1.

STUDY OF POLLEN GERMINATION

OBJECTIVE:
To study the pollen germination on slide.
REQUIREMENTS:
Fresh seasonal flowers, slide, coverslip, microscope, sucrose, boric acid, magnesium sulphate,
potassium nitrate, beakers etc.
PROCEDURE:
1. Prepare a nutrient solution by dissolving 10 g sucrose, 10 g boric acid, 30 mg magnesium sulphate
and 20 mg potassium nitrate in 100 ml of water.
2. Take a few drops of this solution on a clean slide and dust a few pollen grains from the stamen of
a mature flower on it.
3. Observe the slide in the microscope after 5 minutes and then observe it regularly for about half
an hour.
OBSERVATION:
In nutrient medium, the pollen grain germinate. The tube cell enlarges and comes out of the pollen
grain through one of the germ pores to form a pollen tube. The tube nucleus descends to the tip of
the pollen tube. The generative cell also passes into it. It soon divides into two male gametes. Each
male gamete is lenticular to spherical in outline.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Flowers should be freshly plucked.
2. Use clean slide to observe the pollen grains.
 2. STUDY OF ADAPTATIONS OF FLOWERS FOR POLLINATION
OBJECTIVE: To study the flowers adapted to pollination by different agencies (wind, insect and
birds).
REQUIREMENTS: Fresh flowers of Salvia/Ocimum and Brassica (mustard) forceps, hand lens,
slide, needle etc.
PROCEDURE: Place the given flower on a slide and observe it with the help of hand lens. Note
down the adaptations of the flowers meant for pollination by the external agencies. Maize Flowers
(Anemophilous or Wind Pollinated Flowers) The flowers of maize show following adaptations for
pollination by wind.
1. The maize plant is monoecious and bears unisexual flowers. The male flowers are born in terminal
inflorescence while the female flowers are born in axillary inflorescence.
2. Flowers are small and inconscipicous.
3. The flowers are colourless, odourless and nectar less.
4. Flowers are produced above the foliage or placed in hanging position.
5. Both the stigmas and anthers are exerted (i.e., hang outside the perianth).
6. Anthers are versatile, and pollen grains are light, small and dusty.
7. The pollen grains are produced in very large numbers.
8. Stigma is hairy, feathery or branched to catch wind born pollen grains.

Salvia Flowers (Entomophilous or Insect Pollinated Flowers):

The flowers of Saliva show following adaptations for pollination by insects.
1. The flowers are showy or brightly coloured for attracting pollinating insects.
2. The flowers are born in verticellaster inflorescence to become conspicuous.
3. Flowers secrete nectar to feed visiting insects. Nectar glands are placed in such a position that an
insect must touch both the anthers and stigmas.
4. The flowers have landing platform for the insects.
5. The flowers are protandrous with bilipped corolla and have turn pipe or lever mechanism.
6. Each stamen has long connective which bears a fertile anther lobe at the upper end and sterile
plate like anther lobe at the lower end. The two sterile anther plates block the path of insect.
7. As the insect moves inward a young flower in search of nectar, its head pushes, the anther plates
and forces the fertile anther lobes to strike against its back.
8. In older flowers the style brings the stigma in such a position that it brushes against the back of
insect and collect pollen grains brought by the insect from a young flower.
 3. STUDY OF POLLEN GERMINATION AND GROWTH OF POLLEN TUBE
OBJECTIVE: To study the pollen germination and growth of pollen tube in a pollinated pistil (in
Portulaca /grass or any other suitable flower).
REQUIREMENTS: Fresh pollinated flowers of Portulaca/grass or any other suitable flower, glass
slide, coverslip, needles, forceps, brush, dropper, safranin, glycerine, petridish, water, blotting
paper, microscope etc.
PROCEDURE
1. Take out the pollinated carpel from the flower of Portulaca/grass or any other suitable flower and
place it on a glass slide in a drop of water. Gently tease it with the help of needles or pick up the
carpel from the flower and cut a longitudinal section of it. Place the section on a glass slide in a drop
of water.

