Gas Metal Arc Welding

Introduction
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred to by its subtypes metal inert gas
(MIG) welding or metal active gas (MAG) welding, is a welding process in which an
electric arc forms between a consumable MIG wire electrode and the workpiece metal(s),
which heats the workpiece metal(s), causing them to melt and join. Along with the wire
electrode, a shielding gas feeds through the welding gun, which shields the process from
atmospheric contamination.
The process can be semi-automatic or automatic. A constant voltage, direct current
power source is most commonly used with GMAW, but constant current systems, as
well as alternating current, can be used. There are four primary methods of metal
transfer in GMAW, called globular, short-circuiting, spray, and pulsed-spray, each of
which has distinct properties and corresponding advantages and limitations.
Constant Voltage Characteristics - Constant voltage power sources, also known as
constant potential, are used in welding with solid and flux cored electrodes, and as the
name implies, the voltage output remains relatively constant. On this type of power
source, the voltage is set at the machine and amperage is determined by the speed that
the wire is fed to the welding gun. Increasing the wire feed speed increases the
amperage. Decreasing the wire feed speed decreases the amperage
In automatic GMAW the wire feed unit also includes the welding gun however in
semi-automatic mode the two are separated to achieve the flexibil-ity of the process. To
push the wire through several meters of flexible conduit at a speed of 2-5 to 25 m/min,
it is imperative to have high-powered wire feed motors driving non-slip knurled or V-
groove rollers.

Advantages
❖ Large gaps filled or bridged easily
❖ Welding can be done in all positions
❖ No slag removal required
❖ High welding speeds
❖ High weld quality
❖ Less distortion of work piece
Dis-Advantages
❖ Requires a Wire Feeder which is difficult to move and can sometimes be a
maintenance/repair burden.
❖ Needs Shielding Gas so welding in windy conditions can be difficult.
❖ No slag system so out of position welds are sometimes more difficult.
❖ Increased chance of lack of fusion if parameters and welding technique is not
controlled.
❖ The gun is difficult to get into tight places.
❖ Is not suitable for windy conditions and underwater welding.

GMAW WELDING MACHINE DIAGRAM

1. Regulator – reduce or control the high pressures of the stored gas in the
cylinder to lower the pressures that can be safety used in an operating system.
2. Gas Cylinder – is a pressure vessel for storage and containment of gases at
above atmospheric pressure.
3. Power unit - provides a relatively consistent voltage to the arc
4. Filler wire spool – where the filler metal or the consumable use is rolled like a
wire.
5. Wire feed and Control Unit - Main function is to pull the wire from the spool
and feed it to the arc.
6. Wire feed speed control - controls wire feed speed and regulates the starting
and stopping of wire feed.
7. Voltage Control – control the voltage used during the process. The process
commonly uses constant voltage that allows for a relatively constant welding
voltage output over a range of welding currents.
 8. Control cable filler wire conduit power cable gas hose – the filler metal, gas
hose and the electrode wire are combined in one cable.
9. Welding Gun - The welding torch guides the wire and shielding gas to the weld
zone. Brings welding power to the wire also, the major components/parts of
the torch are the contact tip, shielding gas nozzle, gas diffuser, and the wire
conduit
10. Switch or trigger – a part of the welding gun that causes the welding gun to
start fire the electrode wire when the trigger is press.
11. Work Clamp – are securing round tube, plate, pipe and sheet metal during
the welding and fabrication and connects the ground cable of the welding
machine.
12. Wire electrode – a consumable use in the welding process, a continuous wire
feed out of the gun.

Difference between MIG and MAG

As the name suggest, Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding process utilizes suitable inert gas
for shielding purpose during welding. Such gas is mainly argon or helium, or a mixture
of these two in different proportions. Since these gases are chemically inert thus, they
remain stable even at extreme arc heat. Therefore, they do not contribute in altering any
weld characteristics apart from protecting the weld bead and electric arc from any
external influence.
On the other hand, Metal Active Gas (MAG) welding utilizes an active gas mixture as
shielding gas. For example, a suitable mixture of carbon di-oxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2)
along with other comparatively stable gases like argon, helium, nitrogen, etc. Besides
fulfilling basic requirement of shielding gas, such active gases can break down due to
arc heating and subsequently induce various chemical elements on weld bead that can
enhance joint properties. It also contributes in stabilizing arc, reducing spatter level,
etc.
 ARC AND WELD DEPOSIT

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is a high-speed, economical process that is

sometimes referred to as metal inert gas (MIG) welding. In this process, an arc is struck
between the base metal and a continuously supplied consumable electrode, which
provides filler metal for the weld. The electrode is bare, containing no coating or core.
The shielding, to protect the molten metal from reacting with constituents of the
atmosphere, is supplied by an external gas, usually containing one of a mixture of the
following: helium, argon, or carbon dioxide. A significant amount of fume can be
generated when welding with this process. Most of the fume generated during GMAW is
derived from the consumption of the electrode and not from the base metal.

Direct Current Reverse

Polarity (DCRP) in
welding
When electrode is connected with
positive terminal of the welding power
source (DC type) and base metals are
connected with the negative terminal, then the connection is termed as Direct
Current Reverse Polarity (DCRP). It is also called Direct Current Electrode
Positive (DCEP) as electrode is positive terminal. Therefore, electrons emit from
base plate (negative terminal) and flow towards the electrode (positive terminal)
through the small gap between them. Avalanche of flow of such electrons
ultimately constitutes the electric arc.

Advantages of DCEP polarity in arc welding

• Better arc cleaning action so less chance of inclusion defects.
• High volume deposition rate for consumable electrode, so faster welding.
• Better performance for welding thin plates. It reduces distortion level,
residual stress, complete cutting, etc.
• Suitable for joining metals with low melting points, such as copper and
aluminum.

