36 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION, VOL. 3, NO.
1, MARCH 2017
Overview of Electric Turbocharger and
Supercharger for Downsized Internal
Combustion Engines
Woongkul Lee, Student Member, IEEE, Erik Schubert, Yingjie Li, Student Member, IEEE,
Silong Li, Student Member, IEEE, Dheeraj Bobba, Student Member, IEEE,
and Bulent Sarlioglu, Senior Member, IEEE
Abstract— Forced induction uses otherwise wasted exhaust
gases to improve the volumetric efficiency of an engine allowing
for higher thermodynamic efficiency. As the fuel economy and
greenhouse gas emission standards are projected to be much
more stringent globally, the use of a forced induction engine
in passenger cars and light duty trucks has become a new
trend in automotive industry. The aerodynamic matching of
an exhaust driven turbocharger is a compromise of transient
response at low exhaust energy levels and power targets on high.
The trend toward highly boosted downsized engines results in
larger aerodynamic matches compromising responsiveness on
the low side, known as turbo lag. The electrification of FIS
[electric FIS (EFIS)] has emerged as a feasible solution, and it
also possesses numerous benefits depending on its topologies. This
paper provides a comprehensive study on the EFIS by investigat-
ing system level topologies, performance, various types of high-
speed machines, power electronics, and control techniques. The
advantages and disadvantages of existing EFIS are summarized,
and the new challenges and opportunities are also introduced.
Index Terms— Electrically assisted turbocharger (EAT), forced
induction system (FIS), high-speed machine, hybrid electric
vehicles (HEVs), turbocharger.
I. I NTRODUCTION
T HE use of an internal combustion engine (ICE) using
liquid-transportation fuel will presumably continue to
hold a major role over the next few decades [1]. However, there
are still significant challenges of improving fuel efficiency and
reducing emissions, considering the rapid growth of environ-
mental concerns. According to the most recent research report
from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, transportation
is the second largest source (34%) of carbon dioxide (CO2 )
emission in USA followed by the electricity generation (40%).
Out of the transportation sector, light duty vehicles (passenger
cars and light duty trucks) are responsible for almost 60% and
medium and heavy duty vehicles take up 23% [2]. It clearly
indicates that the improvement of fuel economy and the reduc-
Manuscript received June 17, 2016; revised August 30, 2016; accepted
September 24, 2016. Date of publication October 21, 2016; date of current
version March 3, 2017.
The authors are with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engi-
neering, WisconsinElectric Machines and Power Electronics Consortium,
University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53706 USA (e-mail:
sarlioglu@wisc.edu).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TTE.2016.2620172
2332-7782 © 2016 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
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tion of CO2 emission in road vehicles can have a significant
impact on the conservation of the global environment.
Recently, the regulatory authorities around the world have
established unprecedentedly high fuel economy and CO2
emission standards. For instance, USA and Canada are tar-
geting 56.2 miles per gallon (mpg) by 2025, which is 50%
higher than that of 2015. The EU introduced the 56.9 mpg
target by 2020 as well as South Korea. Japan has already
exceeded its 2020 statutory target as of 2013 and achieved
45.9 mpg, which is the highest among other countries [3].
China, India, Mexico, and Brazil also proposed or estab-
lished new fuel economy and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission
standards.
Over the past few years, the automotive industry has
introduced a number of new technologies to meet these new
regulations, such as integration of lightweight material, idle
stop and go, energy regenerative braking systems, engine
downsizing with a forced induction system (FIS), and hybrid
or battery electric vehicles [4], [5]. Amongst these recent
technologies, the engine downsizing with an FIS is gaining
popularity as a viable solution. Compared with a conventional
non-EFIS (NFIS), the newly introduced EFIS has several
benefits including the following:
1) improved transient response (reduced turbo lag);
2) improved engine output power;
3) energy regenerative capability;
4) applicable to fuel cell vehicles.
This paper reviews the NFIS and the EFIS in terms of power
level, operating speed range, performance, types of high-
speed machines, topologies, and mechanical and electrical
issues. It begins with the overview of the fundamental NFIS
and EFIS followed by the investigation and comparison of
various high-speed machines. As high-speed electric machine
technologies are becoming more mature than ever, there are
new techniques applicable to the EFIS that have not yet
been discussed in the previous EFIS research papers. This
paper also introduces challenges and opportunities in the EFIS
technology from both electrical and mechanical engineering
perspectives.
LEE et al.: OVERVIEW OF ELECTRIC TURBOCHARGER AND SUPERCHARGER FOR DOWNSIZED INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 37

II. OVERVIEW OF N ONELECTRIC AND E LECTRIC F ORCED

I NDUCTION S YSTEM
A. Advantages of Air Pressure Boosting
The ICE indicated power can be estimated by
   
