SPE-175560-MS

Multi-scale Reservoir Characterisation from Pore Scale to Simulation

Scale: Concepts and Workflows
Alan A. Curtis, FEI Australia Pty Ltd and Petrotype Pty Ltd

Copyright 2015, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Reservoir Characterisation and Simulation Conference and Exhibition held in Abu Dhabi, UAE, 14 –16 September
2015.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents
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Abstract
A consistent framework for reservoir characterisation from the pore scale through to the reservoir
simulation scale is presented. Concepts that clarify the characterisation problem are explained and the
scales that are of most importance to applied reservoir characterisation are defined. Workflows are
presented illustrating how both static and dynamic petrophysical properties may be moved from one scale
to the next, and how the similarities and the differences in the procedures at each scale change are
considered. Why a multi-scale approach involves more steps than just upscaling, as is often traditionally
assumed, is explained and illustrations are given at various scales of what a comprehensive multi-scale
approach entails. How the concept of model-prototype similitude can be used to overcome limitations in
the characterisation workflow is introduced and then the details of its use to transfer saturation-dependent
petrophysical properties to coarser scales are explained.

Introduction
To maintain data integrity and to optimise workflows, a consistent framework for reservoir characteri-
sation from the pore scale through to the reservoir simulation scale is not just desirable, but necessary. The
challenge of moving high quality data determined at the pore scale across all the different scale changes
used in the petroleum industry is both daunting and demanding. As such, the process is carried out with
varying degrees of rigour in actual practice. What is sought is an accurate holistic approach that can be
readily applied at all scales and which overcomes several limitations inherent in current methods.
It is worthwhile to first review the objectives of reservoir characterisation at the broadest level. The
initial goal is to provide the best possible quality petrophysical data at the geomodel scale such that
accurate estimates of hydrocarbons initially in place can be made within the structural framework of the
geomodel. This implies accurate and appropriately scaled estimates of both basic (static) petrophysical
properties such as porosity, permeability and formation factor, and the saturation-dependent (dynamic)
properties of capillary pressure and resistivity index. It is then necessary to consider those additional
properties needed to permit the estimation of production and hence the quantification of hydrocarbon
reserves. This implies the accurate determination at the flow simulation scale of all the properties listed
2 SPE-175560-MS

above, plus the saturation-dependent relative permeabilities. Necessarily, fluid properties must also be
accurately specified.
The focus of this paper is to develop the requirements, concepts, and methods necessary to transpose
both static and dynamic petrophysical properties from the scale at which they can first be accurately
measured, the pore scale, through to the geomodel and flow simulation scales.
Scales Used in Reservoir Characterisation
In moving from pore scale to reservoir simulation scale there is a large range of intermediate scales that
must be transversed. The scales that are used for the workflows to be discussed herein are shown
schematically in Figure 1. These scales are based on the characteristics inherent in each data acquisition
method or the requirement to integrate data from different sources at an appropriate scale. Other
intermediate scales can be recognised for particular purposes, but the scales defined are the ones most
usually adopted within the petroleum industry for effective reservoir characterisation.

Figure 1—Schematic of the Seven Key Scales Defined for Reservoir Characterisation

One of the key concerns in the multi-scale reservoir characterisation workflows to be outlined
subsequently is the change in volume when moving from one scale to the next. This volume change is set
out schematically in Figure 2, wherein the volume of material being investigated at each scale is shown
in Column 3 in m3 (rounded slightly in some cases). The ratio of these volumes is then shown in Column
4. The sum of these volume change ratios encompases 18 orders of magnitude, an observation which
needs to be considered in all subsequent workflow development.
SPE-175560-MS 3

Figure 2—Schematic showing Volumetric Upscaling Requirements over Successive Scale Changes