Disadvantages of DCEP polarity in arc welding

• Shorter electrode life for non-consumable electrodes.
• Higher level of reinforcement if speed is not adjusted properly.
• Insufficient melting and incomplete penetration.
• Cannot fuse properly thick plates or metals having high melting point.

Direct Current Straight

Polarity (DCSP) in arc
welding
When base metals are connected with
positive terminal of the welding power
source (DC type) and electrode is connected
with negative terminal, then the connection
is termed as Direct Current Straight
Polarity (DCSP). It is also called Direct
Current Electrode Negative (DCEN) as electrode acts as negative terminal.
Therefore, electrons emit from the electrode (negative terminal) and flow towards
the base plate (positive terminal) through the small gap between them. Avalanche
of flow of such electrons ultimately constitutes the electric arc.
Advantages of DCEN polarity in arc welding
• Sufficient fusion of base metals and thus proper penetration can be
achieved.
• Less chance of tungsten inclusion (with TIG welding) and also low
reinforcement.
• Better choice for welding metals with high melting point, such as titanium,
stainless steel, etc.
• Thick plates can also be joined properly.

Disadvantages of DCEN polarity in arc welding

• No arc cleaning action so chances of inclusion defects.
• High distortion level.
• High residual stress generation at welded components.
• Broader heat affected zone (HAZ).
• Lower productivity due to lower deposition rate.
• Not suitable for welding thin plates.

Alternating Current
Polarity (AC)
In AC, the flow of electrons keeps
switching directions, going back and
forth. It can change its polarity 120
times per second. Every time the
polarity goes from DC negative to DC
positive, the output for a split second
has zero amperage. This no output
moment results in that the arc tends to
wander or extinguish. To overcome this
problem, look for electrodes specifically designed for AC welding. They have
special coating that keeps the arc ignited. However, the arc will still have more
fluctuation and flutter than on DC polarity.
Advantages of AC polarity in arc welding
• Moderate arc cleaning action.
• Compatible with most of the electrode types (but not all).
• Better fusion and weld metal penetration.
• Suitable for a wide range of plate thickness.

Current Setting
The voltage settings on a standard MIG welder determine the power used during the MIG welding
operation. There is always a necessary balance between voltage and wire feed speed. Especially
since the wire feed speed needs to increase as the voltage also increases or else the weld puddle
will not be adequately fed with filler material.

For thin materials you would start at the lowest voltage setting, and for thicker materials you
would increase the voltage accordingly. MIG welder machines are inherently consistent as long
as the base materials do not change too much. A welding operator could have a MIG welder
setting set for years if he or she does not change the type of material used.

Pro Tip: All MIG welders are different, and all welding applications are different. Once you find
your optimal weld setting for your MIG welder (for your specific application, write this down on
a paper and attach it to the side of your welder. This will save you from the headache which
happens when another operator uses your machine, or the machine gets bumped and your
settings are lost.

Shielding gases - are inert or semi-inert gases that are commonly used in several welding
processes, most notably gas metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding (GMAW and GTAW,
more popularly known as MIG (Metal Inert Gas) and TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas), respectively).
Their purpose is to protect the weld area from oxygen, and water vapors.
 Argon, helium, CO2, and oxygen are the most
common shielding gases used in GMAW. Each
gas has benefits and drawbacks in any given
application. Some gases are better suited than
others for the most commonly used base
materials, whether it’s aluminum, mild steel,
carbon steel, low-alloy steel, or stainless steel.
CO2 and oxygen are reactive gases, meaning
they affect what’s happening in the weld pool.
The electrons of these gases react with the weld
pool to produce different characteristics. Argon
and helium are inert gases, so they don’t react
with the base material or weld pool.
Pure CO2 provides very deep weld penetration, which is useful for welding thick material. But in
its pure form it produces a less stable arc and more spatter compared to when it’s mixed with other
gases. If weld quality and appearance are important, an argon/CO2 mixture can provide arc
stability, weld pool control, and reduced spatter.
So, which gases pair best with different base materials?
Aluminum. You should use 100 percent argon for aluminum. An argon/helium mix works well if
you require deeper penetration or a faster travel speed. Refrain from using an oxygen shielding gas
with aluminum because oxygen tends to run hot and adds a layer of oxidation.
Mild steel. You can pair this material with a variety of shielding gas options, including 100 percent
CO2 or a CO2/argon mix. As the material gets thicker, adding oxygen to an argon gas can help
with penetration.
Carbon steel. This material pairs well with 100 percent CO2 or a CO2/argon mix.
Low-alloy steel. A 98 percent argon/2 percent oxygen gas mix is well suited for this material.

Setting Gas Flow

The exact flow rate required for the certain job
will vary depending upon welding conditions.
This experiment will help you to determine
how those conditions effect the flow rate. You
will start by setting the shielding gas flow rate
at 35 cfh (16 L/min).

Turn on the shielding gas supply valve. If the supply

is a cylinder, the valve is opened all the way. With
the machine power on and the welding gun is switch
depressed, you are ready to set the flow rate. Slowly
turn in the adjusting screw and watch the float ball
as it rises in the tube on a column of gas. The faster
the gas flows, the higher the ball will float. A scale
on the tube allows you to read the flow rate.
Different scales are used with each types of gas
being used. Since various gases have different
densities (weights), the ball will float at varying
levels, even though the flow rate is the same. The
line corresponding to the flow rate may be read as
it compares to the top, center and bottom of the ball,
depending upon the manufacturer’s instructions.
There should be some marking or instruction on the
tube or regulator to tell the person how it should be
read.
Release the welding gun switch and the gas flow should stop. Turn off the power and spray the
hose fittings with a leak-detecting solution. When stopping for a period of time, the shielding gas
supply valve should be closed and the hose pressure released.
Types of Regulator used in Gas
Flow
Tank-Mount Pressure Regulating Valves
- These valves automatically reduce a high
inlet pressure from compressed gas tanks to
a lower, stable outlet pressure. All have
Compressed Gas
Association (CGA) numbered inlet fittings
for secure connections to compressed
gas tanks. Choose a valve with the same
CGA number as your tank and other
system components. Valves have a gauge to
monitor outlet pressure and a gauge to
monitor inlet pressure from the tank.
Single-stage valves reduce pressure in
one step, which causes the outlet pressure to
fluctuate slightly as you empty
the tank. They’re best for applications where
a constant outlet pressure isn’t critical.
Two-stage valves progressively reduce pressure over two steps for more consistent outlet pressure
at all times. They’re often used in applications that require a constant outlet pressure regardless of
the tank level.

