it is also the centre of learning. The human brain weighs approximately
1.4 kg (3 pounds) and is made up of billions of cells called neurons. Junctions
between neurons, known as synapses, enable electrical and chemical messages to be
transmitted from one neuron to the next in the brain, a process that underlies basic
sensory functions and that is critical to learning, memory and thought formation,
and other cognitive activities. The brain and the spinal cord together make up the
system of nerve tissue in vertebrates called the central nervous system, which
controls both voluntary movements, such as those involved in walking and in speech,
and involuntary movements, such as breathing and reflex actions. It also is the centre
of emotion and cognition. (For more information about the human
brain, see nervous system, human.)

In lower vertebrates the brain is tubular and resembles an early developmental stage
of the brain in higher vertebrates. It consists of three distinct regions: the hindbrain,
the midbrain, and the forebrain. Although the brain of higher vertebrates undergoes
considerable modification during embryonic development, these three regions are
still discernible.

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The Human Body

human brain; magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
An image of the human brain produced using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).(more)
The hindbrain is composed of the medulla oblongata and the pons. The medulla
transmits signals between the spinal cord and the higher parts of the brain; it also
controls such autonomic functions as heartbeat and respiration. The pons is partly
made up of tracts connecting the spinal cord with higher brain levels, and it also
contains cell groups that transfer information from the cerebrum to the cerebellum.

The midbrain, the upper portion of which evolved from the optic lobes, is the main
centre of sensory integration in fish and amphibians. It also is involved with
integration in reptiles and birds. In mammals the midbrain is greatly reduced,
serving primarily as a connecting link between the hindbrain and the forebrain.

Connected to the medulla, pons, and midbrain by large bundles of fibres is

the cerebellum. Relatively large in humans, this “little brain” controls balance and
coordination by producing smooth, coordinated movements of muscle groups.

The forebrain includes the cerebral hemispheres and, under these, the brainstem,
which contains the thalamus and hypothalamus. The thalamus is the main relay
centre between the medulla and the cerebrum; the hypothalamus is an important
control centre for sex drive, pleasure, pain, hunger, thirst, blood pressure, body
temperature, and other visceral functions. The hypothalamus produces hormones
that control the secretions of the anterior pituitary gland, and it also
produces oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone, which are stored in and released by the
posterior pituitary gland.

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How does the McGurk effect trick your brain?
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The cerebrum, originally functioning as part of the olfactory lobes, is involved with
the more complex functions of the human brain. In humans and other advanced
vertebrates, the cerebrum has grown over the rest of the brain, forming
a convoluted (wrinkled) layer of gray matter. The degree of convolution is partly
dependent on the size of the body. Small mammals (e.g., lesser anteater, marmoset)
generally have smooth brains, and large mammals (e.g., whale, elephant, dolphin)
generally have highly convoluted ones.
left cerebral hemisphere of the human brain
Medial view of the left hemisphere of the human brain.
The cerebral hemispheres are separated by a deep groove, the longitudinal
cerebral fissure. At the base of this fissure lies a thick bundle of nerve fibres, called
the corpus callosum, which provides a communication link between the
hemispheres. The left hemisphere controls the right half of the body, and vice versa,
because of a crossing of the nerve fibres in the medulla or, less commonly, in the
spinal cord. Although the right and left hemispheres are mirror images of one
another in many ways, there are important functional distinctions. In most people,
for example, the areas that control speech are located in the left hemisphere, while
areas that control spatial perceptions are located in the right hemisphere.

Uncover the science behind the split-brain syndrome

A structure known as the corpus callosum connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain and enables
communication between them. Dysfunction or absence of this structure can result in a condition known as
split-brain syndrome, in which each hemisphere of the brain functions independently. Split-brain syndrome
is associated with conditions such as alien-hand syndrome, which is characterized by involuntary and
uncoordinated yet purposeful movement of the hands.(more)
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Two major furrows—the central sulcus and the lateral sulcus—divide each cerebral
hemisphere into four sections: the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes.
The central sulcus, also known as the fissure of Rolando, also separates the cortical
motor area (which is anterior to the fissure) from the cortical sensory area (which is
posterior to the fissure). Starting from the top of the hemisphere, the upper regions
of the motor and sensory areas control the lower parts of the body, and the lower
regions of the motor and sensory areas control the upper parts of the body. Other
functional areas of the cerebral hemispheres have been identified, including the
visual cortex in the occipital lobe and the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe. A
large amount of the primate cortex, however, is devoted to no specific motor or
sensory function; this so-called association cortex is apparently involved in higher
mental activities.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaThis article was most recently revised and updated by Meg
Matthias.
body heat
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ScienceBiologyLife Cycle, Processes & Properties

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body heat, thermal energy that is a by-product of metabolism in higher animals,
especially noticeable in birds and mammals, which exhibit a close control of their
body temperature in the face of environmental fluctuation. Birds and mammals can
conserve body heat by fluffing up feathers or erecting their hairs and by
reducing blood flow to the exterior surface and extremities. They can increase body
heat by shivering and exercise. Excessive body heat is dispelled chiefly by increasing
blood flow to the surface and extremities, by sweating or panting, and by maximizing
exposure of the body surface to the surroundings.

