2023

ECE431: Electromagnetic Fields and Waves II

(Module 4: Vector Calculus)
(Module 3: Del Operator)

By

C. T. Thomas, MEng., REng.

Kwara State University, Malete

corneliustemicornelius@gmail.com

Basic Topics
• Differential length, area and volume
• Line, surface and volume integrals
• Gauss, Stoke, Hemholtz and Green’s integral theorems
• Gradient of a scalar (∇𝑉)
Ԧ and divergence theorem
• Divergence of a vector (∇. 𝐴)
Ԧ and Stoke’s theorem
• Curl of a vector (∇ × 𝐴)
Ԧ
• Laplacian (∇2 ) of a vector (∇∇. 𝐴)and of a scalar(∇. ∇𝑉)
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3.0 VECTOR CALCULUS

In vector calculus, we have differential length, area and volume, these
can be defined in the Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates
systems. A differential length considers just a length or a path along the
vector. We will limit our consideration to a differential element in
Cartesian coordinate only i.e., xyz-plane

𝐸 𝑑𝑦
1. Differential displacement/length is given by 𝐴
𝐵
𝐹
𝑑𝑧
𝑙 𝑠𝐻
𝐷 𝐺
𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧 𝑎𝑧 (3.1) 𝐶 𝑑𝑥
𝑎𝑧

(0.0.0) 𝑎𝑦
𝑎𝑥
𝑦
Note: The shape is a cube with 12 lengths l
and 6 faces S and one volume V 𝑥

Fig 3.1 Differential elements in the right-

handed Cartesian coordinate system

A length l, is in a single direction and also varies with one direction. A face S, is
in a single plane and varies with two directions (picture this as an area(2-sided)
plane). Likewise, the volume varies with the three directions. 4

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2. Differential normal area is given by

𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑎𝑥 → face ABCD

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑎𝑦 → face BCFG (3.2)

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑎𝑧 → face ABEF

3. Differential volume is given by

𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 (3.3)

Line, surface, and volume integrals

The element or term to be integrated is known as an ‘integrand’. A line integral is
an integration along a line, curve or a contour.
Given a vector field 𝐴Ԧ and a curve l as shown in Fig. 3.2. The line integral of the
field 𝐴Ԧ along the part ab is defined as:
𝑏
∫𝐿 𝐴. 𝑑𝑙 = ∫𝑎 𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑙 - (3.4)
𝐴Ԧ
Considering the line integration along a close path
abca becomes a closed contour integral.

∮𝐿 𝐴. 𝑑𝑙 - (3.5)

Fig 3.2 path integrated in field 𝑨

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Equation (3.5) is called ‘circulation of A around l’

Ԧ continuous in a region containing
A vector field 𝐴,
smooth surface S, the surface integral or the ‘flux’ of A
through S is given as:
𝛹 = ∫𝑠 𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑠 = ∫𝑠 A. 𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑠
𝑎𝑛 is a unit normal to surface S at any point. While 𝛹 is
the net/total outward flux of A from S.
Or simply, 𝛹 = ∫𝑠 𝐴. 𝑑𝑠 - (3.6)
Fig 3.3 Surface integral in field 𝑨
An open surface is defined by a close path, when a
volume is defined by a closed surface. As seen in Fig.
2.1 as 6 surfaces enclosed a volume.
If 𝑝𝑣 is a scalar volume integral over volume V, its
volume integral is given as:
∫𝑣 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 - (3.7) 7

4.0 DEL OPERATOR

The del or nabla operator, written as an inverted triangle ∇, is a vector
differential operator. It is defined as
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇= 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 - (3.8)
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
When del operates on a scalar, it turns it into a vector, although it’s not a
vector itself.
Del operator can be performed in the following ways:
1.The gradient of a scalar V, ∇V (pronounced as del V)
2.The divergence of a vector 𝐴,Ԧ ∇. A (pronounced as divergence A or div A)
3.The curl or circulation of a vector A, ∇ × A (pronounced curl A)
4.The Laplacian of a scalar V, written as ∇∇V or ∇2 V 8

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Gradient of a scalar
One can only perform gradient operation on a scalar, and the outcome
gives a vector i.e. del operation turns a scalar to vector. The gradient of a
scalar field V is a vector that represents both the magnitude and the
direction of the maximum space rate of increase of V.
Note this, if V is a scalar field
1. The magnitude of ∇V equals the maximum rate of change in V per unit
distance.
2. ∇𝑉 shows the direction of the maximum rate of change in V
3. ∇𝑉 at any point is perpendicular to the constant V surface that passes
through that point (see points P & Q in Fig. 3.4)

4. If 𝐴Ԧ = ∇V, V is said to be the scalar potential of A

The ∇𝑉 (pronounced grad V or gradient of V) in
cartesian coordinates is given as:
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝛻𝑉 = 𝑎 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑎𝑦 + 𝜕𝑧 𝑎𝑧 (3.9)
𝜕𝑥 𝑥
Note: The presence of directions 𝑎𝑥 ,𝑎𝑦 ,𝑎𝑧 show that
grad operation turns a scalar to a vector as mentioned
earlier.