ṁ f Ve
Pengine = ρim ηv ηth ηcomb Q fuel_LHV N (1)
ṁ a nR
the air density is
pim
ρim = (2)
Rspecific Ta
and the engine swept volume can be calculated by
Fig. 1. Torque restoration with turbocharging for downsized engine
Ve = n Ac L (3) (NA-naturally aspirated) [9].
where
Pengine engine indicated power; Turbocharger market has been growing rapidly, and sales
ρim air density in the intake manifold; of turbocharged vehicles are expected to grow up to 47% by
ηv volumetric efficiency; 2020 [10]. Ford Motor Company has been investing in the
ηth thermal efficiency; development of gasoline turbocharged direct injection engine
ηcomb combustion efficiency; technology with the Department of Energy since 2010 [11].
ṁ f fuel mass flow rate; The new type of engine marketed as EcoBoost achieves 25%
ṁ a air mass flow rate; total fuel economy improvement while satisfying the GHG
Q fuel_LHV mass specific lower heating value of the fuel; emission standard. General Motors has also been developing
N crankshaft rotational speed; a downsized engine with turbocharger called ECOTEC since
Ve engine swept volume; 2000 [12]. Nissan Motor unveiled a three-cylinder 1.2-L
nR number of crank revolution per power stroke; engine with a supercharger, which can deliver the output
N number of cylinders; power equivalent to that of a 1.5-L engine [13]. Volkswagen
Ac cylinder area; released a four-cylinder 1.4-L turbocharged engine to replace
L stroke length; its conventional four-cylinder 2.0-L NA engine and improved
pim intake manifold air pressure; fuel economy by 13% [14].
Rspecific specific gas constant for dry air;
Ta absolute air temperature. B. Nonelectric-Forced Induction System
In general, an NFIS can be classified into two types
In the past, the FIS was mainly utilized in high-performance depending on the energy source for driving a compressor: an
gasoline engine or diesel engine vehicles for the purpose of exhaust-driven turbocharger and a crank-driven supercharger.
boosting the engine power in (1) by compressing inlet air A conventional single stage turbocharger consists of a turbine
to increase air pressure and density in (2). More recently, and a compressor directly coupled together through a shaft
automotive manufacturers are paying more attention to the as shown in Fig. 2(a). Since exhaust gas from an ICE is
use of the FIS with a downsized engine or a hybrid electric the only energy source to drive the turbine and the coupled
vehicle (HEV) for improving the fuel economy while reducing compressor, this topology suffers from the slow mechanical
the GHG emission. In general, the downsized ICE with a response and low efficiency especially when the engine speed
turbocharger performs more efficiently with lower fuel con- is low [4]. Also, a wastegate valve must be employed to
sumption and emission [6]–[8]. prevent turbine overspeed, which results in a potential waste
A turbocharger compresses the inlet air charge [which of energy. To solve these issues, several different approaches
increases air pressure and volumetric efficiency in (2)] by have been introduced, such as multiple staged turbocharg-
deriving energy from the exhaust gas, which is otherwise ers [regulated two-stage turbocharger in Fig. 2(c)], twin
wasted. It helps to downsize ICE by reducing the cylinder charger [combination of a turbocharger and a supercharger in
area, Ac , and stroke length, L, or the number of cylinders, n, Fig. 2(d)], sequential turbocharger [in Fig. 2(e)], low-inertia
in (3), while producing engine output power similar to that of rotating components, variable geometry turbine, active control
a higher displacement naturally aspirated (NA) engine. turbocharger, control of valve timings and fuel injection, and
A typical family car engine with 2.0-L displacement volume adopting external energy sources to enhance air supply [5].
has the peak engine torque of 220 Nm and brake mean effec- A supercharger is directly connected to a crankshaft of
tive pressure (BMEP) value of 13.5 bar as shown in Fig. 1. an ICE with a belt or chain so that the engine becomes
If the swept volume of this engine is reduced by 40% (1.2 L), the energy source for driving the compressor as shown in
the engine will deliver the torque of 132 Nm at the similar Fig. 2(b). Typically, the supercharger can be classified into
BMEP of 13.5 bar. To restore the initial torque of 220 Nm, the three different types depending on the methods of gas transfer
BMEP should be increased by 70% (23 bar) using the FIS [9]. or compression: roots, twin screw, and centrifugal. Roots and

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38 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION, VOL. 3, NO. 1, MARCH 2017

Fig. 2. Schematic layout of the NFIS topologies. Black line—air flow path with valve. Blue line—engine inlet air flow. Red line—exhaust gas flow.
(a) Single-stage turbocharger. (b) Mechanical supercharger. (c) Regulated two-stage turbocharger (d) Low-pressure turbocharger with high-pressure mechanically
driven supercharger with bypass (twincharger-Volkswagen). (e) Parallel sequential turbocharging.