Flow Meter Regulator - commonly

used in TIG welding where
gas flow/coverage is
a concern, these valves measure the
gas flow rate in addition to
regulating pressure. They
automatically reduce a high inlet
pressure from compressed gas tanks
to a lower, stable outlet pressure. All
have Compressed Gas
Association (CGA) numbered inlet
fittings for secure connections to
compressed gas tanks. Choose a
valve with the same CGA number as
your tank and other
system components. Valves have a
gauge to monitor the outlet flow rate
and a second gauge to monitor inlet
pressure from the tank. They are
single stage and reduce pressure in one step, which causes the outlet pressure to fluctuate slightly
as you empty the tank.
Valves with one flowmeter are for one
Two Stage Valves piece of equipment on a tank. The
flowmeter has a single scale.
Valve with two flowmeters lets you simultaneously run two pieces of equipment from
one tank. Both flowmeters have a dual scale.

Color Code of Industrial Gas Cylinder

Color coding is helpful in identification of gas cylinders and lines even by laymen provided they
are familiarized with such color codes. Almost all countries follow their own guidelines but efforts
have been made to prescribe universal color coding. British Compressed Gases Association
introduced cylinder identification and color-coding scheme through BS EN 1089 – 3 which has
been harmonized in the European Union. The colors used for medical gases are harmonized on the
basis of ISO 32 standard.
Why is this important:
▪ Wrong gas supplies being connected to instruments
▪ Storage of hydrogen or other combustible gases in vicinity of oxidant gases or storage in
poorly ventilated areas which can result in formation of combustible gas mixtures.
▪ Fixing of non-compatible gas regulators to the gas cylinders
▪ Unsafe gas handling like storing of non- compatible gases or allowing passage of such gases
in lines in vicinity of each other

Weld Joint Preparation

In this part on joint preparation we are going to learn how to prepare metal for welding so that
you can get the best weld possible.

Joint preparation is a more technical term used in the welding industry to describe how you prepare
metal for welding.

See, when you weld something you are usually welding two pieces of metal together to form a
joint. And unfortunately, many welders do very little if any joint preparation. It's very important
because it's crucial to achieving a good weld.
 If you don't do any joint preparation you will end up with 'tall' welds (meaning they are sticking
up more than they are getting closer to being flush with both pieces of metal), and on a more
serious note you may get poor fusion.

Fillet Weld in Tee Joint

A Tee joint is another joint that looks
the way it sounds. If you look at it from
a cross sectional view it looks like the
letter 'T'.

So, it basically where two pieces of flat

bar, plate, or whatever are at a right angle but not on the edge. If it was on the edge you would be
making more of a corner joint.

As you can see in right hand side image above there is weld on either side of it. To prepare this
Tee Joint you will bevel the edges, tack weld it on both sides, and then lay a bead on either side.
But there are occasions where you will only weld one side as you can see in the left-hand image.

• A regular Tee joint is

seen in Image A above.
This is a Tee joint that
does not require any prep.
Of course, you will clean
the base metal (both
pieces).
• Image B shows a
single joint bevel. This
will be used on heavier
sections and you will be
welding both sides.
• Image C is a joint that
has been beveled on both
sides, and both sides are welded as well. This type of preparation is for thick plates.
• Image D is what is called a sing J joint. You will weld both sides of this material but only bevel
one side of the joint.
• Image E is to be used on even heavier or thicker material and it is called a double j joint.

It is very important that you get good penetration. You want penetration to the root of your weld.
Butt Joint

You can prepare a butt joint by using

several different techniques including
using a flame, chipping, shearing,
cutting, and more. For most metal
preparation you will use a standard
grinder.

For welding light sheep metal 3/8 of an

inch to 1/2 inch plate you can use the single V groove joint or single U groove joint (in other
words, the beveled edges look like a V or a U in a cross section view.

When you are welding metals greater

than 3/16 inch in thickness, it is often
necessary to use a grooved butt joint.
The purpose of grooving is to give the
joint the required strength. When you
are using a grooved joint, it is
important that the groove angle is
sufficient to allow the electrode into
the joint; otherwise, the weld will lack penetration and may crack. However, you also should avoid
excess beveling because this waste both weld metal and time. Depending on the thickness of the
base metal, the joint is either single-grooved (grooved on one side only) or double-grooved
(grooved on both sides). As a welder, you primarily use the single-V and double- V grooved joints.

V-Groove on Butt Joint (Single V-Groove)

The single-V butt joint is
for use on plates 1/4 inch
through 3/4 inch in
thickness. Each member
should be beveled so the
included angle for the
joint is approximately 60
degrees for plate and 75
degrees for pipe.
Preparation of the joint
requires a special
beveling machine (or cutting torch), which makes it more costly than a square butt joint. It also
requires more filler material than the square joint; however, the joint is stronger than the square
butt joint. But, as with the square joint, it is not recommended when subjected to bending at the
root of the weld.
 GMAW Electrode
This is about MIG welding wire
selection. It covers most
electrodes that are commonly
used in the field for:

• Carbon steel
• Stainless steel
• Aluminum

Most Widely Used MIG

Welding Electrode Sizes

Typical MIG welding electrodes are a solid wire ranging from a thickness of .023 to .045. Some
are much thicker for heavy industrial applications. The most common sizes most welders use are:
• .023
• .030
• .035
• .045
For most fabrication shops the .035 with is the
most common. If you are a at home welder then
use a small diameter electrode whenever you
can. The smaller the electrode the less power
you need from your machine to run. Just
remember when it comes to MIG welding a
single electrode size welds a wide range of metal thicknesses because it is the machine set-up that
determines the metal thickness that will be welded.