Changing Scales - The Five Step CSEPU Requirement

Whilst every scale change within multi-scale reservoir characterisation can be seen to be a function of the
finer and coarser scales involved in that change, there is a need to understand the system as a whole. This
means that similarities can be exploited and differences from one scale change to the next can be
accommodated.
The act of transposing petrophysical properties from a finer scale (smaller volume) to a coarser scale
(larger volume) is usually termed “Upscaling”. Such “Upscaling” is generally referred to as single step in
the reservoir characterisation literature, but when seen in a fully holistic framework the act of moving
from the fine scale to the coarse scale actually entails five distinct steps. As shown in Figure 3, the five
steps are Classification, Selection, Evaluation, Propagation, and Upscaling. Each step is vital in securing
a robust suite of petrophysical properties at the coarser scale and thus they are each covered in detail
below. The overall approach is referred to in subsequent discussion by the acronym CSEPU.
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Figure 3—The Five Steps (CSEPU) Applicable at Every Scale Change between the Seven Key Scales

Classification
Any given single unit at the coarse scale can be populated with a grid at the fine-scale, whether in 1D,
2D (as shown in Figure 3), or in 3D. The fine-scale dimension (relative size) adopted is a function of the
data that is available at both the coarse scale and the fine scale. For example in Figure 3, the coarse scale
relates to a section through a core plug and the fine scale is a grid of attenuation-related variables from
a tomographic image. It is then possible to cluster the attenuation-related variables to develop distinct
modes (or clusters, later interpreted as rock types) at the fine scale. In Figure 3, three modes are shown
(yellow, green, and orange).
The purpose of Classification is twofold. First, Classification is required prior to the Selection step and
secondly it is needed for the later Propagation of petrophysical properties. Thus, robust Classification is
vital and is needed at each and every scale change. To achieve this, a Bayesian-based probabilistic
Multi-variate Clustering Analysis (MVCA) model that can be used equally well at each scale change is
employed (Perlovsky, 1994). Other Classification techniques could be used, but these lack the advantage
of being able to readily Propagate properties using the same model as that developed in the Classification
step.
Typical Classification outputs for a wireline log are shown in Figure 4, with the crisp (most abundant)
assignment into nine modes being shown on the left and a 1D trace showing the cumulative probability
of assignment into each of the modes at each depth point being given on the right.
SPE-175560-MS 5

Figure 4 —Typical Bayesian-based Probabilistic Multi-variate Clustering Analysis Outputs of a Section of Wireline Log

Selection
It is invariably not feasible to carry out a detailed property Evaluation on every fine-scale grid cell within
a given coarse-scale grid and thus sub-sampling is necessary. In the Selection of sub-samples for analysis,
what is required is the most representative set of such samples. In too many instances, this Selection is
carried out incorrectly, being either done randomly or with poor selection criteria.
The optimum selection criteria will change from situation to situation and from scale to scale.
However, the overriding criteria will always be that the sub-samples must represent all the modes (rock
types) seen in the Classification. Ideally, the range of properties seen within each mode should also be
covered. In Figure 3, a sub-sample that covers each of the three differently coloured modes is shown in
brown outline. Ideally, several such sub-samples should be selected to better cover the likely range of the
properties to be determined, but in many instances cost constraints will necessitate a limited sub-sampling.
Evaluation
Once a sub-sample is selected, it is then possible to carry out the data analyses that are appropriate to
determine the petrophysical properties, both static and dynamic, at that scale. In Figure 3, the properties
are shown as having been evaluated at each of the 24 locations indicated by red dots. This Evaluation may
have been either from actual analysis (experimentation or digital imaging and modelling) or from
Upscaling from a still finer scale. The important thing for the workflow being illustrated is that there are
sufficient data values in each of the modes (yellow, green, orange).
Propagation
The next step in the CSEPU methodology is the Propagation of the known petrophysical properties into
the full coarse volume. This step uses the Multi-variate Clustering model developed in the Classification
step to predict the properties in each and every fine-scale grid cell and is illustrated schematically in Figure
3 with purple arrows. The use of a rigorous classification and predictive MVCA model ensures the robust
Propagation of properties to every grid cell, vital to ensuring that the correct properties are then available
for Upscaling.
6 SPE-175560-MS