TABLE I
C OMPARISON OF NFIS T OPOLOGIES

twin screw superchargers are positive displacement compres- turbocharger using an electric machine, the torque/inertia ratio
sors and tend to have better volumetric efficiency at lower (or angular acceleration, α) of the EFIS must be higher than
speeds compared with centrifugal compressors, which rely on that of the conventional NFIS as shown in (4)
mass flow acceleration. The advantages and disadvantages of
TEFIS_net TNFIS_net
the NFIS are summarized and compared in Table I. > (4)
JEFIS JNFIS
C. Electric-Forced Induction System where
The electrification of the NFIS can be realized in five TEFIS_net EFIS net torque;
different topologies as shown in Fig. 3(a)–(e). Since the main TNFIS_net NFIS net torque;
advantages of the EFIS are to improve transient performance JEFIS EFIS total inertia;
and minimize the lagging effect, there is no practical reason JNFIS NFIS total inertia.
to electrify roots and twin screw superchargers, which have
relatively high boost performance in low engine RPM as Minimizing the inertia of the overall system and maxi-
shown in Table I. Nevertheless, the centrifugal supercharger mizing output torque are the challenges in the EFIS and
can be electrified and the topology is equivalent to the elec- five different topologies are characterized based on this
tric turbocharger as shown in Fig. 3(b). The characteristics, equation.
advantages, and disadvantages are summarized in Table II. 1) Electrically Assisted Turbocharger: The electrically
In order to improve the transient response of the conventional assisted turbocharger (EAT) is shown in Fig. 3(a).

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LEE et al.: OVERVIEW OF ELECTRIC TURBOCHARGER AND SUPERCHARGER FOR DOWNSIZED INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 39

Fig. 3. Schematic layout of EFIS topologies. Black thin line—power flow. Black thick line—air flow path with valve. Blue line—engine inlet air flow.
Red line—exhaust gas flow. (a) EAT. (b) EC. (c) EST. (d) TEDC—upstream. (e) TEDC—downstream.

TABLE II
C OMPARISON OF EFIS T OPOLOGIES

A high-speed electric machine is interconnected between the
turbine and the compressor. When the engine speed is low,
the electric machine functions as a motor providing additional
torque to the compressor generating higher boost pressure
with a faster transient response. When the engine speed is
high, the electric machine generates power, which can be
transmitted to energy storage. It can also prevent the turbine
to exceed its speed limitation. However, this might also cause
high backpressure effect to the ICE, which can negate the
energy recovered from exhaust gas [15].
In this topology, the characteristics of the electric machine
are important especially inertia and output torque, since the
electric motor is directly coupled with the turbine and the
compressor. The increased output torque from the electric
motor TEM_EAT should exceed the additional inertia of the
electric motor, JEM to the system [5] as
TT _EAT + TEM_EAT − |TC_EAT | − |TMech_load_EAT |
JTC+EM
TT _conv − |TC_conv | − |TMechl oadc onv |
> (5)
JTC_conv

