### 4.

Political Institutions

Political institutions are formal structures that establish, maintain, and enforce laws and policies. They
include:

- **Executive Branch**: Responsible for implementing and enforcing laws. Includes presidents,
prime ministers, and monarchs.

- **Legislative Branch**: Makes laws and oversees the executive branch. Includes parliaments,
congresses, and assemblies.

- **Judicial Branch**: Interprets laws and resolves disputes. Includes courts and legal systems.

- **Electoral Systems**: Methods by which voters make choices among candidates for office.
Includes proportional representation, first-past-the-post, and mixed systems.

- **Checks and Balances**: Mechanisms to prevent the concentration of power. Includes

separation of powers (e.g., in presidential systems) and parliamentary oversight.

- **Comparative Analysis**:

- Variations across countries in terms of structure, powers, and relationships between branches.

- Evolution of political institutions in response to societal changes, technological advancements, and

international pressures.

Each of these topics provides a broad framework for understanding political science. Detailed
exploration can delve deeper into specific case studies, historical contexts, and contemporary debates
within each area.