2. Pour a drop of safranin on the teased carpel or its section and wash it with water.
3. Put a drop of glycerine and cover the teased carpel or its section with coverslip. Remove the extra
glycerine with blotting paper. Observe the preparation under the high power of microscope and
draw the diagrams of different stages of pollen germination.
OBSERVATION: Different stages of germinating pollens are observed in the stigma and style
regions of the carpel. Some pollens are in their initial stage of germination others have quite long
pollen tube containing tube nucleus and two male nuclei.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Only pollinated carpels should be selected for the experiment.
2. Teasing should be done gently, so that the pollen tubes are not ruptured.
3. Excess of glycerine/water should be removed by blotting paper.
 4. STUDY OF GAMETE DEVELOPMENT IN MOUSE/ GRASSHOPPER
OBJECTIVE:
To study and identify the stages of gamete development in mouse (mammal) i.e., T.S. of testis and
L.S. of ovary through permanent slide.
REQUIREMENTS:
Permanent slide of T.S. of testis and L.S. of ovary, microscope.
PROCEDURE:
Fix the permanent slide under the microscope. First observe it under the low power and then under
high power.
OBSERVATIONS:
T.S. of Testis
1. The testis of a mouse (mammal) is covered by a thick fibrous tissue called tunica albuginea.
2. The testis consists of numerous seminiferous tubules embedded in the interstitial tissue.
3. Various types of germinal cells are present from outside towards lumen in the following
sequence.
Spermatogonia → Spermatocytes → Spermatids → Spermatozoa → Sperms.
4. Between the germinal cells, pyramid shaped cells called sertoli cells are present.
5. A large number of spermatozoa with their heads embedded in sertoli cells are present in the
lumen of seminiferous tubule.
6. The interstitial tissue also contain leydigs cells, which produce male sex hormone testosterone.

V.S. OF OVARY
1. A mouse ovary is a solid structure bounded by germinal epithelium followed by a thick layer of
fibrous tissue, the tunica albuginia.
2. The ovary consists of outer cortex and inner medulla.
3. The medulla contains many rounded or oval bodies called ovarian or Graafian follicles at various
stages of development.
4. The medulla also contains blood vessels, nerves fibres and some smooth muscles.
5. Each follicle contains a large ovum surrounded by many layers of follicle cells.
6. The cortex contains young and mature follicles.
7. The cortex may also contain a large mass of yellow cells termed corpus luteum, formed in an
empty Graafian follicle after the release of its ovum.
PRECAUTIONS
1. First observe the slide under low power and then under the high power of the microscope.
2. Use fine adjustment of the microscope for focussing the slide under high power.
 5. STUDY OF MEIOSIS IN ONION BUD CELL
OBJECTIVE:
To study meiosis in onion bud cells through permanent slide.
REQUIREMENTS:
Permanent slide of different stages of meiosis in onion bud cells, microscope.
PROCEDURE:
1. Fix the permanent slide under the microscope.
2. First observe the slide under the low power and then under high power of the microscope.
OBSERVATIONS
Under the high power of microscope, following stages of meiosis are distinctly observed:
A. MEIOSIS I
1. Prophase I. It is of long duration and has five sub stages:
(A) LEPTOTENE
(i) Chromatin fibres condense and form thick thread like structures called chromosomes.
(ii) Nuclear envelop and nucleolus are distinct.
(B) ZYGOTENE
(i) Homologous chromosomes form pairs called bivalent. This pairing is called synapsis.
(ii) The individual of a pair are similar in length and in position of their centromere.
(C) PACHYTENE
(i) The two chromatids of each chromosome become visible, so that a bivalent becomes a tetrad.
(ii) Crossing over (exchange of chromatid segments between homologous chromosomes) takes
place between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes.
(D) DIPLOTENE
(i) The two chromosomes of each bivalent move away and homologues are held together at one or
more points called chiasmata.
(E) DIAKINESIS
(i) Homologous chromosomes appear thick and ring shaped.
(ii) Nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear and spindle begins to be formed.
2. METAPHASE I
(i) The bivalent (homologous chromosomes) arrange themselves at the equator of the spindle.
(ii) The spindle get attached to the centromere of the chromosome.
3. ANAPHASE I
(i) The two chromosomes of each bivalent move to the opposite pole.
(ii) Each pole has half the number of chromosomes with two chromatids each.
4. TELOPHASE I
(i) The chromosome at each pole uncoil, and nucleolus and nuclear envelope reappear.
(ii) Cytokinesis occurs to form two haploid daughter cells.
INTERKINESIS
A very short interphase may intervene between meiosis I and meiosis II.
B. MEIOSIS II
It includes following four stages:
1. PROPHASE II
(i) The chromosomes of daughter cell begin to condense and become thick.
(ii) Nuclear envelope and nucleolus begin to disappear.
2. METAPHASE II
(i) The chromosomes are arranged on the equator of the spindle.
(ii) Each chromosome is held by the spindle at the centromere to both the poles.
3. ANAPHASE II
(i) The sister chromatids (daughter chromosomes) of each chromosomes separate and migrate
towards the opposite poles.
(ii) Each pole, thus receives haploid number of chromosomes.
4. TELOPHASE II
(i) The chromosomes begin to uncoil and become thin.
(ii) The nuclear envelope and nucleolus are reconstituted. Cytokinesis occurs and four daughter
cells are formed, each with haploid number of chromosomes.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Floral buds should be fixed between 8 to 10 A.M.
2. Slide should be warmed gently to avoid overheating.
 6. STUDY OF MEIOSIS IN GRASSHOPPER TESTIS
OBJECTIVE:
To study meiosis in grasshopper testis through permanent slide.
REQUIREMENTS:
Permanent slide of different stages of meiosis in grasshopper testis, microscope.
PROCEDURE:
1. Fix the permanent slide under the microscope.
2. Observe the slide under the low power of the microscope and then high power of the microscope.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Spherical cells with various stages of meiosis can be observed.
2. Locate different stages of meiosis with the help of diagram.