Welding Carbon Steels and Mild Steels

• AWS Electrode Classification: ER70s-6
• Shielding Gas: C25 (25% Carbon Dioxide and 75% Argon) or 100% Co2

Welding Stainless Steel (Chromium x Nickel)

Stainless Steel Grades: 301, 302, 304, 305, and 308.

• AWS Electrode Classification: ER308L and ER308LSi

• Shielding Gas: C2 or 2% Carbon Dioxide and 98% Argon
Stainless Steel Grades: 309 Stainless and
Welding Carbon Steel to Stainless Steel or Low Alloy Steels

• AWS Electrode Classification: ER309L

• Shielding Gas: C2 or 2% Carbon Dioxide and 98% Argon
Stainless Steel Grades: 304,305, 308, 310, 312, 314, 316, 317, 321, 347 and 348.

• AWS Electrode Classification: ER316L and ER316LSi

• Shielding Gas: C2 or 2% Carbon Dioxide and 98% Argon

Welding Aluminum

Aluminum Grades: 2014, 3003, 3004, 4043, 5052, 6061, 6062 and 6063. It may also be used to
weld cast Aluminum grades 43, 214, 355 and 356.

• AWS Electrode Classification: ER4043

• Shielding Gas: 100% Argon
Aluminum Grades: 5050, 5052, 5056, 5083, 5086, 5154, 5356, 5454, 5456.

• AWS Electrode Classification: ER5356

• Shielding Gas: 100% Argon
Proper work angle, travel angle and movement

The proper welding gun or work angle, travel angle and MIG welding technique depends on the thickness
of the base metal and the welding position. Work angle is “the relationship between the axis of the
electrode to the welders work piece.” Travel angle refers to employing either a push angle (pointing in the
direction of travel) or a drag angle, when the electrode is pointed opposite of travel. (AWS Welding
Handbook 9th Edition Vol 2 Page 184).

Flat position

When welding a butt joint (a 180-degree

joint), the welding operator should hold the
MIG welding gun at a 90-degree work angle
(in relation to the work piece). Depending
on the thickness of the base material, push
the gun at a torch angle between 5 and 15
degrees. If the joint requires multiple passes,
a slight side-to-side motion, holding at the
toes of the weld, can help fill the joint and
minimize the risk of undercutting.
For T-joints, hold the gun at a work angle of
45 degrees and for lap joints a work angle
around 60 degrees is appropriate (15 degrees
up from 45 degrees).

Horizontal position

Because of the effects of gravity, the gun work angle must be dropped slightly by 0 to 15 degrees. Without
changing the work angle, the filler metal may sag or rollover on the bottom side of the weld joint. The
travel angle, whether using a push or a drag technique, generally remains the same as for a weld joint in
the flat position.
When making multi-pass welds on thick metal, or to bridge a slight gap where fit-up is poor, weave beads
may be used to fill a weld joint. A slight hesitation at the top toe of the weld helps prevent undercut and
ensure proper tie-in of the weld to the base metal.

Vertical position

Vertical welding, both up and down, can be difficult. This makes pre-weld set-up very important for
making high quality welds. Since you are fighting gravity, consider reducing the voltage and amperage
10 to 15 percent from the settings for the same weld in the flat position.
The vertical down technique helps when welding thin metals because the arc penetrates less due to the
faster travel speed. Because vertical down welding helps avoid excessive melt-through, welders sometime
place very thin materials in the vertical position even if they can weld them in the flat position. When
welding vertical down, begin at the top of a joint and weld down. For thin metal where burn-through is a
concern, direct the wire away from the weld puddle. Keep the electrode wire on the leading edge of the
weld puddle. A very slight weave may help flatten the weld crown.
The vertical up technique is beginning at the bottom of a joint and welding up. This can provide better
penetration on thicker materials (typically 1/4 inch or more). The travel angle of the gun is a 5 to 15 degree
drop from the perpendicular position. A slight weaving motion can help control the size, shape and cooling
effects of the weld puddle.

Overhead position

The goal when MIG welding overhead is to keep the molten weld metal in the joint. That requires faster
travel speeds and work angles will be dictated by the location of the joint. Maintain a 5 to 15-degree travel
angle. Any weaving technique should be kept to a minimum to keep the bead small. To gain the most
success, the welding operator should be in comfortable position in relation to both the work angle and the
direction of travel.

MIG Weld Forehand. vs. Back-Hand Welding?

There are two ways to MIG weld. The first and the most common is to push the MIG gun toward the
direction of the weld, this is called forehand method. Forehand welding produces shallow penetration
with a flat wide smooth surface.
The second is backhand method where you drag the MIG gun like a Stick welder. This produces a deep
penetration weld that is narrow and is high in the center. In most cases you will be forehand welding and
it is very rare to do backhand welding.
 Welding travel speed

Welding travel speed influences the shape and quality of a weld bead to a significant degree. Welding
operators will need to determine the correct welding travel speed by judging the weld pool size in relation
to the joint thickness.
With a welding travel speed that’s too fast, welding operators will end up with a narrow, convex bead
with inadequate tie-in at the toes of the weld. Insufficient penetration, distortion and an inconsistent weld
bead are caused by traveling too fast. Traveling too slow can introduce too much heat into the weld,
resulting in an excessively wide weld bead. On thinner material, it may also cause burn through.

Travel angle
Travel angle is defined as the angle relative to the gun in a perpendicular position. Normal welding
conditions in all positions call for a travel angle of 5 to 15 degrees. Travel angles beyond 20 to 25 degrees
can lead to more spatter, less penetration and general arc instability.

Work angle
Work angle is the gun position relative to the angle of the welding joint, and it varies with each welding
position and joint configuration.

