CIGRE TB 916 - Year 2023 - Handling of Fittings and Conductors For Overhead Lines

B2 Overhead Lines
Correct handling of fittings and

conductors for overhead lines
TECHNICAL BROCHURES
September 2023 - Reference 916
TECHNICAL BROCHURE
Correct handling of fittings

and conductors for
overhead lines
WG B2.50
Members
P. DULHUNTY, Convenor AU S. KOLOSOV, Secretary RU

W. TROPPAUER AT J.M. ASSELIN CA
P. CHAN CA D. HAVARD CA
J.P. PARADIS CA P. VAN DYKE CA
B. LIU CN A. GRAVELMANN DE
C. ROZE FR V.CHARI IN
U.COSMAI IT K. HALSAN NO
B. JACOBS ZA B. WAREING UK
J. HAVEL US N. SAHLANI US
D. SUNKLE US C. TAMM US
Corresponding Members
G. BRAGA BR S. THADDEY CH
D. GOMEZ ES M. MITO JP
J. ALMANO NZ B. HARIDASS ZA
Reviewers
H. LUGSCHITZ AT J.F. GOFFINET BE
Copyright © 2020
“All rights to this Technical Brochure are retained by CIGRE. It is strictly prohibited to reproduce or provide this publication in any
form or by any means to any third party. No part of this publication may be reproduced or utilized without permission from CIGRE”.
Disclaimer notice
“CIGRE gives no warranty or assurance about the contents of this publication, nor does it accept any responsibility, as to the
accuracy or exhaustiveness of the information. All implied warranties and conditions are excluded to the maximum extent permitted
by law”.
WG XX.XXpany network provided access is restricted to their own employees. No part of this publication may be
reproduced or utilized without permission from CIGRE”.
Disclaimer notice
ISBN : 978-2-85873-621-8
“CIGRE gives no warranty or assurance about the contents of this publication, nor does it accept any
responsibility, as to the accuracy or exhaustiveness of the information. All implied warranties and
conditions are excluded to the maximum extent permitted by law”.
TB 916 – Correct handling of fittings and conductors for overhead lines
Executive summary
To increase reliability and availability of overhead lines, one must look at several aspects of the
overhead lines such as foundations, supports, conductor, insulators and fittings. It is this brochure’s
attempt to examine the fittings.
Prior work was published by CIGRE B2 and led to the following guides.
• WG 22.03, TB184, Composite insulator handling guide.
• WG B2.03, TB306, Guide for the assessment of old cap & pin and long-rod transmission line
insulators made of porcelain or glass; What to check and when to replace?
• WG B2.33, TB471, Working safely while supported on aged overhead conductors.
• WG B2.32, TB477, Technical Brochure on Evaluation of Aged Fittings
• WG B2.49, TB653 Safe design tensions for single conductors fitted with elastomer cushioned
suspension units.
• WG B2.47, TB708 Guide on repair of conductors and conductor-fitting systems.
Given that many problems experienced in the field are perceived to be due to poor handling and
installation practices, the Working Group carried out a survey of current practice by manufacturers,
contractors and utilities with regard to correct handling and installation of fittings and conductors.
This was done by means of a questionnaire and subsequent analysis of the responses together with
inputs from the experts in WG B2.50 and TAG B2.06. Replies were received from Australia, Austria,
Brazil, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, Spain, and, UK.
Guidelines have been produced with the aim of promoting good practice to minimise handling and
installation problems with fittings & conductors.
This guide is not intended to cover conductor creep or wrongly manufactured or wrongly designed
fittings.
Fittings are primarily designed from a mechanical point of view respectively to withstand short circuit
currents up to one second. In service, these fittings are mainly exposed to static and dynamic
mechanical loads as well as short circuit currents and environmental influences. Thus the mating
surfaces, the string design and minimisation of torsional, bending and uneven stresses in the fittings
comes from good installation practice.
Due to the very wide range of line items captured under the general description of "fittings", an
illustrated glossary of terms is included as an appendix.
Figure 0.1 Fittings being tested for elongation and tensile strength
3
Figure 0.2 Comealong assembled in reverse
4
Contents
Executive summary ............................................................................................................. 3
Figures and Illustrations ..................................................................................................... 7
1. Introduction.............................................................................................................. 10
2. Questionnaire results .............................................................................................. 11