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40
where
TT _EAT EAT turbine output torque;
TEM_EAT EAT electric machine output torque;
TC_EAT EAT compressor load torque;
TMech_load_EAT EAT mechanical load torque;
JTC+EM turbine, compressor, and electric
machine inertia;
TT _conv conventional turbocharger turbine
output torque;
TC_conv conventional turbocharger compressor
load torque;
TMech_load_conv conventional turbocharger mechanical
load torque;
JTC_conv conventional turbocharger inertia.
Typically, the additional rotor inertia of the electric machine
should be limited from 1/3 to a maximum 1/2 of the mass
moment inertia of the turbocharger to efficiently assist the
turbocharger [16]. The angular acceleration of the free electric
machine should be an order of magnitude larger than that of
the baseline turbocharger to significantly improve the transient
response [16]. The advantages of this topology are improved
low RPM boosting, electric machine rotor position self-sensing
capability [17], motoring and generating capabilities, and the
necessity of electric components with relatively low power
output which, in turn, means low cost.
The main challenge of this topology is to minimize the
high-temperature effect on the electric machine, especially
when the machine is placed inside the turbocharger. Induction
machines (IMs), switched reluctance machines (SRMs), or
flux-switching permanent magnet (FSPM) machines can be
used for this topology, since they are more advantageous than
surface PM (SPM) machines in terms of high-temperature
operation and thermal management. There are some other
topological approaches to mitigate this issue as well.
For instance, BMW utilized clutches to connect and dis-
connect the electric machine to the shaft of the turbocharger
so that the machine can be placed outside of the tur-
bocharger [18]. G + L innotec introduced large airgap PM
machine, which can also be placed outside of the tur-
bocharger [19]. The inner diameter of the stator is equivalent
to the outer diameter of the compressor and the outer diameter
of the rotor is equivalent to the output diameter of the shaft.
The airgap is also used as inlet air path so that it has
multiple benefits in cooling, low inertia, and less temperature
effect.
2) Electric Compressor: The electric compressor (EC) is
shown in Fig. 3(b). The energy for driving the compressor
is solely provided from electric energy storage so that it has
more flexibility in terms of control. In addition, the compressor
can be driven at its optimal operating point ensuring high
efficiency. The electric components are required to have high
power output compared to other topologies. This topology
does not have the capability of energy generation itself but
the regenerative braking system or integrated starter genera-
tor (ISG) can be combined to provide electrical energy to the
energy storage [5]. The torque/inertia ratio can be fulfilled if
an electric machine with high power density and low inertia
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION, VOL. 3, NO. 1, MARCH 2017
is utilized as shown
TEM_EC − |TC_EC | − |TMech_load_EC |
JC+EM
TT _conv − |TC_conv | − |TMechl oadc onv |
> (6)
JTC_conv
where
TEM_EC ET electric machine output torque;
TC_EC ET compressor load torque;
TMech_load_EC ET mechanical load torque;
JC+EM compressor and electric machine inertia.
3) Electrically Split Turbocharger: The third topology is
called electrically split turbocharger (EST) as shown in
Fig. 3(c). In this topology, the mechanical energy from exhaust
gas is not directly delivered to the compressor but converted to
electrical energy initially using a generator. The stored energy
is utilized to drive the compressor for boosting. The advantages
of this topology are the ability to drive the compressor at a
different speed than the turbine. The other advantages of this
topology are less temperature effect due to the separation of
the turbine and the compressor and no additional inertia from
the turbine and the turbine shaft as shown
TEM_EST − |TC_EST | − |TMech_load_EST |
JC+EM
TT _conv − |TC_conv | − |TMech_load_conv |
> (7)
JTC_conv
where
TEM_EST EST electric machine output torque;
TC_EST EST compressor load torque;
TMech_load_EST EST mechanical load torque;
JC+EM compressor and electric machine inertia.
Splitting the turbine and the compressor is also beneficial in
terms of installation so that the airflow path can be optimized.
However, this topology requires high power electric motor,
generator, and inverters to satisfy torque/inertia ratio in (7),
which will increase the overall system cost.
4) Turbocharger With an Additional Electrically Driven
Compressor—Upstream and Downstream: The last topology
is the turbocharger with an additional electrically driven com-
pressor (TEDC) as shown in Fig. 3(d) and (e). Depending on
the location of the electrically driven compressor, the TEDC
can be classified into upstream and downstream TEDCs. In this
topology, the electric machine operates independently from
the exhaust gas-driven turbine, and the electrically driven
compressor is designed to increase air pressure at low engine
speed. Therefore, this topology significantly improves the tran-
sient response when the engine speed is low, since the electric
motor operation is not affected by the inertia of the turbine nor
the shaft. However, the electric energy needs to be produced
from an ISG powered by the engine shaft or regenerative
braking system [5].
The main advantage of this topology is the fastest tran-
sient response when the ICE speed is low [5]. In gen-
eral, the downstream TEDC has a faster transient response
than upstream TEDC, since the latter has a larger volume
LEE et al.: OVERVIEW OF ELECTRIC TURBOCHARGER AND SUPERCHARGER FOR DOWNSIZED INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
TABLE III
C OMPARISON OF D IESEL AND G ASOLINE E NGINES W ITH FISs
to pressurize. The other advantage is that this topology requires
minimal modifications to the conventional NFIS for the
electrification.
III. P ERFORMANCE E VALUATION OF E LECTRIC -F ORCED
I NDUCTION S YSTEM
The improvements of transient response, steady-state per-
formance, and fuel efficiency are the prime advantages of
the EFIS. Investigating these characteristics is one way of
evaluating the performance of the EFIS in comparison with
the conventional NFIS. It is also important to consider the
characteristics of ICEs, such as fuel type (diesel or gasoline),
size, number of cylinders, fuel injection systems, and engine
control techniques.
In general, a diesel engine tends to burn leaner (high air-to-
fuel ratio, λ) than its stoichiometric ratio (λdiesel = 14.5), since
it becomes more fuel-efficient and generates higher power
with fewer pollutants. Since compression–ignition provides
high combustion pressure, the boost pressure from the FIS
is relatively low. Therefore, the FIS for a diesel engine is
generally larger than the counterpart of a gasoline engine to
increase the intake airflow.
On the other hand, gasoline engine generally operates near
or lower than its stoichiometric ratio (λgasoline = 14.7).
Therefore, the high boost pressure is more important than
high intake air flow to improve the efficiency and performance
of the engine. Nevertheless, the surge limit and detonation
(preignition) are potential issues with the FIS for the gasoline
engine. The general characteristics of diesel and gasoline
engines are summarized in Table III.
The transient response analysis is a typical figure-of-merit
for assessing the performance of the NFIS and the EFIS, which
can be conducted by measuring and comparing turbo lag. The
definition of turbo lag is the amount of time delay required
to reach the commanded engine output power or torque due
to the insufficient exhaust gas at low engine speed. For the
conventional NFIS, it takes a few seconds to accelerate the
turbine and the compressor, and the acceleration time from
angular velocity ω1 to ω2 is given by
 ω1
ωdω
tacceleration = JTC (8)
ω2 PT − PC − PMech_load
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41
where
JTC turbocharger inertia;
ω angular velocity;
PT turbocharger turbine power;
PC turbocharger compressor power;
PMech_load turbocharger mechanical load power;
tacceleration acceleration time.
The acceleration time determines how fast the engine intake
manifold pressure can be built up and the shorter acceleration
time helps to minimize the turbo lag. Typically, the transient
response can be significantly improved in the EFIS, but it pri-
marily depends on the amount of electrical power available in
the vehicle electrical system and the electric machine. It also
varies with the topology of the NFIS and the EFIS.
The fast transient response and low engine speed torque
are highly preferable in downsized ICEs [20], and some
recent development efforts of the EFIS revealed the superior
performance of the EFIS over the conventional NFIS.
Extensive modeling and design validations were conducted
in [6], [21], [22] to quantify the temporary turbo boost that
can be obtained with the EFIS. The time to boost, defined as
the time taken by the engine/turbo system to reach desired
boost level with reference to the steady-state torque at a
given speed is studied and shown to be reduced by up to
90% compared with the NFIS [21]. Studies comparing the
NFIS and the EFIS by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries showed
that the e-assisted EFIS can improve the transient response
time by 33% as well as the steady-state torque by 17% at
low engine speeds [22]. In [16], the transient response of
a baseline diesel engine is improved by up to 26% using
EAT. The comprehensive comparison of transient responses
with baseline turbocharger, EAT, EST, and TEDC showed
that TEDC has the fastest boost pressure build up with 67%
transient response improvement [5]. EAT and EST feature the
similar transient improvement, which is about 20%. In [6],
the utilization of EAT in HEV is simulated and it shows 4%
reduction in acceleration time compared with HEV with a
conventional turbocharger. Reducing the turbo lag with the
EFIS does not improve the overall fuel economy significantly
in both the ICE and the HEV but the energy regeneration with
EAT can potentially provide fuel saving in the HEV [6]. The
use of EFIS in HEVs can be more advantageous, since some
of the HEVs are equipped with the higher than the typical
battery voltage of 12 V. The use of 24 or 48 V battery can
significantly reduce the current rating of the electric motor,
which improves the overall efficiency of the motor and the
motor drive system.
IV. H IGH -S PEED E LECTRIC M ACHINES
A high-speed electric machine technology simplifies a
machine drive system by eliminating essential mechanical
components required in a conventional electromechanical
drive system [23] and also reduces the dimension of the
machines [24]. Fewer mechanical components improve the
system reliability, and the reduction of size and weight is
valued in numerous applications, such as aerospace, aircraft,
42 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION, VOL. 3, NO. 1, MARCH 2017