Upscaling
Appropriate Upscaling algorithms may then be used to determine the single value (or array) of each
petrophysical property in the coarse-scale volume, as shown schematically in Figure 3 with a blue dot.
These algorithms may be very simple, such as volume weighted arithmetic averaging, or quite complex,
such as with flow-based, boundary condition dependent, numerical upscaling (Chen et al., 2010). For this
workflow development, the exact nature of any upscaling algorithm is not important so long as the step
can be carried out appropriately and rigorously.
Inherent in the Upscaling step is the assumption that at the coarse scale there is now a single
“equivalent” homogeneous volume which behaves identically in terms of its hydraulic or electrical
response to that of the multi-modal fine-scale grid within that volume. This assumption applies at each
scale change and will be utilised later in developing workflows.
Whilst the CSEPU approach may have been employed in many prior studies, it is not usually described
as is set out above and thus some parts of the workflow may be executed less rigorously than desired. The
vast majority of papers in the literature that refer to “Upscaling” tend to concentrate on just the last of the
five steps (the “U”) and thus in too many instances use sophisticated algorithms on poor quality, or poorly
selected, fine-scale data.

Limitation in the Application of the CSEPU Methodology

The CSEPU process outlined above works well as long as there is the full development of a fine-scale grid
underlying the coarse-scale grid. This is readily achievable when moving, for example, from a tomo-
graphic image of a sub-sample to the tomographic image of the full core plug. Similarly, moving from a
full characterised 3D geocellular model to a flow simulation model is more than tractable (the proviso
being that the geocellular model is indeed properly characterised initially).
Unfortunately there are several places in the complete seven scale pore-to-simulation workflow that are
not as straightforward. These mostly relate to moving petrophysical properties data into and from the
wireline log scale, as is shown for the case of Upscaling from the log scale to the geomodel scale in Figure
5.
SPE-175560-MS 7

Figure 5—Limitation in the Use the Five Steps (CSEPU) Approach at a Scale Change with No Underlying 3D Grid

The Classification of the fine-scale grid itself (the log data) is perfectly tractable, as is the Selection
of representative portions of the log. Within the Selected log intervals, it is also quite feasible to Evaluate
(either by analysis or upscaling) a viable estimate of petrophysical properties. However, whilst it is
possible to Propagate the newly evaluated properties in 1D along the log itself, there is no Classified
underlying grid within the geocell (here blue) to guide the Propagation of the fine-scale properties into the
full geocell volume. This is illustrated by the question marks on the purple Propagation arrows in Figure
5. Since it is impossible to Propagate the petrophysical properties, it follows that it is challenging to
Upscale such properties. The result is that too often, log scale properties are directly used, incorrectly, as
surrogates for geocell scale properties.
The Propagation problem of moving petrophysical properties from one 3D geocell to other 3D cells has
been classically treated by geostatistical approaches (Caers, 2005). Such treatments are well understood
and thoroughly tested. However, here we are not considering the geocell to geocell case, but rather
Propagating properties, particularly the dynamic properties, from the wireline log into just the surrounding
single geocell, where the log volume is but a fraction of the volume of a geocell. It is theoretically possible
to construct a 3D fine scale grid at the log interval scale within the geocell, assign the log-based rock types
throughout the geocell fine grid using some rock type distribution algorithm, and then Propagate
properties by rock type. However, such an approach is just not tractable, both from a lack of reliable
modelling input data and from time considerations.
The only viable solution to the Propagation problem is to employ a workflow that develops good
Upscaled estimates of the simpler basic petrophysical properties in the coarse scale grid (the geocell) and
then uses a modelling approach which utilises these properties to Propagate the dynamic properties. This
8 SPE-175560-MS