2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 11
2.2 Questionnaire........................................................................................................................................... 11
2.3 Questionnaire summary.......................................................................................................................... 12
2.4 Detailed questionnaire results ............................................................................................................... 13
2.4.1 Compression issues........................................................................................................................... 13
2.4.2 Installation issues............................................................................................................................... 29
2.4.3 Spacer and damper issues ................................................................................................................ 38
2.4.4 Insulator and other issues .................................................................................................................. 46
2.4.5 Construction issues............................................................................................................................ 50
3. Experiences of the members .................................................................................. 62

3.1 Compression fittings ............................................................................................................................... 62
3.1.1 Improper conductor preparation – brushing, cleaning, why ............................................................... 62
3.1.2 Improper preparation and handling of clamps .................................................................................... 63
3.1.3 Insufficient amount of inhibitor ........................................................................................................... 63
3.1.4 Prefilled connectors ........................................................................................................................... 63
3.1.5 One die system .................................................................................................................................. 63
3.1.6 Restrictions on the use of joints ......................................................................................................... 65
3.1.7 Example of compression fitting installation ........................................................................................ 66
3.1.8 Splices ............................................................................................................................................... 70
3.1.9 Jointing compound ............................................................................................................................. 70
3.1.10 Cleaning instructions.......................................................................................................................... 71
3.1.11 Manufacturers instructions ................................................................................................................. 72
3.1.12 Wrong type of inhibitor – gritted Vs non-gritted – why?...................................................................... 72
3.1.13 Incomplete die closure during compression ....................................................................................... 72
3.1.14 Wrong die used .................................................................................................................................. 73
3.1.15 Die design .......................................................................................................................................... 73
3.1.16 Compression outside the “compression zone” ................................................................................... 73
3.1.17 Conductor not fully inserted – marking where and why – and how .................................................... 74
3.1.18 Splice not properly centred – similar to 3.1.8, but worth a different mention ...................................... 74
3.1.19 Not compressing to the end ............................................................................................................... 74
3.1.20 Bowed or “banana” connectors (causes and prevention it) ................................................................ 74
3.1.21 Die lubrication .................................................................................................................................... 75
3.1.22 Birdcage conditions............................................................................................................................ 75
3.1.23 Direction of compression – toward tension span – reasons why – possible alternatives ................... 76
3.1.24 Bolted pads and associated issues .................................................................................................... 76
3.1.25 Special or peculiar components related to compression connectors ................................................. 77
3.1.26 Filling of cavity with filling grease/gel ................................................................................................. 77
3.1.27 Grease for High Temperature Low Sag (HTLS) conductors .............................................................. 78
3.1.28 Packing for transportation .................................................................................................................. 78
3.2 Installation of insulators and line fittings .............................................................................................. 78
3.2.1 Insulators ........................................................................................................................................... 78
3.2.2 Preformed fittingsf .............................................................................................................................. 78
3.2.3 Tension and suspension assemblies ................................................................................................. 78
3.2.4 Bridging assemblies ........................................................................................................................... 79
3.2.5 Insulator Assemblies .......................................................................................................................... 79
3.2.6 Other Fittings ..................................................................................................................................... 80
3.2.7 Transpositions ................................................................................................................................... 80
3.2.8 Requirements for OPGW ................................................................................................................... 80
5
3.3 Helical fittings .......................................................................................................................................... 80

3.3.1 Final installation ................................................................................................................................. 80
3.3.2 Products installed at crossover marks ............................................................................................... 80
3.3.3 Limit to one application ...................................................................................................................... 81
3.3.4 Ties to be rotated in place .................................................................................................................. 81
3.3.5 Touch on proper tools – hot stick ring and fib .................................................................................... 81
3.3.6 Cleaning the conductor before installing a splice ............................................................................... 81
3.3.7 Rod end aligned for HV application ................................................................................................... 81
3.3.8 Rod modification ................................................................................................................................ 81
3.3.9 Helical products not to be used as a tool ........................................................................................... 81
3.4 Vibration dampers ................................................................................................................................... 81
3.4.1 Installation of dampers ....................................................................................................................... 81
3.4.2 Protected span length ........................................................................................................................ 82
3.4.3 Damper Placement and orientation.................................................................................................... 84
3.5 Spacers and spacer dampers ................................................................................................................. 85
3.5.1 General .............................................................................................................................................. 85
3.5.2 Spacer handling ................................................................................................................................. 85
3.5.3 Installation devices and tools ............................................................................................................. 85
3.5.4 Training of the linemen ...................................................................................................................... 87
3.5.5 Breakaway bolts................................................................................................................................. 89
3.5.6 Installation procedure......................................................................................................................... 89
3.6 Safe Handling of conductors .................................................................................................................. 90
3.6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 90
3.6.2 Reel handling ..................................................................................................................................... 92
3.6.3 Stringing............................................................................................................................................. 94
3.6.4 Damage during stringing .................................................................................................................... 96
3.6.5 Sheaves ............................................................................................................................................. 98
3.6.6 Pulling grips ..................................................................................................................................... 100
3.7 Inspection ............................................................................................................................................... 103
3.7.1 Inspection and maintenance during line life ..................................................................................... 103
3.7.2 Walking visits ................................................................................................................................... 104
3.7.3 Climbing visits .................................................................................................................................. 104
3.7.4 Helicopter visits ................................................................................................................................ 105
3.7.5 Drone visits (RPAS) ......................................................................................................................... 105
4. Guidance for Decisions on Safe Practice ............................................................ 107
5. General conclusions.............................................................................................. 108
6. Future work ............................................................................................................ 109
APPENDIX B. References ............................................................................................... 137
6
Figures and Illustrations