Various stages of meiosis in grasshopper testis.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Grasshopper should be dissected from dorsal side.
2. Preserved testis should be properly washed before use.
3. Do not heat the testis tubules.
4. Proceed for squash preparation only when testis has taken sufficient stain.
 7. STUDY OF BLASTULA
OBJECTIVE:
To study T.S. of blastula through permanent slide.
REQUIREMENTS:
Permanent slide of blastula, microscope.
PROCEDURE:
Fix the slide of T.S. of blastula under microscope. First observe the slide under low power and then
under high power of the microscope.

OBSERVATIONS
1. It is a spherical mass of about sixty four cells.
2. It is composed of an outer envelope of cells, the trophoblast or trophoectoderm and inner cell
mass (= embryoblast).
3. Within the envelope there is a fluid filled cavity called blastocoel.
4. The side of the blastocyst to which the inner cell mass is attached is called the embryonic or
animal pole, while the opposite side is the abembryonic pole.
5. The inner cell mass is the precursor of the embryo.
PRECAUTIONS
1. First focus the slide under low power and then under the high power of the microscope.
2. Use fine adjustment while focussing the slide under high power of the microscope.
 8. EXERCISE ON CONTROLLED POLLINATION
OBJECTIVE:
To comment on the exercises of hybridization (emasculation, tagging and bagging) through
models/charts.
1. EMASCULATION
IDENTIFICATION: FORCEPS OR SCISSORS METHOD OF EMASCULATION.
Comment
(i) This method is employed in the crops having flowers of sufficiently large size lint cotton.
(ii) The instrument used in this method include pocket lens, forceps, needle, scissors, scalpel, camel
hair brush etc.
(iii) In this process anthers are removed from the flowers before their maturation.
(iv) The anthers are cut with the help of sterilized forceps or scissors.

Forceps or scissors method of emasculation.

Identification. Hot or cold water and alcohol emasculation.
Comments
(i) This method of emasculation is employed the crops having small flowers like paddy, sorghum
etc.
(ii) In this method the penicles (clusters of flowers) are dipped in hot water
(40°C–45°C) for 1–10 minutes to kill the anthers.
(iii) In the same way emasculation is done with cold water or alcohol.

2. IDENTIFICATION. BAGGING, TAGGING AND LABELLING.

Comment
(i) After emasculation, the flowers are covered with small bags to prevent pollination with
undesired pollen grains.
(ii) These bags are made up of polythene, paper, muslin cloth or parchment paper.
(iii) The bags are punctured or made perforated so as to provide aeration to the flowers.
(iv) The flowers of male parents are also protected in bags to prevent mixing of their pollen grain
with foreign pollens.
(v) After dusting of the desired pollen grains on the emasculated flowers, the bags are retagged.
(vi) A label of paper is tagged on the plant which displays the date of emasculation, crossing and
brief account of the parents.
OBJECTIVE: To isolate DNA from available plant material - banana
REQUIREMENTS: Plant material banana, mortar and pestle, beakers, test tubes, liquid detergent, non-
iodised sodium chloride, distilled water, 95% ethanol, spool etc.
PROCEDURE:
Take a small piece of banana and grind it in a mortar with a little amount of water and sodium chloride.
Make it into a solution and filter it.
To this filtrate, add liquid soap solution or any detergent solution and mix it with a glass rod.
Then tilt the test tube and add chilled ethanol and leave it aside in the stand.
After half-an-hour we can observe the precipitated DNA as fine threads.
DNA that separates can be removed by spooling DNA that separates can be removed by spooling
OBSERVATION:
DNA appears as white precipitate of very fine threads on the spool.