workflow will be outlined subsequently, but before doing so, it is necessary to further explore the
Classification step.
Classification Schemes and Scale-based Rock Type Terminology
To this point, Classification has been treated as a singular concept. However, within the petroleum
industry, many types or forms of Classification are used. These may be usefully categorised into three
main groups: Geologically-based Classification, Trace or Log-based Classification, and Properties-based
Classification.
Geologically-based Classification uses geological descriptions and constructs to break the geological
formation, at any scale, into rock types which are most generally called “facies”. (Note that here the term
“Rock Type” is used to describe a Classification of any type at any scale). Geologically-based Classifi-
cation is illustrated in Figure 6 for the seven key scales (volumes of investigation) recognised previously.
Each rock type is given a unique name and definition that incorporates both the scale and the nature of
the Classification scheme being used. The nomenclature adopted for Geologically-based Classification is
shown in Column 2 of Figure 6, which codifies the most common and consistent set of terms used in
practice in the industry. As an example, at the scale that corresponds to the Geocell, the geologically-based
rock type is defined as a “Geomodelling Facies”. With Geologically-based Classification, the ending
“. . ..facies” is specified wherever it can be meaningfully applied.

Figure 6 —Classification Schemes and Scale-based Rock Type Nomenclature

A Trace or Log-based Classification scheme uses the results of MVCA of whole core traces or
electronic wireline log data at various scales. For the purposes of easy differentiation, any rock type which
SPE-175560-MS 9

is developed from a Classification of regularly spaced trace or log-type data is called a “Class,” as is
shown in Column 3 of Figure 6. Thus by way of example, at the scale of the wireline log interval the rock
type is called an Electroclass; whilst at the scale of the core plug, where core gamma ray and core
attenuation traces are available, the rock type is called a Petroclass.
Since the objective is to produce suitably scaled petrophysical properties data, it is appropriate to
develop Classifications at all scales which are based on such data. For the Properties-based Classification
schema adopted here, these are called “Types” at all scales. At the scale of the core plug, for example, the
rock type is called a Petrotype. As is shown in both Figures 6 and 7, at other scales each “Type” is prefixed
by a scale designator such that there is no misunderstanding as to what scale the petrophysical properties
relate and each “Type” has a specific definition.

Figure 7—Definitions of Properties-based Classification “. . ..types” at Various Scales

Multi-scale Reservoir Characterisation Workflows

Multi-scale Classification, Selection, and Evaluation Workflow

The concepts and definitions that have been presented above can be used to develop multi-scale
Classification and Selection workflows that cover varying scales. One such workflow, which spans from
the wireline log scale to the finest digital rock analysis scale, is presented in Figure 8.
10 SPE-175560-MS

Figure 8 —Classification and Selection from Wireline Log Scale to Digital Rock Analysis Scales

The left-hand side of Figure 8 portrays the Classification of the wireline log variables (typically bulk
density, neutron porosity, gamma ray, and photoelectric factor) into Electroclasses. An Electroclass is a
distinct grouping of rock based solely on the MVCA of wireline log variables. Seven Electroclasses are
indicated by colour, with the warmer colours representing better quality rock. As indicated in the
definition, Electroclasses are based solely on wireline log electrical responses; they do not as yet have
petrophysical properties assigned to them, that being the objective of reservoir characterisation at this
scale.
The schematic wellbore second from the left in Figure 8 shows the Classification of the well into
Electrotypes (defined in Figure 7). Here the whole core data, both geological and petrophysical, has been
used to supervise the MVCA of the wireline logs. This is in effect biasing the Classification of the wireline
log variable by additional data to improve the efficacy of the Classification. Based on the Electrotypes,
it is possible to Select whole core intervals which are the most representative for future properties
Evaluation.
The next step in the workflow entails the Classification of the core plugs into Petrotypes. This
classification is based on variables derived from petrophysical properties, either from RCA or SCAL.
Such a Classification is shown schematically with twelve Petrotypes in the top centre of Figure 8. The 2D
plot illustrates two of the variables in a multi-variate classification, the data shown being the projection
in 2D of the variables being considered. The ellipse shown for each Petrotype portrays values of the
Classification variables that are within two standard deviations of the variable mean of those core plugs
assigned to a given Petrotype. Again warmer colours represent better quality Petrotypes.
In the centre of Figure 8 the detail for one representative whole core, here from Electrotype C (purple),
is shown. The whole core is marked with the three Petrotypes that are observed within it (Petrotypes 2,
4, and 6), this then being termed a Petrotype log. Note that there may well be scope to iterate between the
Petrotypes derived from MVCA of the core plug data and the observations of these Petrotypes in the given
core to achieve the optimum Classification at the Petrotype (core plug) scale.
SPE-175560-MS 11

It is now possible, by considering both Electrotypes and Petrotypes, to obtain a representative suite of
core plugs. This is illustrated in Figure 9 which shows a schematic relating all seven Electrotypes to the
twelve identified Petrotypes. The 36 selected core plugs are shown in the 2D plot of Figure 8 as black dots.
These core plugs could be used for any type of properties Evaluation, but in this example workflow the
cores have been selected for Digital Rock Analysis (DRA).