Fig. 4. High-speed machines nominal power versus speed for different machine types (highlighted region—EFIS operating range) [23].

TABLE IV
C OMPARISON OF E LECTRIC M ACHINES FOR EFIS

and hybrid or purely electric vehicles. In these applications,
space is limited and weight is highly related to the performance
and efficiency. The turbocharger/supercharger systems benefit
from having high-speed electric machines.
Nevertheless, designing and manufacturing of high-speed
machines are challenging and there are several constraints
that need to be carefully considered. In this chapter, four
different machine types that can be utilized in the EFIS with
the target output power from 0.5 to 30 kW, and the minimum
speed of 50 krpm are introduced. Fig. 4 shows high-speed
machine types plotted nominal power against speed. PM,
switched reluctance, and IM are in the target range, and flux-
switching machine, which is not included in Fig. 4, will also be
discussed. It needs to be mentioned that the interior PM (IPM)
machine is not discussed in the high-speed electric machine
realm, because their mechanical integrity is not high enough
for very high-speed conditions. The cavity and bridges in
the rotor laminations of an IPM machine have tendencies to
deform under high centrifugal forces and mechanical stress.
As a result, the IPM machine is not popular in high-speed
machine application. The characteristics, advantages, and dis-
advantages of aforementioned four machines are compared
and summarized in Table IV. The machine types, ratings,
topologies, and manufacturers of the EFIS, which have been
reported in the previous literature are summarized in Table V.
A. Induction Machine
The IM is one of the most mature electric machine topolo-
gies, and it has been widely used in the high-speed operation.
The rotor of a high-speed IM can be either laminated or solid
construction, depending on the operating speed. When the
tip speed is lower than a threshold speed, laminated rotor is
used, which has the benefits of reduced eddy current loss and
improved efficiency compared with solid rotor design [25].
The bar shape design in the rotor lamination is critical to the
rotor dynamic response, which influences the performance of
the turbocharger. For very high-speed conditions, the rotor of
an IM can be designed as a solid rotor instead of the caged
rotor as presented in [26]. One of the challenges is to design