INFERENCE:
Thus DNA can be isolated from the plant cell nucleus by this technique.
PRECAUTIONS:
All the glass wares must be thoroughly cleaned and dried.
The chemicals used for the experiments must be of standard quality.
If ordinary ethanol is used, the time duration for obtaining precipitated DNA may extend further.
 STUDY OF COMMON DISEASE CAUSING ORGANISMS
Aim: To study on COMMON DISEASE CAUSING ORGANISMS by observing permanent slides or by
studying the preserved specimen
1. Entamoeba
Indentification.
Entamoeba histolytica.
Disease caused. Amoebiasis or Amoebic dysentry
Comments
1. It is a human parasite that resides in the upper part of the large intestine.
2. It causes the disease called amoebic dysentry or amoebiasis.
3. The symptoms of the diseases include abdominal pain, repeated motions with blood and mucus. 4.
The parasite is unicellular and has one pseudopodium.
5. There is a single nucleus and a number of food vacuoles.
6. It feeds on red blood corpuscles by damaging the wall of large intestine and reaching the blood
capillaries.

2. Plasmodium
Identification.
Plasmodium vivax (Malarial Parasite)
Disease caused. Malaria
Comments
1. Plasmodium enters human body in sporozoite stage by the bites of female Anopheles mosquito. 2.
The sporozoite is spindle shaped and uninucleate organism capable of wriggling movement.
3. The sporozoites infect liver cells and produce cryptomerozoites. The later enter new liver cells and
produce metacryptomerozoites.
4. The metacryptomerozoites enter RBCs and passes trophozoite signet ring stage and amoeboid stage
and produce schizont and merozoites.
5. The merozoites enter fresh RBCs and produce gametocytes.
6. The gametocytes reach into mosquito stomach, when the later sucks the blood of infected human
host.
7. The gametocytes produce male and female gametes in the stomach of mosquito.
8. The male and female gametes fuse to form zygote. The later becomes worm like called ookinete,
which penetrate in the wall of stomach and form oocyst.
9. The oocyst produce sporozoites which are released in the haemocoel of the mosquito and reach into
the salivary gland and make the mosquito infective.

3. Ascaris
Identification. Ascaris lumbricoides (The giant intestinal roundworm)
Disease caused. Ascariasis.
Comments
1. It is an endoparasite of the small intestine of human beings and is more common in children.
2. The animal shows sexual dimorphism. The female is longer than the male.
3. The posterior end of the male is curved ventrally.
4. In female, the genital aperture is present on the mid-ventral line at about one third of the length from
the anterior end.
5. In male from the cloaca two equal chitinous spicules or pineal setae project which help in copulation.
4. Microsporum
Identification. Microsporum andouini
Disease caused. Ring worm of scalp in children or Dermatomycosis.
Comment
1. The fine mycelium of the fungus occurs in break in the dermis.
2. It infects hair, where hyphae emerge from the sheath and grow up and down them.
3. The hyphae in the hair put out to the surface fine filaments on which spores are born.
4. The spores are very small and are produced in great numbers. They are readily detached and spread
infection.

PLANT POPULATION & FREQUENCY

AIM: To study plant population density by the quadrat method.
REQUIREMENTS: Metre scale, string or cord, nails, hammer, paper, pencil etc.
Procedure
 In the selected site of study, hammer the nails firmly without damaging the vegetation.
 Fix four nails to make a square.
 Tie each end of the nails using a thread, to make a 1 m X 1 m quadrat.
 Similarly make 3 more quadrats randomly in the site of study.
 Count the number of individuals of a species “A” present in the first quadrat.
 Record the data in the table.
 Similarly count the number of individuals of the species “A” in other quadrats respectively and
record the data in the table.
 Count the number of individuals of a species “B” present in the all quadrat.
 Record the data in the table.
 Repeat the same procedure for species C, D and record the data in the table.
 We can calculate the density of plant population by this equation:
 Density =Total number of individuals of the species in all the sampling unit (S) / Total number of
sampling units studied (Q)
OBSERVATIONS:
Record the total number of species seen in the ten quadrats. This will give an idea about the
composition of the vegetation. There will be difference in the species composition in the quadrats made
in shady areas, exposed areas with bright sunlight, dry or wet areas etc.