Figure 9 —Representative Electrotypes Marked with Petrotypes and showing Selected Representative Core Plugs (blue circles)

A 2D section through part of a 3D tomographic image of a core plug plug obtained using micro-CT
is shown in Figure 10. A schematic 2D section through such a core plug is shown in the top right of Figure
8 and may be taken to represent one of the Selected representative core plugs (here Petrotype 2, Plug 5).
The tomographic data can be used to classify the plug into Millitypes, where a Millitype is a distinctive
grouping of rock exhibiting a similarity of variables derived from micro-CT tomographic properties
evaluated at the millimetre scale. Different Millitypes can clearly be seen in Figure 10.

Figure 10 —2D Section through a 3D Tomogram of a Siliciclastic Core Plug (approx 19 ␮m resolution)
12 SPE-175560-MS

As was discussed when introducing the concepts of Classification and Selection, the Millitype
Classification can now be used to Select a representative sub-plug for high resolution micro-CT scanning.
This sub-plug would typically be 2 to 6 mm in diameter and the image resolution of the order 1 to 3 ␮m.
Such a sub-plug is shown schematically with a blue rectangle in the top right of Figure 8 and again in the
centre right. After micro-CT imaging, the sub-plug can again be Classified using tomographic properties
to derive Microtypes which are defined similarly to Millitypes but here the volume used for classification
is of the order microns (and hence “Microtype”).
At the scale of the Microtype it is possible to Select representative regions and Evaluate both the static
and dynamic properties. As this is being done digitally, it is quite easy to Evaluate the properties under
a range of rock-fluid interaction and reservoir drive conditions. The end result of the workflow is the
development of a suite of representative petrophysical properties that now need to be taken back to the
coarser scales. This DRA portion of the workflow can be illustrated using tomographic images, as is
shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11—Classification and Selection from Whole Core Scale to Digital Rock Analysis Scales

Multi-scale Propagation and Upscaling Workflow

The Propagation and Upscaling Workflow is essentially the reverse of the Classification and Selection
workflow. Petrophysical properties derived at the Microtype scale are propagated into the complete grid
of Microtypes and then Upscaled to the Millitype scale. This is shown schematically in the centre right
of Figure 12, such that properties are now available for each of the three Millitypes (yellow, green, and
orange).
SPE-175560-MS 13

Figure 12—Propagation and Upscaling from Digital Rock Analysis Scales to Wireline Log Scale

The petrophysical properties (both static and dynamic) for each of the Millitypes can then be
Propagated into the full core plug Millitype scale grid. As with the previous Propagation, this uses the
predictive capabilities of the MVCA model derived in the original Classification at this scale. With a set
of properties available for every Millitype-scale grid cell within the core plug, a 3D flow-based Upscaling
can then be carried out to derive core plug scale properties for each Petrotype, as is shown in the top right
of Figure 12.
When the process is completed for all 36 representative core plugs, it is then possible to relate the core
plug information to the whole core. This step in the workflow is shown in the right-hand whole core panel
(the Petrotype log) in the centre of Figure 12, where the various Petrotypes are shown by colour (pink,
gold, and lavender) and the core plug scale grid is shown with black dashed lines. With the core plug
properties being known for each Petrotype, these may be Propagated up and down the whole core away
from the known core plug values using the MVCA model that was used to initially establish the Petrotype
log within the core.
Having Propagated the properties, it is now possible to Upscale these to whole core scale. The choice
of the vertical increment is constrained since the next step will be to relate these properties to the wireline
logs. The interval of the wireline log which corresponds to the whole core (after rigorous core-to-log depth
shifting) is shown in the left-hand purple-coloured schematic in the centre of Figure 12. Here the yellow
dots represent the wireline log data points where information is actually carried. The different coloured
purple intervals indicate where data should be Upscaled in the whole core to obtain the most representative
petrophysical data at each wireline point. After carrying out the Upscaling, it is then necessary to make
the assumption that the Upscaled whole core properties are a good proxy to the properties required in the
14 SPE-175560-MS