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LEE et al.: OVERVIEW OF ELECTRIC TURBOCHARGER AND SUPERCHARGER FOR DOWNSIZED INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
TABLE V
S UMMARY OF H IGH -S PEED M ACHINES FOR
EFISs [19], [22], [27], [40]–[47]
the appropriate stator leakage reactance, which influences the
peak torque and efficiency of the IM.
The design and analysis of IM are well understood. How-
ever, due to the eddy current loss in the rotor conductor, the
IM has generally lower efficiency than other electric machines
especially the PM machines. It should also be noted that
the manufacturing cost of the rotor for ultrahigh-speed IM
is extremely expensive (possibly higher than SPM and SRM).
IM is generally considered to have lower torque ripple and
less vibration, which is good for turbocharger applications.
B. Surface Permanent Magnet Machine/
Brushless DC Machine
The SPM and brushless dc (BLDC) machines are good
candidates for high-speed operations. Both the machines
have PMs mounted on the surface of the rotor. The SPM
machine uses sinusoidal current excitation, while the BLDC
machine uses rectangular current excitation. Typically, these
two machines have high torque density and high efficiency
due the utilization of strong PMs. There are many tur-
bocharger applications that implement high-speed SPM and
BLDC machines as presented in [22], and [27]–[30] due to
the benefits of high torque density, small size, and weight.
One of the main challenges in the design process is the
thermal regulation of the machine, particularly for the rotor
part. This is because the PMs generate eddy current loss
that increases the operating temperature, which brings thermal
demagnetization risks to the PMs. The other challenge is
the magnet containment issue at very high-speed conditions.
The PMs are subject to large centrifugal forces, and retaining
sleeves are needed to protect the magnets.
C. Switched Reluctance Machine
The machines with passive rotor geometry, such as SRM,
have an inherent advantage for high-speed operation due to
their ability to withstand higher centrifugal forces [31]–[33].
Due to the absence of PMs, the high-temperature operation
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43
Fig. 5. Novel 6/4 FSPM machine with dual stator structure [38].
capability and performance stability of the SRM is superior to
PM machines. The SRM has inherent fault tolerant capability,
because each of the phases can be operated separately, this
means that the machine can still produce partial torque even
if some of the phases are at failure. There are a number
of industrial turbochargers/superchargers that implement the
SRM as reported in [33]–[35].
The power electronic drives for the SRM are different than
the conventional sinusoidal inverter. The performance of the
SRM is sensitive to the variation of airgap length. Torque
ripple for the SRM is usually very large, and so the induced
vibration and noise are also much higher than induction and
PM machines at high-speed conditions. However, the high-
torque ripple property of the SRM may not be a particular
concern for turbocharger application due to its high rotational
speed, which smooths out the ripple torque. The SRM has
very good temperature variation withstand capability because
of the absence of PM materials, and so it is suitable for high-
temperature environment of the turbocharger application.
D. Flux-Switching Permanent Magnet Machine
The FSPM machine has been developed rapidly over the
past decades, and there are many suitable applications, includ-
ing those for high-speed operations. The FSPM machine
has robust rotor as that of the SRM. The PMs are in the
stator instead of in the rotor. Therefore, PM containment
issue does not exist at high-speed condition. The cooling
of the PMs is much easier, since they are closer to the
cooling surface. Conventional sinusoidal inverter is used for
the FSPM machine, and the control is almost the same as
an SPM machine [36]. Conventional FSPM machines are
focused primarily on topologies with number of poles equal
or larger than ten [37]. Novel low-pole FSPM machine with
only four rotor poles is recently developed that is amenable
for high-speed operation, due to the notable reduction of high-
frequency losses, such as iron loss and magnet eddy current
loss, as shown in Fig. 5 [38], [39].
The construction of the FSPM machine is more complicated
than other electric machines due to the highly segmented
stator structure. Because of the doubly salient structure, the
torque ripple could be higher than that of the SPM/BLDC
machine. The efficiency of the FSPM machine can be higher
than IM and SRM under high-speed conditions. The FSPM
machine is suitable for turbocharger application in the aspects
of high torque density enabled by the PMs in the machine,
and high-temperature withstand capability due to easier
44
dissipation of heat generated by the stator windings and PMs,
which are directly in contact with the cooling surface such
as water jackets.
V. C HALLENGES AND O PPORTUNITIES
A. Electrical Issues
The fundamental frequency of an electric machine used in
the electric turbocharger ranges from 1 to 8 kHz depending on
the rated speed and the number of the pole. The fundamental
frequency of SPM or BLDC motor can be estimated from (9).
In the case of the IM, the fundamental frequency can be
calculated from (10) and that of the FSPM machine from (11),
where n and s are the speed of motor and slip, respectively,
and P is a number of poles
nP
f fund = (9)
120
n P(1 − s)
ffund_ind = (10)
120
nP
f fund_FSPM = (11)
60
f samp
f ratio = . (12)
f fund
In (12), f samp and f fund are the sampling frequency and the
fundamental frequency of an electric motor respectively.
f ratio ≥ 10.31.
With a conventional PI controller, the minimum frequency
ratio, f ratio is about 10.31 considering current regulation
performance, transient response, and digital execution time
delay as shown in (13) [17], [48], [49].
It indicates that the switching frequency of a motor drive
can exceed 20 kHz, which imposes various issues in power
switching devices and motor drives, such as high switch-