In humans, body heat is regulated to provide a normal temperature of 37° C (98.6°

F). The brain stem, specifically the thermostatic region of the hypothalamus, is the
centre of temperature regulation. When it becomes deranged, as during infections,
heat is conserved unnecessarily and the temperature can exceed the normal range
(see fever).
 See all related content →
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Recent News
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Cutting-edge imaging unravels sex-specific structural variations in the heart
heart, organ that serves as a pump to circulate the blood. It may be a straight tube,
as in spiders and annelid worms, or a somewhat more elaborate structure with one or
more receiving chambers (atria) and a main pumping chamber (ventricle), as in
mollusks. In fishes the heart is a folded tube, with three or four enlarged areas that
correspond to the chambers in the mammalian heart. In animals with lungs—
amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals—the heart shows various stages
of evolution from a single to a double pump that circulates blood (1) to the lungs and
(2) to the body as a whole.

In humans and other mammals and in birds, the heart is a four-chambered double
pump that is the centre of the circulatory system. In humans it is situated between
the two lungs and slightly to the left of centre, behind the breastbone; it rests on
the diaphragm, the muscular partition between the chest and the abdominal cavity.

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The heart consists of several layers of a tough muscular wall, the myocardium. A thin
layer of tissue, the pericardium, covers the outside, and another layer,
the endocardium, lines the inside. The heart cavity is divided down the middle into a
right and a left heart, which in turn are subdivided into two chambers. The upper
chamber is called an atrium (or auricle), and the lower chamber is called a ventricle.
The two atria act as receiving chambers for blood entering the heart; the more
muscular ventricles pump the blood out of the heart.
human heart
Cross section of the human heart.

The human heart and cardiovascular system explained

The heart, located between the lungs, powers the circulatory system.(more)
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The heart, although a single organ, can be considered as two pumps that propelblood
through two different circuits. The right atrium receives venous blood from the head,
chest, and arms via the large vein called the superior vena cavaand receives blood
from the abdomen, pelvic region, and legs via the inferior vena cava. Blood then
passes through the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle, which propels it through the
pulmonary artery to the lungs. In the lungs venous blood comes in contact with
inhaled air, picks up oxygen, and loses carbon dioxide. Oxygenated blood is returned
to the left atrium through the pulmonary veins. Valves in the heart allow blood to
flow in one direction only and help maintain the pressure required to pump the
blood.
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The low-pressure circuit from the heart (right atrium and right ventricle), through
the lungs, and back to the heart (left atrium) constitutes the pulmonary circulation.
Passage of blood through the left atrium, bicuspid valve, left ventricle, aorta, tissues
of the body, and back to the right atrium constitutes the systemic circulation. Blood
pressure is greatest in the left ventricle and in the aorta and its arterial branches.
Pressure is reduced in the capillaries(vessels of minute diameter) and is reduced
further in the veins returning blood to the right atrium.

electrical conduction in the heart

Electrical conduction in the heart in healthy individuals is controlled by pacemaker cells in the sinoatrial
node. Electrical impulses are conducted from the sinoatrial node to the atrioventricular node and bundle of
His, through the bundle branches, and into the ventricles.(more)

Hear an exposed human heart beating

Human heart beating.
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The pumping of the heart, or the heartbeat, is caused by alternating contractions and
relaxations of the myocardium. These contractions are stimulated by electrical
impulses from a natural pacemaker, the sinoatrial, or S-A, node located in
the muscle of the right atrium. An impulse from the S-A node causes the two atria to
contract, forcing blood into the ventricles. Contraction of the ventricles is controlled
by impulses from the atrioventricular, or A-V, node located at the junction of the two
atria. Following contraction, the ventricles relax, and pressure within them falls.
Blood again flows into the atria, and an impulse from the S-A starts the cycle over
again. This process is called the cardiac cycle. The period of relaxation is
called diastole. The period of contraction is called systole. Diastole is the longer of
the two phases so that the heart can rest between contractions. In general, the rate of
heartbeat varies inversely with the size of the animal. In elephants it averages 25
beats per minute, in canaries about 1,000. In humans the rate diminishes
progressively from birth (when it averages 130) to adolescence but increases slightly
in old age; the average adult rate is 70 beats at rest. The rate increases temporarily
during exercise, emotional excitement, and fever and decreases during sleep.
Rhythmic pulsation felt on the chest, coinciding with heartbeat, is called the apex
beat. It is caused by pressure exerted on the chest wall at the outset of systole by the
rounded and hardened ventricular wall.

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