equivalent depth interval as seen by the wireline logs. This effectively assumes that there is little lateral
variation in the formation away from the core to the depth of wireline log investigation.
By using the MVCA model produced when Classifying the wireline logs into Electrotypes, it is now
possible to Propagate the Electrotype scale petrophysical properties along the wellbore, both for the cored
intervals and into uncored sections of the log. This is shown schematically in the two left most panels in
Figure 12. Importantly, if the Electrotypes were derived from a representative number of wells, then the
properties can also be propagated into uncored wells provided the wireline logs are correctly normalised.
Again the first part of this workflow can be illustrated by the use of tomographic images, as is shown
in Figure 13.

Figure 13—Propagation and Upscaling from Digital Rock Analysis Scales to Whole Core Scale

Core Plug to Flow Simulation Scale Workflow

In this workflow, both static and dynamic petrophysical properties are assumed to be available at the core
plug scale, where the plugs have been Classified using MVCA into Petrotypes. What is required is to
execute the CSEPU steps to bring the properties to the scale of the flow simulation grid block. This
requirement is illustrated schematically in Figure 14.
SPE-175560-MS 15

Figure 14 —Translation of Petrophysical Properties from Core Plug Scale to Flow Simulation Scale using CSEPU

Implementing the CSEPU workflow is quite straight forward when moving from the geocell scale to
the flow simulations scale as a 3D grid at the coarse scale completely overlies a 3D grid at the fine scale.
However, as foreshadowed above, the first two scale changes shown in Figure 14 are not so simple.
Considering the change from whole core to log, in general only very small intervals of whole core with
properties are available over the full extent of the logged intervals in a well containing core, and in most
instances wells are just logged and not cored. However, it must be possible to relate petrophysical
properties evaluated in the few intervals of core to the rest of the well and from cored wells to uncored
wells. This implies the development of a model relating petrophysical properties derived from core to
wireline log variables. Importantly, this model must not only accommodate basic static properties, but also
the dynamic (saturation-dependent) properties held as array data (as shown in Figure 14 in red).
Although we seek to associate petrophysical properties to wireline logs, the major impediment is that
the properties are still at the core plug scale (or occasionally the whole core scale), not the wireline log
scale. So the model not only needs to provide a mapping of petrophysical properties to wireline variables,
it must also facilitate an Upscaling step. In the case of core plug scale properties Classified by Petrotype,
this implies a scale change of three orders of magnitude to wireline log scale (to Electrotypes). In the case
when whole core properties are available, the scale change is only of one order of magnitude but must still
be accommodated. Although more whole core properties are now being determined by using whole core
CT, the vast majority of petrophysical properties data is still only determined at the core plug scale and
thus the development of the model should encompass this reality.
In the intermediate scale change shown in Figure 14, from logs to geocell, very few logs are available
in the totality of all geocells and for those geocells which are intersected by a log, invariably there is only
one log in the geocell. This scarcity of data again implies that a model is required to relate the
petrophysical properties that have been derived for the logs by the prior CSEPU steps to those in all
geocells.
16 SPE-175560-MS

Classification and Upscaling of Saturation-dependent Properties (CUSP)

using the Concept of Hydraulic Similitude
The development of a model to relate petrophysical properties from core plug to log, or from log to geocell
has to make full use of the CSEPU approach and, as stressed above, must accommodated saturation-
dependent properties. Such a model will be called the Classification and Upscaling of Saturation-
dependent Properties model, or CUSP model. Like the CSEPU concept itself, such a CUSP model needs
to be scale independent, i.e. the same design of model should be applicable at all scale changes.