Common relation of gradient operation worth noting:

𝛻(V+U) =∇V+∇U - Addition relation
Fig 3.4: Gradient of a scalar (V) 𝛻(𝑉𝑈) = 𝑉𝛻𝑈 + 𝑈𝛻𝑉 - Product relation
𝑉 𝑈∇𝑉 − 𝑉∇𝑈
∇ 𝑈
= 𝑈2
- Quotient relation
∇𝑉 𝑛 = n𝑉 𝑛−1 ∇V - General rule
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Example 3.1
Find the gradient of V, such that V = 𝑒 −𝑧 sin 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑦

Solution:

∇V =
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑒 −𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑦 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑦 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑒 −𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑦 𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

= 2𝑒 −𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑦𝑎𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑦𝑎𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑦𝑎𝑧

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Useful Differentiation Table

𝑓𝑥 𝑓 ′𝑥
න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 −𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 + 𝑪

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒂𝒙 𝐚𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒂𝒙 −𝐚𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒂𝒙 + 𝑪
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 −𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 + 𝑪
𝒆𝒙 𝒆𝒙 𝒆𝒙 + C
𝒆𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒆𝒂𝒙 𝒆𝒂𝒙
+ 𝑪
𝒂
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 + 𝑪
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 + 𝑪
𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐡𝟐 𝒙 𝒍𝒏𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒙 + 𝑪 12

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Example 3.2
Find ∇𝑊, given 𝑊 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑦𝑧

Solution:
𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑊
𝛻𝑊 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧

= 2𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦𝑧 𝑎𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 𝑎𝑧

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Divergence of a Vector and Divergence Theorem

• From equation (3.6) we have seen that the net outflow of the
flux of a vector field 𝐴Ԧ from a closed surface S is obtained from
the close surface integral of A, ∮ A. ds
• The divergence of 𝐴Ԧ at a given point P is the outward flux
per unit volume as the volume shrinks about P.
• Divergence of a vector field provides a measure of how much
flux (“or flow’’) is passing through a surface surrounding a
point in the field. Divergence is positive for flow away from the
point, negative for a flow towards and zero for no net flow. As
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A • Divergence has to do with how a

A
vector field changes its
P
magnitude in the neighborhood of
P
a point. Divergence is an
operation performed on a vector,
and it turns such vector into
scalar. Divergence of a cartesian
a. Positive divergence b. Negative divergence coordinate is given as:
A
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧
∇. 𝐴Ԧ = + + - (3.10)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
P P Divergence is a dot product of del
A
with a vector. The div of a scalar is
not applicable:
c. Zero divergence d. Zero divergence
Note: 1).∇. 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵 = ∇. 𝐴Ԧ + ∇. 𝐵
Fig 3.5 Illustration of Divergence of field 𝑨 about point P 2) ∇. 𝑉𝐴Ԧ = 𝑉∇. 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐴.
Ԧ15 ∇𝑉

Divergence Theorem
The divergence of 𝐴Ԧ is basically given as
∮𝑠 𝐴.𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐴Ԧ = ∇.𝐴Ԧ = lim - (3.11)
∆V→0 ∆𝑉
From equation (2.11), one can expect that,
Ԧ 𝑣
∮ 𝐴. 𝑑𝑠 =∫ ∇.𝐴𝑑 - (3.12)
𝑠 𝑣
Equation (3.12) is known as the ‘divergence theorem’ or
Gauss – Ostrogradsky theorem.
∆𝑽 is the volume bounded by the closed surface S
Divergence theorem states that the total outward flux of a vector field A
through the closed surface S is the same as the volume integral of the
divergence of A.
To determine the flux of field A through a closed surface, we can use either 16
the LHS or RHS of equation (3.12).

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Solution
Example 3.3 𝜕𝑃𝑥 𝜕𝑃𝑦 𝜕𝑃𝑧
(i)∇.P= + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Determine the divergence of 2
𝜕 𝑥 𝑦𝑧 𝜕 0 𝜕 𝑥𝑧
the following vector fields = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
i) 𝑃 = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧𝑎𝑥 + 𝑥𝑧𝑎𝑧 = 2𝑥𝑦𝑧 + 0 + 𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑦𝑧 + 𝑥
ii)𝐴Ԧ = 𝑦𝑧𝑎𝑥 + 4𝑥𝑦𝑎𝑦 +𝑦𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧
(ii) ∇. 𝐴 = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝑦𝑧 𝜕 4𝑥𝑦 𝜕 𝑦
= + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 0 + 4𝑥 + 0 = 4𝑥
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Class Work
1. Given:
𝑉 = 2𝑥𝑦𝑧
𝑊 = 2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 + 4𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 2 + 3𝑥𝑧 2
Show that ∇. 𝑉𝑊 = 𝑉∇. 𝑊 + 𝑊. ∇𝑉
Hint: solve RHS and LHS separately