Arc Length
It is the straight distance between the electrode tip and the job surface when an arc is formed.

There are three types of arc length

• Normal
• Long
• Short

Normal Arc Length

The correct arc length or normal arc length is

approximately equal to the diameter of the core wire of
the electrode.

Long Arc Length

If the distance between the tip of the electrode and the

base metal is more than the diameter of the core wire, it is
called ‘long arc’.
 Short Arc Length

If the distance between the tip of the electrode and the base metal is less than the dia. of the core wire, it
is called a ‘short arc’.

Effects of Long arc in Welding

• A long arc makes a humming sound

• The arc is unstable
• Causes oxidation of the weld metal.
• Fusion and penetration are poor.
• Poor control of the molten metal.
• Creates more spatters resulting in wastage of the electrode metal.

Effects of Short arc in Arc Welding

• It makes a popping sound.

• The electrode to melt slowly and try to freeze the job.
• Higher metal deposition with narrow width bead.
• Less spatters.
• Fusion and penetration is less.

Effects of Normal arc in Arc Welding

• A stable arc produces a steady sharp crackling sound

• Electrode burns evenly.
• Less spatters.
• Correct fusion and penetration.
• The size of metal deposition is correct.

Welding Current
The welding current also affects the weld penetration profile. Holding all other variables constant, as the
welding current increases the further the weld will penetrate into the base material. This increase in weld
penetration is seen in Welds 1-5, Figure 1. The driving force behind the fingerlike penetration in Welds
3-5 is that the metal transfer mode in the welding arc was spray metal transfer mode. This metal transfer
mode typically transitions from globular to spray mode transfer above approximately 190 amps of welding
current for certain metal and shielding gas combinations.
Figure 1: Cross Sectional View of Welds 1-5. Red outline better displays the penetration profile.
Figure 2: Topside View of Welds 1-5

Table 1: Welding Current Data

Welding Voltage

Welding voltage primarily controls the arc length which is the distance between the molten weld pool and
the wire filler metal at the point of melting within the arc. As the voltage is increased, the weld bead will
flatten out more and have an increasing width-to-depth ratio. Welds 7-11 in Figure 4 show this widening
of the weld beads as the voltage is increased. Table 2 shows the weld data for these welds.
Note that the penetration remained relatively constant for Welds 7-9. Despite the change in voltage, the
welding current did not change therefore weld penetration did not appreciably change. Welds 10 & 11
both exhibited an increase in fingerlike penetration as well as in increase in welding current. As the arc
length increases proportional to an increase in voltage, the electrode extension, distance from the contact
tip to the point where the welding wire is melting in the arc, consequently decreases.
As the electrode extension decrease so also does the resistance to the welding current flowing through that
portion of the wire. Using Ohm’s law and holding the voltage constant, the welding current would
consequently increase. The current was indeed increased and enough so to change the transfer mode from
globular to spray which is evidenced by the increase in fingerlike penetration. This phenomenon will be
further explained in the next blog that will look at the effect of the variables of contact to work distance
(CTWD).

Figure 4: Cross Sectional View of Weld 7-11. Red outline better displays the penetration profile.

Figure 5: Topside View of Welds 7-11

Table 2: Welding Voltage Data

Voltage
Increased voltage increases the arc length and gives a wider weld bead. Undercut is a sign of too high a
voltage. If short arc welding is used a higher voltage reduces the short circuit frequency, which will give
larger drops and more spatter. Too low a voltage, on the other hand, will increase the risk of stubbing and
problems in starting.
Short arc welding of thin plates allows a high welding speed without burn through. Normally the voltage
here is adjusted to a low setting but only where the short circuit frequency is still high and the arc stability
good.

Effect of Wire-Feed Speed

Set the wire feed speed. Wire speed controls amperage as well as the amount of weld penetration. A
speed that's too high can lead to burn-through. If a manual or weld specification sheet is not available, use
the multipliers in the following chart to find a good starting point for wire feed speed. For example, for
.030-inch wire, multiply by 2 inches per amp to find the wire feed speed in inches per minute (ipm).
The feed rate of the consumable electrode is determined based on the requirement of metal deposition at
the weld. In a constant voltage MIG/MAG welding setup, the wire feed rate is preset. The higher wire
feed rate enables the operator to join a weld with a higher part gap, also helping to increase the welding
speed [17]. The selection of wire feed rate is critical to avoid a lack of deposition or the supply of extra
material. With a higher wire feed rate, the higher current is required to increase the rate of deposition. The
increase of the wire diameter also requires higher current to maintain the constant arc length.

For wire size Multiply by Ex. using 1/8 inch (125 amps)
.023 inch 3.5 inches per amp 3.5 x 125 = 437.5 ipm
.030 inch 2 inches per amp 2 x 125 = 250 ipm
.035 inch 1.6 inches per amp 1.6 x 125 = 200 ipm
.045 inch 1 inch per amp 1 x 125 = 125 ipm
Wire feed speed/amperage too high: Setting the
wire feed speed or amperage too high (depending on
what type of machine you're using) can cause poor
arc starts, and lead to an excessively wide weld bead,
burn-through, excessive spatter and poor penetration.

Wire feed speed/amperage too low: A narrow,

oftentimes convex bead with poor tie-in at the toes
of the weld marks insufficient amperage.

Travel Speed
Travel speed is the rate at which the welding gun is moved in the direction of welding or along the weld
joint. With low travel speeds, the filler metal deposition is high and at very low speeds the welding arc
impinges on the molten pool rather than the workpiece. With increased travel speeds, the thermal energy
per unit length of weld transmitted first increases and then decreases. At very high speeds, there is
insufficient deposition of filler metal. Hence, with all other things being the same, the weld penetration is
maximum at some moderate speeds of the weld torch.