Hydraulic Similitude and Classification Variables

Recall that the object of the complete CSEPU process is to provide a single set of properties for the
(assumed) homogeneous porous medium that is contained within the coarse volume, such that it replicates
the hydraulic or electrical behaviour of the variable media in the equivalent fine scale grid of the given
volume. Concentrating on hydraulic behaviour, another way of expressing this is that we want the
behaviour of the prototype (larger scale) to be identical to the behaviour of the model (smaller scale). This
is the classical fluids mechanics problem of seeking to ensure model-to-prototype similitude, as with a
model ship in a towing tank (Hwang, 1981). Such similitude can be achieved by ensuring that the values
of the variables which are chosen to define the hydraulic behaviour of the model (at the fine scale) are
equivalent to the same variables when evaluated for the prototype (at the coarse scale).
The need to ensure similitude implies that an appropriate number of definitive variables must be
chosen. As a consequence of the sparse data sets in either of the two scale changes being examined, it is
not possible to use very many variables in the model. Thus the variables chosen should as independently
as possible define the behaviour of the model and the prototype. When considering the hydraulic
behaviour of a porous medium, three variables that are both practical and very useful in the CUSP
modelling workflow are those set out in Figure 15. These three Classification variables ␻, ␬, and ␩ are
derived from standard petrophysical properties as presented by Curtis, 2000.
SPE-175560-MS 17

The first step in the CUSP methodology is to use the three variables to effect a Classification at the
fine scale. As outlined above, this would be at the core plug scale when moving from core to log, or at
the log scale when moving from log to geocell. Figure 15 shows, at left, the location of one sample (red)
in the 3D space of the three Classification variables. A sample from a different rock type (blue, lower left),
must by definition occupy a different location in the 3D space; the values of its Classification variables
are distinctly different. If a third sample (not shown) had values of the three Classification variables very
close to say the red dot in Figure 15, then it would be, by definition, in Rock Type 1 (red) as well. i.e.
the similarity of the three Classification variables would ensure the similarity of hydraulic behaviour.
Recall that the assumption is that each volume at any scale is homogeneous.

Figure 15—Classification Variables Selected to Ensure Similitude in the CUSP Modelling Methodology

Consider now that the CSEPU process has been followed and that Upscaled petrophysical properties
have been used to develop the same three Classification variables at the coarser scale. If the coarse-scale
volume, which is also considered to be homogeneous, has values of the Classification variables that are
identical to those at the fine scale, then by definition the porous material being considered at each scale
will have the same hydraulic behaviour. This is shown schematically in Figure 16. The implication of
having hydraulically similar homogeneous materials at two different scales is that if the properties of the
material at one scale are known, then they are also known at the other scale. It is this observation regarding
similitude that is the foundation of the CUSP methodology.
18 SPE-175560-MS

Figure 16 —Identical Classification Variables at Two Different Scales for Two Different Rock Types

The practical importance of the above is that if a CUSP model is constructed (using Bayesian MVCA)
with all three Classification variables at the fine scale, and then if the model is used at the coarse scale
with two of these variables as inputs, then the third can be predicted. Since ␻ and ␬ are derived from
upscaled basic variables and ␩ is derived from dynamic properties, then the dynamic properties can be
predicted at the coarser scale even when there is no underlying 3D grid to permit their direct calculation.
This construct thus permits the CSEPU concept to be applied, overcoming the limitation of the method
outlined above. How the saturation-dependent properties are developed is covered in the next section.
An example of the use of the three Classification variables at the core plug scale is given in Figure 17.
Here the core plugs are Classified into four Petrotypes and the results can be seen on the projection of the
three variable MVCA onto the planes of each variable pairing. Whilst there is some overlap seen within
the clusters forming each Petrotype in any one 2D plot, in 3D space the separation is very good.
SPE-175560-MS 19

Figure 17—Four Petrotypes (coloured) Classifed from Three Variables (Omega, Kappa, and Eta) using Unsupervised MVCA (after
Curtis, 2000)

The CUSP methodology can thus be seen to have two major enablers. The first is consistent use of the
CSEPU concept to permit rigorous scale changes. Then coupled with this, the principles of hydraulic
similitude permit petrophysical properties to be predicted using the developed MVCA model with
different scale data.