Figure 0.1 Fittings being tested for elongation and tensile strength ................................................... 3
Figure 0.2 Comealong assembled in reverse ..................................................................................... 4
Figure 2.1 Wrongly assembled clevis eye (left) and clevis clevis (right) .......................................... 11
Figure 2.2 Line issues ....................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 2.3 Construction issues.......................................................................................................... 13
Figure 2.4 Swollen and cracked part of the clamp ............................................................................ 14
Figure 2.5 Cross section of the clamp .............................................................................................. 14
Figure 2.6 Cross-section photo of a sleeve ...................................................................................... 15
Figure 2.7 Birdcaging of conductor ................................................................................................... 15
Figure 2.8 Excess grease left in compression .................................................................................. 16
Figure 2.9 Birdcaging ........................................................................................................................ 16
Figure 2.10 Failed jumper lug ............................................................................................................. 17
Figure 2.11 Conductor joint wrongly installed .................................................................................... 18
Figure 2.12 Aluminium sleeve position ............................................................................................... 19
Figure 2.13 Aluminium sleeve structure before and after compression ............................................. 19
Figure 2.14 Burned out wires ............................................................................................................. 20
Figure 2.15 Sleeve cross-section ....................................................................................................... 20
Figure 2.16 Aluminium sleeve insertion length ................................................................................... 21
Figure 2.17 Faulty wire insertion into the compression clamp ............................................................ 22
Figure 2.23 Abnormal eccentricity of straight compression sleeve .................................................... 26
Figure 2.24 Structure of straight compression sleeve ........................................................................ 26
Figure 2.25 Abnormal eccentricity of straight compression sleeve .................................................... 27
Figure 2.26 Structure of straight compression sleeve ........................................................................ 27
Figure 2.27 Break of the connexion between tensional anchor and head of underground cable ...... 28
Figure 2.28 Steel sleeve badly centred in the joint ............................................................................. 29
Figure 2.29 Broken stay wire .............................................................................................................. 30
Figure 2.30 Security clip not secured ................................................................................................. 31
Figure 2.31 OPGW slide ..................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 2.32 Location of wire damage ................................................................................................. 33
Figure 2.33 Damage caused by line drum ......................................................................................... 34
Figure 2.34 Conductor damage caused by line bicycle ..................................................................... 35
Figure 2.35 Conductor damage caused by line bicycle ..................................................................... 36
Figure 2.36 Upside down anchor clamp ............................................................................................. 37
Figure 2.37 Distortion of a ring spacer due to a loose clamp ............................................................. 39
Figure 2.38 Wire breakage ................................................................................................................. 40
Figure 2.39 Corrosion ......................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 2.40 Wire damage ................................................................................................................... 41
Figure 2.41 Spacer damper ................................................................................................................ 42
Figure 2.42 Conductor damage .......................................................................................................... 42
Figure 2.43 Double torsional damper gripper for twin conductors ..................................................... 43
Figure 2.44 Electric wire damage ....................................................................................................... 43
Figure 2.45 Location of wire breakage ............................................................................................... 44
Figure 2.46 Defective installation of jumper spacer ........................................................................... 45
Figure 2.47 Detached damper ............................................................................................................ 46
Figure 2.48 Enlarged photo of the gripper .......................................................................................... 46
Figure 2.49 Picture of the phenomenon (bending pin) ....................................................................... 47
Figure 2.50 Porcelain post insulator with pivot support used as a suspension situation ................... 49
Figure 2.51 Location of cracked terminals ......................................................................................... 50
Figure 2.52 Crack in the terminal ....................................................................................................... 50
Figure 2.53 Deformation caused the cracking .................................................................................... 50
Figure 2.54 Keyway in clamp does not match keyway in holder ........................................................ 52
Figure 2.55 Other end shows keyway holder does not match clamp................................................. 52
Figure 2.56 Correct assembly ............................................................................................................ 52
Figure 2.57 Consequence of incorrect assembly ............................................................................... 52
7
Figure 2.58 Yoke passed through non chamfered hole ..................................................................... 53