Travel speed too fast: A narrow, convex bead

with inadequate tie-in at the toes of the weld,
insufficient penetration and an inconsistent weld
bead are caused by traveling too fast.
 Travel speed too slow: Traveling too slow
introduces too much heat into the weld, resulting in
an excessively wide weld bead and poor penetration.
On thinner material it may also cause burn-through.

Material thickness determines amperage. As a guideline, each .001 inch of material thickness requires
1 amp of output: .125 inch = 125 amps.
Select proper wire size, according to amperage. Since you don't want to change wire, select one for
your most commonly used thicknesses.

• 30-130 amps: .023 inch

• 40-145 amps: .030 inch
• 50-180 amps: .035 inch
• 75-250 amps: .045 inch

Set the voltage. Voltage determines height and width of the bead. If no chart, manual or specifications
are available for setting the correct voltage, you can try this: While one person welds on scrap metal, an
assistant turns down the voltage until the arc starts stubbing into the workpiece. Then, start welding again
and have an assistant increase the voltage until the arc becomes unstable and sloppy. A voltage midway
between these two points provides a good starting point.

There is a relationship between arc voltage and arc length. A short arc decreases voltage and yields a
narrow, ropey bead. A longer arc (more voltage) produces a flatter, wider bead. Too much arc length
produces a very flat bead and the possibility of undercut.

Welding Current

The variable of welding current primarily controls the amount of weld metal that is deposited during
welding.

Note that as the electrode wire diameter is increased (while maintaining the same electrode wire-feed
speed), higher welding current is required. Also, higher welding current (with all the other variables being
kept constant) results in;
1.Higher deposition rates.
2.Increased depth and width of weld penetration.
3.Increased size of the weld bead.
Welding Defects
Are generated in a welding job due to the faulty or poor technique used by the inexperienced or unskilled
welder or due to fundamental difficulties in the welding operation. Here are some of the weld defects:

Incomplete Penetration - occurs when the Depth of the welded joint is sufficient. Penetration is defined
as the distance from the base metal top surface to the maximum extent of the weld nugget.
Causes of Incomplete penetration:
• Improper joints.
• Too large root face, root gape, and bevel gear.
• Wrong hold position of the electrode.
• Too large electrode diameter and longer arc
length.
• Less arc current and faster arc travel speed.
• Incorrect polarity while welding with DC.

Remedies of Incomplete penetration:

• Increasing the heat input.
• Reducing travel speed during welding.
• Ensuring that the surface to be joint fit
properly.
• Changing the joint design.

Excessive penetration - usually causes burn through. It is the result of too much heat in the weld area.
This can be corrected by:

• Reducing the wire-

feed speed and
increasing the speed
of travel.
• Making sure that the
root opening and root
face are correct.
• Increasing the stick-
out distance during
welding and weaving
the gun.

Whiskers - are short lengths of electrode wire sticking through the weld on the root side of the joint. They
are caused by pushing the electrode wire past the leading edge of the weld pool. Whiskers can be prevented
by:

• Reducing the wire-feed speed and the speed of travel.

• Increasing the stick-out distance and weaving the gun.
Voids - are sometimes referred to as wagon tracks because of their resemblance to ruts in a dirt road. They
may be continued along both sides of the weld deposit. They are found in multi-pass welding. Voids can
be prevented by:

• Avoiding a large contoured crown

and undercut.
• Making sure that all edges are
filled in.
• On succeeding passes, using
slightly higher arc voltage and
increasing travel speed.

Porosity is a group of small voids and blowholes are comparatively bigger isolated holes or cavities. The
most common defect in welds produced by any welding process is porosity. Porosity that exists on the
face of the weld is readily detected, but porosity in the weld metal below the surface must be determined
by x-ray or other testing methods. The causes of most porosity are:

1. Contamination by the atmosphere and other materials such as oil, dirt, rust, and paint.
2. Changes in the physical qualities of the filler wire due to excessive current.
3. Entrapment of the gas evolved during weld metal solidification.
4. Loss of shielding gas because of too fast travel.
5. Shielding gas flow rate too low, not providing full protection or drawing air into the arc area
6. Wrong type of shielding gas being used.
7. Gas shield blown away by wind or drafts.
8. Defects in the gas system.
9. Improper welding technique, excessive stick-out, improper torch angle, and too fast removal of
the gun and the shielding gas at the end of the weld.

Remedies of Porosity:
1. Proper selection of electrode and filler materials.
2. Improve welding techniques such as preheating of the weld area or an increase in the
3. rate of heat input.
4. Reducing welding speed to allow time for gas to escape.
5. Proper cleaning and the prevention of contaminants from entering the weld zone.
Undercutting - is a cutting away of the base
material along the edge of the weld. It may be
present in the cover pass weld bead or in
multi-pass welding. This condition is usually
the result of high current, high voltage,
excessive travel speed, low wire-feed speed,
poor torch technique, improper gas shielding
or the wrong filler wire. To correct
undercutting, move the gun from side to side
in the joint. Hesitate at each side before
returning to the opposite side.

Causes of Undercut:
• Wrong manipulation and inclination of
an electrode and excessive weaving.
• Too large electrode diameter.
• Longer arc.
• Faster arc travel speed.
• Magnetic arc blow.
• Higher current.

Remedies of Undercut:
• Use proper arc current, electrodes.
• Weaving should be proper and as per the requirement.
• Use proper arc travel speed.
Arc Blow
In some circumstances a welding arc may be deflected away from the point of welding, which can mean
that the weld quality may suffer. Such arc deflection, usually forward or backward of the welding
direction, is known as 'arc blow'.

Remedies of Arc Blow:

• Use as short an arc length as possible (lower arc voltage) and the lowest current that is practical
for the affected joint (possibly a smaller diameter electrode).
• Reduce the welding current - which may require a reduction in arc speed
• Angle the electrode with the work opposite the direction of arc blow,
• Make a heavy tack weld on both ends of the seam; apply frequent tack welds along the seam,
especially if the fit-up is not tight
• Weld toward a heavy tack or toward a weld already made
• Use a back-step welding technique.
• Weld away from the workpiece connection to reduce back blow; weld toward the workpiece
connection to reduce forward blow
• With processes where a heavy slag is involved, a small amount of back blow may be desirable;
to get this, weld toward the workpiece connection
• Wrap the work cable around the workpiece so that the current returning to the power supply
passes through it in such a direction that the magnetic field set up will tend to neutralize the
magnetic field causing the arc blow.