Development of Saturation-dependent Properties at Coarser Scale using the CUSP Methodology

As outlined above, the CUSP methodology permits the development of saturation-dependent properties at
the coarser scale. This is done by first building representative dynamic curves at the finer scale, as is
shown schematically on the left of Figure 18. The Pc(Sw) curve which best represents the saturation-
dependent behaviour of the capillary pressure response of each of four Petrotypes is shown. A CUSP
model linking all Classification variables (␻, ␬, and ␩), by Petrotype, is also built.
20 SPE-175560-MS

Figure 18 —Workflow to Develop Coarse Scale Saturation-dependent Properties using the CUSP Methodology

In the centre of Figure 18, both Petrotypes and Electrotypes with depth are shown, with the latter
having been determined by the Classification of the wireline log data. The CSEPU workflow is applied
to derive the Upscaled values of the basic petrophysical properties at the wireline log scale. The CUSP
methodology is then applied to determine new, Upscaled values of ␻ and ␬ for each identified Electrotype.
From the CUSP MVCA model a value of the capillary-related Classification variable ␩ is predicted at the
log scale. This is then related to the closest representative curve and a Pc(Sw) function back-calculated
as is shown on the right-hand side of Figure 18. The method utilises the principle of hydraulic similitude
outlined above; such that if two homogeneous volumes have the same Classification variables, they will
have the same hydraulic behaviour.
The CUSP methodology has been illustrated for the case of the core plug to wireline log scale change.
Exactly the same method can be used for the wireline log to geocell scale change. In this case the basic
petrophysical properties are upscaled across the geocell interval spanning the log to get an approximation
of the upscaled properties in Geotypes which have been developed using geostatistical algorithms within
3D geocellular modelling software. As each geocell has, using geostatistics, a set of basic petrophysical
properties, these may be turned into Classification variables which in turn can be used in the CUSP
methodology to predict saturation-dependent properties at the Geocell scale.
Conclusion
Concepts that clarify the multi-scale nature of the reservoir characterisation problem have been explained
and the scales that are of most importance to industry defined. Why a multi-scale approach involves far
more than just upscaling, as is often traditionally assumed, has been explained and the need for five major
reservoir characterisation steps at every stage of the multi-scale characterisation workflow was estab-
lished. These steps involve Classification, Selection, Evaluation, Propagation and Upscaling. Each step is
vital in securing a robust suite of petrophysical properties at the succeedingly larger scale. Recognising
the five distinct steps also leads to the ability to improve each step independently.
SPE-175560-MS 21

Workflows have been presented illustrating how both static and dynamic petrophysical properties may
be moved from one scale to the other and the similarities and, importantly, the differences in the
procedures at each scale have been detailed. The methodology was illustrated by reference to digital rock
data at the sub-micron scale where the physics of the flow may be correctly addressed and was then carried
through to classical petrophysical scales and into geomodelling and simulation scales.
The difficulties in passing across the sparse 1D wireline log scale have been explained and a solution,
the CUSP methodology, outlined. The method employs the principles of hydraulic similitude which
permit saturation-dependent properties to be effectively carried from the fine scale to a coarser scale.
The workflows are on the one hand comprehensive and rigorous in their specification and implemen-
tation, but on the other hand simple enough in their design to permit them to be embraced by all disciplines
involved in the reservoir characterisation process. These workflows have been applied at various scales
in operational reservoir characterisation studies and are continuing to be developed because of the
successes that have been seen.

Acknowledgements
The author wishes to acknowledge the many contributions of colleagues, both past and present, to the
development of the concepts and workflows presented in this paper. These include, but are certainly not
limited to, Dr Eric Eslinger, Mr Alrik Thiriet, Ms Kean Bliss, Prof Mark Knackstedt, Dr Alex Mock, and
Mr Ross Davidson. The support of both FEI Australia Pty Ltd and eGAMLS Inc. is also gratefully
acknowledged.

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