ing loss, heat dissipation, and electromagnetic interference.
The state-of-the-art power switching devices, such as gallium
nitride (GaN) and silicon carbide (SiC), can shed light on these
issues due to their superior device characteristics compared
with conventional silicon MOSFET or IGBT [50]–[53].
The use of position sensor is avoided in high-speed SPM
and BLDC machine drives, since it tends to increase the
failure probability and an axial extension of the machine [54].
Instead, self-sensing (sensorless) control technique is widely
used to detect a rotor position, and it is also applicable for an
EAT [17], [54]. In the case of IM and SRM, since there is
almost no back EMF, a sensor feedback is required to close the
loop on speed. In addition, time delay compensation control
is essential in high-speed machine operation especially when
high switching frequency PWM-based full-digital current reg-
ulator is used [48], [54]. When f ratio is lower than 10.31,
the minimum time delay of one-and-a-half cycle from space-
vector PWM updated at each sampling point can have a critical
impact on the operating performance [48].
B. Mechanical Issues
1) Rotor Mechanical Stress: Rotor mechanical stress is a
major design constraint for the high-speed electric machines
in the EFIS. For the SPM machines, the stress is highest in
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON TRANSPORTATION ELECTRIFICATION, VOL. 3, NO. 1, MARCH 2017
the prestressed constraining sleeve, which holds the magnets
in place. For IM, SRM, and FSPM machines, their rotors tend
to be more compliant than sleeved PM rotors and the base
of the rotor teeth has the maximum mechanical stress [55].
Therefore, the proper analysis should be done through FEA
or analytical methods to ensure that the stress is acceptable at
maximum operating speed.
2) Bearings: Bearings are a fundamental mechanical com-
ponent of high-speed electric machines in the EFIS. The
choice of the bearing can affect the mean time before the
failure of the system as the bearings are often the first parts of
the system to wear out. Ball bearings rated for high speed are a
common and practical choice for high-speed electric machine
design. The lifetime of ball bearings depends on the lubrication
and the load [56]. Other more advanced bearings are oil
film, airfoil/gas, and magnetic bearings. These advanced types
of bearings have very low frictional losses when operating
correctly. Magnetic bearings have been used often in high-
speed electric machine research in recent years [57]–[59].
Magnetic bearings offer the possibility of no friction losses
except for windage, but the magnetic control system must
have the correct gains and control strategy to avoid unwanted
vibration effects.
3) Temperature Effect: Thermal issues are another impor-
tant challenge for the high-speed electric machines. In general,
(13) the size of an electric machine operating at high speed is
smaller than a low-speed electric machine with the same
power rating [56]. The small size has numerous benefits in
the EFIS, but it also poses several thermal management issues.
In general, high-speed electric machines need to have lower
losses than low-speed machines with equivalent power ratings,
or alternatively, they should be equipped with a more effective
cooling system. High-speed electric machines often run at
temperatures near the critical temperatures for some of the
components [4]. High-speed PM machines also have thermally
sensitive parts, including PMs and/or a carbon fiber rotor
sleeve.
In addition to the heat generation from the losses of the
electric machines, a significant heat source is the hot turbine
of the turbocharger. Especially in the EAT, the electric machine
is directly connected to the electric machine via the shaft
and typically placed between the turbine and compressor. The
electric machine can be cooled by oil or water from the engine
cooling system [4], [60]. However, during hot shutdown of the
engine, the flow of coolant will cease, and the temperature
of the electric machine can rise as the heat from the turbine
is gradually dissipated and partly transferred to the electric
machine. The electric machine and overall system should be
designed in such a way that the electric machine components
do not reach a critical temperature during hot shutdown, where
the components could be damaged.
When the electric machines operate at very high tempera-
ture, the characteristics and performance will vary. The resis-
tivity of conductors, such as copper and aluminum, will
increase with temperature. As a consequence, the losses in the
rotor bars of IMs and the stator winding are higher compared
with low temperature. The rotor bars of IMs are usually made
of aluminum instead of copper for weight reduction. However,
LEE et al.: OVERVIEW OF ELECTRIC TURBOCHARGER AND SUPERCHARGER FOR DOWNSIZED INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
the temperature coefficient of the resistivity of aluminum is
higher than copper, which makes the high-temperature loss
more challenging. In addition, the rotor bars of high-speed
IMs are usually buried in the rotor surface. Therefore, the
cooling of rotor bars becomes challenging as well.
The property of magnet materials changes significantly dur-
ing temperature variation. The remanence of magnet materials
decreases with increasing temperature [61]–[63]. Therefore,
the torque production capability of both the SPM machines
and FSPM machines decreases with increasing temperature.
Selection of the magnet material type is also important. If the
machine is designed to operate at very high temperature, SmCo
magnet is a better choice compared with NdFeB magnet, since
it not only has higher Curie temperature, but is also less
sensitive to temperature variation.
As temperature increases, both the eddy current loss and
the hysteresis loss in the core materials will decrease, which
make the total core losses in all types of high-speed electric
machines lower at higher temperature [64]–[68]. However, the
saturation magnetization of electrical steels typically slightly
decreases with increasing temperature, which means that the
maximum flux density in the core material will reduce with