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Curl of a Vector and Stoke’s Theorem

The circulation of a vector field A around a closed path l has the integral ∮𝑙 𝐴. 𝑑𝑙.
The curl of a vector A is a rotational vector whose magnitude is the maximum
circulation of A per unit area as the area tends to zero and whose direction is the
normal direction of the area when the area is oriented so as to make the circulation
maximum. i.e.
∮ 𝐴.𝑑𝑙 𝑎𝑛
Curl𝐴 = ∇ × 𝐴 = lim 𝑙 - (3.13)
∆𝑠 →0 ∆𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥
∆𝑆 is the area bounded by curve
𝑎𝑛 is the unit vector normal to surface ∆𝑆
The curl is the cross product of del and a Vector, which gives another Vector.
∇ × 𝐴 is pronounced ‘curl A’ or ‘rot A’ i.e. the circulation around 𝐴Ԧ or the rotation
around 𝐴.Ԧ
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Curl A is proved to be
𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇×A= 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 - (3.14)
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑥
∇ × A= − 𝑎𝑥 − − 𝑎𝑦 + − 𝑎𝑧 - (3.15)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Note:
1.∇ × (𝐴 + 𝐵) = ∇ × A +∇ × B
2. 𝛻 × (𝑉𝐴) = 𝑉𝛻 × 𝐴 + 𝛻𝑉 + 𝐴
3.∇. (∇× 𝐴) = 0, The div of the curl of a vector varnishes to zero
4.∇ × ∇V = 0, The curl of gradient of a scalar varnishes to zero
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Number 3 above means a vector that has a curl around a point cannot diverge
around that same point.
Num. 4 means the gradient of a scalar cannot rotate (curl)
Curl is the measure of tendency of how a vector field can swirl (rotate) around a
point. A clockwise curl is negative, while an anticlockwise curl is positive as shown
in Fig 3.6 (a-c)

P
P

a.: Negative curl b.: Positive curl c.: zero curl at point P

Figure 3.6: Curl around point P

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From equation (3.13)

∲𝑙 𝐴. 𝑑𝑙 = ∫𝑠 ∇ × 𝐴 . 𝑑𝑠 - (3.16)
Equation (3.16) is known as Stoke’s theorem.
Stoke’s theorem states that the circulation of a vector field A around a (closed)
path l is equal to the surface integral of the curl of A over the open surface S
bounded by l provided that A and ∇ × 𝐴 are continuous on S. This is illustrated in
Fig 3.7

Figure 3.7: 22

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Example 3.4
Determine the curl of the vector fields in Example 3.3
Solution
𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧 𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇×P= 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 = 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑃𝑥 𝑃𝑦 𝑃𝑧 2
𝑥 𝑦𝑧 0 𝑥𝑧
𝜕𝑃𝑧 𝜕𝑃𝑦 𝜕𝑃𝑥 𝜕𝑃𝑧 𝜕𝑃𝑦 𝜕𝑃𝑥
= − 𝑎𝑥 + − 𝑎𝑦 + −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕(𝑥𝑧) 𝜕(0) 𝜕(𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧) 𝜕(𝑥𝑧) 𝜕(0) 𝜕(𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧)
= − 𝑎𝑥 + − 𝑎𝑦 + − 𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
= (0 − 0)𝑎𝑥 + (𝑥 2 𝑦- 𝑧)𝑎𝑦 + (0 − 𝑥 2 𝑧)𝑎𝑧 = (𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑧)𝑎𝑦 − 𝑥 2 𝑧𝑎𝑧
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Laplacian of Scalar
The Laplacian of a scalar field 𝑉, ∇2 𝑉, is the divergence of the gradient
of 𝑉.
Laplacian V = ∇. ∇𝑉 = ∇2 𝑉

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
= 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 . 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧

𝜕2 𝑉 𝜕2 𝑉 𝜕2 𝑉
∴ ∇2 V = + + - (3.17)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦2 𝜕𝑧 2
If ∇2 𝑉 = 0 the scalar field 𝑉 is said to be harmonic.
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Assignment
1. Given: 𝑉 = 2𝑥𝑦𝑧 2. Given:
Find the Laplacian of V 𝑉 = 2𝑥𝑦𝑧
Show that ∇ × ∇𝑉 = 0

3. Given:
𝐷 = 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧𝑎𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 + 2𝑥𝑦𝑒 −𝑧
Show that ∇. ∇ × 𝑫 = 0

To be submitted on 9th June 5pm, to be exchanged & marked in class on 10th June
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