Plant Number of Total Number Total Number Density

Species individuals in Each of Individuals of Quadrats D=(S/Q)
quadrats (S) Studied (Q)
I II III IV
A 4 0 2 2 8 4 8/4=2
B 3 3 0 2 8 4 8/4=2
C 2 1 3 4 10 4 10/4=2.5
D 1 2 3 4 10 4 10/4=2.5
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The measurement of quadrats should be accurate.
2. The string or cord used should not be very thick.
3. One individual of a species should be counted only once in the quadrat.
AIM: To study plant population frequency by quadrat method.
REQUIREMENTS: Metre scale, string or cord, nails, hammer, paper, pencil etc.
PROCEDURE:
 In the selected site of study, hammer the nails firmly in the soil without damaging the vegetation.
 Fix four nails to make a square.
 Tie each end of the nails using a thread, to make a 1 m X 1 m quadrat.
 Similarly, make 3 more quadrats randomly in the site of study.
 Select the plant species for study of the population frequency.
 Observe the presence of species “A” in the first quadrat and mark it in the table.
 Similarly, check for the presence of species “A” in other quadrats respectively and record the
data in the table.
 Observe the presence of species “B” in all quadrats and mark it in the table.
 Repeat the same procedure for species C, D and record the data in the table.
 We can calculate the frequency of plant populations by this equation:
 Percentage Frequency=(Number of sampling units in which the species occurs)/(Total number of
sampling units employed for the study)*100

OBSERVATIONS:

Percentage
Plant Quadrats employed in Number of quadrats in which
Frequency
Species the study the species is present (N)
F=N/Q*100
I II III IV
A Ab Ab P P 2 2/4X100 = 50 %
B P P P Ab 3 3/4X100 =75%
C Ab Ab Ab P 1 1/4X100 = 25%
D P P P P 4 4/4X 100 = 100%

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The measurement of quadrats should be accurate.
2. The string or cord used should not be very thick.
3. One individual of a species should be counted only once in the quadrat.
To study homology and analogy with the help of models/charts of animals and
models/charts/specimens of plants - Science Practicals

Aim
To study homology and analogy with the help of models/charts of animals and
models/charts/specimens of plants.

Theory
In animals, organs that are functionally dissimilar but anatomically, or structurally, similar are called
homologous organs. Different modes of life have created the differences, i.e, modified the organs to
enable them to survive. Analogous organs are those which are functionally similar but structurally
dissimilar.

Materials Required
Models/charts of animals and models/charts/specimens of plants.

Observations

(i) Homologous Organ

By externally examine the wings of the flying mammal bat and the forelimb of a man, no similarity is
found. But after examining the bones one by one, it is found that each of them has arm bone
(humerus), hand bones (radius-ulna), wrist bones (carpals), palm bones (metacarpals), and fingers
(phalanges). Of course, in terms of proportions of growth of each constituent bone, there are
differences.
For example, the fingers of bat are much longer while the comparative study suggests is that basically
the forelimbs of these two creatures are made up of the same parts, that is, they are anatomically
similar. These organs need not perform the same function, as you see that bat uses it for flying and
man uses it for handling tools. Hence, the forelimb of man and the wing of bat are homologous
organs. Similarly, forearms of cat and man are homologous.

(ii) Analogous Organ

The internal structure of the wings of butterfly, its preserved specimen, the shape and size are
observed. It is found that it is membranous and is made up of thin cuticle.
There are veins in the wing but there is no skeleton.
The wings of the preserved specimen of a bat and a bird are examined. Skeletal support is found.
It shows that the basic structures of wings of butterfly, bird and bat are different. In other words, they
are anatomically different, although externally they look alike. Wings in these animals are used for
flying. Such organs that differ anatomically and in embryonic mode of origin but perform similar
function are said to be analogous organs.