The direction of the arc blow can be observed with an open-arc process, but with the submerged arc
process it is more difficult to diagnose and must be determined by the type of weld defect.

Back blow is indicated by the following:

• Spatter
• Undercut, either continuous or intermittent
• Narrow, high bead, usually with undercut
• An increase in penetration
• Surface porosity at the finish end of welds on sheet metal

Forward blow is indicated by:

• A wide bead, irregular in width

• Wavy bead
• Undercut, usually intermittent
• A decrease in penetration

Control of Arc
Beginners will commonly have too long an arc length and too great a lead angle. Note that an excessive
rod lead angle will also increase the arc length.
Arc Length Too Short
This weld was laid with the end of the rod covered by the molten slag. The surface of the weld is uneven
where it has been dragged along by the rod, and the weld will be low on power and contain slag
inclusions.
Arc Length OK
A normal arc weld. The weld has a consistent profile and minimal spatter.
Arc Length Too Long
Too great a distance between the rod and the work will increase the voltage resulting in a flat and wide
weld with a great deal of spatter. It also makes the arc unstable, and the slag will be difficult to remove
from the edges of the weld. Sectioning this weld reveals undercutting to the left side.
Arc welding is a constant current process, but the arc length has an effect on voltage. Reducing the arc
length will decrease the voltage, and this reduces the heat in the weld. Increasing arc length will increase
the voltage.

Types of Welding Defects:

Welding defects are broadly classified into two categories, and those are:
External welding defects (Defects occur on the upper surface of the welded work).
Internal welding defects (Defects occur under the surface of the welded work).

Now External welding defects are classified into the following types:
Incorrect profile (Welding is not done properly).
Crater (A large Cavity occurs where electrode sparks continuous on a single point).
Cracks.
Spatter and surface porosity (On the welded parts there some drops occur).
Under Fill (Not filled completely).
Over Lap
Distortion (This occurs were not welded properly).

Internal welding defects are classified into the following category:

Blowholes and internal porosity.
Cracks.
Inclusions.
Lack of fusion.
Incomplete fusion.

Welding Position
The four basic welding positions are: flat, horizontal, vertical, and overhead.

The most common type of weld you will do is a Fillet weld and a Groove weld, and you can accomplish
these welds in all four positions. But you also do surface welds in all four positions as well, thought you
will not do this type of weld very often. There are numbers that are used to designate the type of welding
position and weld.

For example:
• 1 = Flat Position
• 2 = Horizontal Position
• 3 = Vertical Position
• 4 = Overhead Position

In addition, there are letters that designate the type of weld you will do in that position. For example:

• F = Fillet Weld
• G = Groove Weld

The Flat Position:

In the flat welding position, you will do your weld on the top side of your joint. But the actual face of your
weld will be in a near horizontal position. The common term for this kind of weld is called, 'flat position'
but it is also referred to as the 'down hand' position. The image on the left is a flat position fillet weld,
and the image on the right is a flat position groove weld example.

The Horizontal Position:

• In the Fillet Weld position, you will weld on the top side of the surface that is horizontal (or close to
it) and against a surface that is vertical (or close to it). See the illustration below.
• In the Groove Weld position the weld axis is in a horizontal plane (approximately), and the face of
the weld is on a vertical plane (approximately). See Image below.
Vertical Position:

The illustration image on the right is a vertical position fillet weld, and the image on the left is a
vertical position groove weld example. In the Vertical position welding the welds axis is almost
vertical. When welding pipe in the vertical position the pipes axis is vertical and you will be welding
in a horizontal position. The pipe might rotate, or not. It just depends. The actual weld bead picture
on the right is a vertical weld bead using a 7018-welding rod.

Overhead:

In the overhead welding position, you will do the welding beneath the joint. It's pretty self-explanatory.
The 4F illustration on the left is an overhead position fillet weld, and the illustration next to it is an
overhead position groove weld example.

Welding Position for Pipe Weld

1G Position
In the 1G welding position, the pipe is in the horizontal
position and can be rotated along the horizontal (X) axis.
The welder's position remains stationary. Welding is
performed on the top of the pipe. This is the most basic
welding position that can be performed.
 2G Position
In the 2G welding position, the pipe is in the vertical position and can be rotated
along the vertical (Y) axis. The welder's position remains stationary. Welding is
performed on the side of the pipe in a horizontal direction.

5G Position
In the 5G welding position, the pipe is in the
horizontal position. Unlike the 1G position, the pipe
is in a fixed position and it cannot be rotated. The
welder moves around the pipe in the vertical direction
to perform the welding.

6G Position
In the 6G welding position, the pipe slopes at
approximately 45° from the horizontal (X) axis or 45°
from the vertical (Y) axis. The pipe is in a fixed position,
so the welder must move around the pipe to perform the
welding. This is an advanced welding position that
requires a great deal of experience and technical expertise.