an increasing temperature. As a result, the maximum output
torque of the machine at a constant current will slightly reduce.
Fortunately, this reduction is typically small in the normal
operating temperature range of electric machines [64], [65].
VI. C ONCLUSION
This paper reviews the NFIS and the EFIS with regard to
topologies, performance, and electric machines. The existing
NFIS and EFIS topologies are analyzed and compared in terms
of their advantages and disadvantages. To better understand
the performance of each EFIS topology compared with the
NFIS, transient response, and steady-state performance are
investigated in detail. As the high-speed machine technology
improves, new types of machine designs, inverter topologies,
power devices, and control techniques applicable for the EFIS
are introduced and studied. In addition to the conventional
high-speed machine designs (IM, SPM, BLDC, and SRM),
the newly introduced FSPM machine is presented as a viable
option for the EFIS application. The pros and cons of each
machine design are summarized, and possible electrical and
mechanical issues are introduced.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank the Wisconsin Electric
Machines and Power Electronics Consortium of the University
of Wisconsin–Madison for their motivation.
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Woongkul Lee (S’13) received the B.S. degree
in electrical engineering from Yonsei University,
Seoul, South Korea, in 2013, and the M.S. degree
in electrical engineering from the University of
Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, USA, in 2016,
where he is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree
with the Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering.
Since 2015, he has been a Research Assistant
with the Wisconsin Electric Machines and
Power Electronics Consortium, University of
Wisconsin–Madison. His current research interests include wide bandgap
devices-based power electronics, high-speed electric machines, and drives.
Dr. Lee was a recipient of the Jeongsong Cultural Foundation scholarship
from 2013 to 2015.
LEE et al.: OVERVIEW OF ELECTRIC TURBOCHARGER AND SUPERCHARGER FOR DOWNSIZED INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
Erik Schubert (M’16) received the B.S. degree in
mechanical engineering from Michigan State Uni-
versity, East Lansing, MI, USA, in 2005, and the
M.S. degree in electrical engineering from the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, USA,
in 2016.
He currently works in the power electronics indus-
try. His current research interests include high-speed
surface permanent magnet synchronous machines,
compressors, and inverter motor drives.
Yingjie Li (S’13) received the B.S. degree
in electrical engineering from Wuhan University,
Wuhan, China, in 2011, and the M.S. degree
in electrical engineering from the University of
Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, USA, in 2014,
where he is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree
with the Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering.
He has been a Research Assistant with the Wis-
consin Electric Machines and Power Electronics
Consortium. His current research interests include
the design of electric machines, electric drives, compressors, and multiphysics
integration in various applications.
Silong Li (S’12) received the B.S. degree in elec-
trical and computer engineering from Xi’an Jiao-
tong University, Xi’an, China, in 2011, and the
M.S. degree in electrical and computer engineering
from the University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madi-
son, WI, USA, in 2014, where he is currently pur-
suing the Ph.D. degree with the Wisconsin Electric
Machines and Power Electronics Consortium.
His current research interests include the design
of permanent magnet machines, electric drives, and
permanent magnet machine control algorithms. He is
also interested in investigating the influence of temperature variation on the
performance of various types of permanent magnet machines and drives,
and the related high-performance compensation control algorithms which are
robust to temperature variation.
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47
Dheeraj Bobba (S’10–M’12) received the
B.S. degree in electrical engineering from
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University,
Hyderabad, India, in 2008, and the M.S. degree in
electrical engineering from the University of North
Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA, in
2011. He is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree in
electrical engineering with the Wisconsin Electric
Machines and Power Electronics Consortium,
University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI,
USA.
He was an Application Developer with Infosys, Bengaluru, India, from
2008 to 2009. He was an Applications and Project Engineer with the EM
Group (JMAG) of Powersys Inc., Middleton, WI, from 2012 to 2014.
He was part of numerous projects involving development and simulation
of electromagnetic energy conversion devices, sensors, and actuators. His
current research interests include electrical machines, drives, and optimization
techniques.
Bulent Sarlioglu (M’94–SM’13) received the
B.S. degree from Istanbul Technical University,
Istanbul, Turkey, in 1990, the M.S. degree from the
University of Missouri–Columbia, Columbia, MO,
USA, in 1992, and the Ph.D. degree from the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, USA,
in 1999, all in electrical engineering.
From 2000 to 2011, he was with the Honeywell
International Inc.’s Aerospace Division, Torrance,
CA, USA, most recently, as a Staff Systems Engi-
neer. Since 2011, he has been an Assistant Professor
with the University of Wisconsin–Madison and the Associate Director of
the Wisconsin Electric Machines and Power Electronics Consortium. He is
the inventor or co-inventor of 16 U.S. patents as well as many international
patents. His current research interests include electrical machines, drives, and
power electronics.
Dr. Sarlioglu was a recipient of the Honeywell’s Outstanding Engineer
Award in 2011.