Welding Joint Design

A welding joint is a point or edge where two or more pieces of metal or plastic are joined together. They
are formed by welding two or more workpieces (metal or plastic) according to a particular geometry.
There are five types of joints referred to by the American Welding Society: butt, corner, edge, lap, and
tee. These configurations may have various configurations at the joint where actual welding can occur.
There are five different types of welded joints for bringing two parts together for joining.
Five types of welded joints are butt joint, corner joint, lap joint, tee-joint and edge joint.
• Lap Joint - Lap welding joints are used most often to joint two pieces with differing
thicknesses together. Also considered a fillet type, the weld can be made on one or both sides. A
Lap Joint is formed when 2 pieces are placed in an over lapping pattern on top of each other.
• Tee Joint - Tee welding joints are formed when two members intersect at a 90° angle which makes
the edges come together in the center of a plate or component. Tee Joints are considered a type of
fillet weld, and can also be made when a pipe or tube is welded onto a base plate. Extra care is
required to ensure effective penetration into the roof of the weld.
• Edge Joint - Edge welding Joints are often applied to sheet metal parts that have flanging edges
or are placed at a location where a weld must be made to attach to adjacent pieces. Being a groove
type weld, Edge Joints, the pieces are set side by side and welded on the same edge. For heavier
applications filler metal is added to melt or fuse the edge completely and to reinforce the plate.
• Corner Joint - Being one of the most popular welds in the sheet metal industry the Corner welding
joint is used on the outer edge of the piece. This weld is a type of joint that comes together at right
angles between two metal parts to form an L. These are common in the construction of boxes, box
frames and similar fabrications.
• Butt Joint - Being the universally accepted method for attaching a pipe to itself it’s also used for
valves, flanges, fittings, and other equipment. A butt-welding joint is also known as a square
grove weld. It’s the easiest and probably the most common weld there is. It consists of two flat
pieces that are side by side parallel. It’s a very affordable option.
Welding Inspection

Weld quality assurance is the use of technological methods and actions to test or assure the quality of
welds, and secondarily to confirm the presence, location and coverage of welds. In manufacturing, welds
are used to join two or more metal surfaces. Because these connections may encounter loads and fatigue
during product lifetime, there is a chance they may fail if not created to proper specification.

Two Types of Testing in Welding

Destructive Testing of Welds
Destructive test, some sort of the damage takes place in the component which is being tested, the extent
of damage may be more or less, but most of the time it is observed that component, which has been tested
by the destructive test is damaged to such as extent that it cannot be used for further, for the targeted
application
REASONS: Defects occur during welding which affect the quality and hardness of the plate, Other defects
occur through lack of knowledge of and skill of the welder and for the training of welders.
Types of Destructive Weld Testing
Tensile Testing - Tensile test is used to check how
the weld joint will perform under tensile loading
and under different environment. • Modulus of
elasticity, Yield strength Ultimate strength, kind of
the deformation at the different stages and the total
elongation of the weld joint, till the fracture. • Most
simple and common method.
 Bend Test - Bend
test is one of the most
important and
commonly used
destructive test to
determine, –
Ductility &, –
Soundness of the
welded joints in
terms of porosity,
inclusion,
penetration & other
macro size weld discontinuities. • The outside of the bend is extensively plastically deformed so that any
defects in, or embrittlement of, the material will be revealed by the premature failure of the coupon.
Hardness Test - It is resistance to indentation or penetration. Usually referred as a measure of resistance
to abrasion or scratch. • Due to application of heat in welding, materials like hard enable steels, cast iron
are subjected to hardening whereas materials like aluminum alloys (precipitation enabled) become softer.

Toughness Test - Toughness is the

ability of a material to resist both
fracture and deformation. • The
toughness test simulates service
conditions often encountered by
components of the system used in
transportation, agricultural, and
construction equipment. • Can be
determined by calculating energy
absorbed by material before fracture.
Fatigue Test - A fatigue test helps
determine a material’s ability to
withstand cyclic fatigue loading
conditions. By design, a material is
selected to meet or exceed service loads
that are anticipated in fatigue testing
applications. Cyclic fatigue tests produce repeated loading and unloading in tension, compression,
bending, torsion or combinations of these stresses. Fatigue tests are commonly loaded in tension – tension,
compression – compression and tension into compression and reverse.
Non – Destructive Testing
NDT process – nondestructive testing is the original term used to identify a method of inspection that does
not destroy a product usefulness. Current terms include nondestructive inspection (NDI) or nondestructive
evaluation or examination (NDE).

Visual Inspection: Looks for surface defects such as porosity, cracks, craters, and slag inclusions. Visual
inspection also looks for other issues that may not necessarily affect the integrity of the weld, but could
be costing the company money or could lead to a weld defect. These are under welding, over welding,
warping of parts (taking them out of tolerance), undercutting and improper fit up. Visual inspection is the
most widely used kind of non-destructive testing due to its low cost and can be done during and after
welding is done. The downside to using visual as the only inspection method is that we can only detect
surface defects. Items like internal porosity, internal cracks or lack of fusion cannot be detected.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE: Very good at detecting

surface discontinuities such as crack. This method uses
specialized equipment and supplies such as magnetic
powders. It is easier to use than radiographic testing and
lower cost, but as with visual it only detects surface
discontinuities. However, it will detect cracks that are
sometimes impossible to see with the naked eye. It also
requires a high degree of skill by the inspector.

RADIOGRAPHIC: This method can detect

microscopic internal flaws such as cracks, porosity,
blowholes, non-metallic inclusions, incomplete
root penetration and undercutting. When x-ray film
is created customers have a permanent test record
which can be used for traceability. Testing
equipment can cost several thousand dollars.
However, for companies in need of testing all
finished assemblies and not just procedure
qualification test pieces it is a relatively inexpensive
method. This method requires skill on the part of
the inspector in determining the right angles to
shoot the x-ray and also interpreting the film.

LIQUID PENETRANT: This method requires the

use of fluorescent or dye penetrants and
developers. It detects surface cracks that cannot be
seen with the naked eye. This method is used for leak
detection and it is especially advantageous when it is
not economically feasible to fill and assembly with
water or gas to test for leaks. A benefit over
magnetic particle is that it can be used on non-
magnetic materials such as aluminum. This testing
process is low cost and easy to carry out.
ULTRASONIC: Requires specialized
equipment. This method detects both surface and sub-
surface flaws which are not detected by other
methods. UT testing is very useful when you are
testing assemblies that are not suitable for x-ray
equipment. It does require a very high level of skill to
interpret readings and it does not create a permanent
record like radiographic provides.