Figure 2.59 Breakage of U-bolt leg..................................................................................................... 53
Figure 2.60 Wrong interface between U-bolt and attachment plate ................................................... 53
Figure 2.61 Broken U-bolt fitting ......................................................................................................... 53
Figure 2.62 Conductor birdcage on the reel ....................................................................................... 54
Figure 2.63 Correct assembly of AWM .............................................................................................. 55
Figure 2.64 Rods applied too high...................................................................................................... 55
Figure 2.65 Bad assembly of conductor on a drum ............................................................................ 56
Figure 2.66 Conductor birdcaging off the drum .................................................................................. 57
Figure 2.67 Bonding lead connected to hardware fittings instead of earthwire ................................. 58
Figure 2.68 Bonding leads connected to hardware ............................................................................ 58
Figure 2.69 Steel de-laminating.......................................................................................................... 59
Figure 2.70 Holes welded, redrilled and cracking, not deburred ........................................................ 59
Figure 2.71 Lip on edge along length ................................................................................................. 59
Figure 2.72 Delaminating flanges ....................................................................................................... 59
Figure 2.73 Wrong installation of a shackle instead of a clevis tongue/boss ..................................... 60
Figure 2.74 Incorrect training manual ................................................................................................. 61
Figure 3.1 Three points of contact .................................................................................................... 62
Figure 3.2 Scratch brush: white for aluminium, black for copper ...................................................... 62
Figure 3.3 One die system ................................................................................................................ 64
Figure 3.4 Components for dead end assembly ............................................................................... 64
Figure 3.5 Tools for marking conductors .......................................................................................... 65
Figure 3.6 Compress from the knurl mark outwards ......................................................................... 65
Figure 3.7 Clean the conductor with the Scratch Brush ................................................................... 66
Figure 3.8 Mark and measure the barrel ........................................................................................... 66
Figure 3.9 Compression of the sleeve .............................................................................................. 67
Figure 3.10 Cable cutter and die set .................................................................................................. 67
Figure 3.11 Clean the surface ............................................................................................................ 68
Figure 3.12 Dead end assembly......................................................................................................... 69
Figure 3.13 Example of jumper lug installation .................................................................................. 69
Figure 3.14 A Splice installed too close to a suspension clamp ........................................................ 70
Figure 3.15 Jointing compound applied in the body hole ................................................................... 70
Figure 3.16 Ready to compress eyetail .............................................................................................. 71
Figure 3.17 Slide aluminium dead end body over steel forging ......................................................... 72
Figure 3.18 Typical hexagonal compression dies .............................................................................. 73
Figure 3.19 Typical birdcaging ........................................................................................................... 75
Figure 3.20 Bolted pad with weld to compression connector ............................................................. 76
Figure 3.21 Examples of jumpers ....................................................................................................... 78
Figure 3.22 Example of bridging......................................................................................................... 79
Figure 3.23 High voltage transposition of phases .............................................................................. 80
Figure 3.24 Aeolian vibration dampers: top left to bottom right: Symmetrical Stockbridge damper,
asymmetrical Stockbridge damper, torsional damper, elastomeric damper ................... 82
Figure 3.25 Recommended safe design tension for single conductor lines with and without
Stockbridge dampers ...................................................................................................... 84
Figure 3.26 Bucket truck ..................................................................................................................... 86
Figure 3.27 Cable carts ...................................................................................................................... 86
Figure 3.28 Pre-set torque wrench ..................................................................................................... 87
Figure 3.29 Left: Installation of a nut cracker rubber lined clamp with latch fastener – Right:
Spacer closing tool .......................................................................................................... 87
Figure 3.30 Distance counter of a cable cart ...................................................................................... 87
Figure 3.31 Example of installation instruction for spacer clamps ..................................................... 88
Figure 3.32 Suspension clamps , Left: Metal-to-metal clamp, Right: Elastomer lined clamp ............ 89
Figure 3.33 Dead end clamps, Left: Compression dead end, Middle: Preformed dead end, Right:
Strain clamp .................................................................................................................... 89
Figure 3.34 Alternate orientation of triple spacer dampers ................................................................ 90
Figure 3.35 Surface defects ............................................................................................................... 91
Figure 3.36 Popped wire .................................................................................................................... 91
Figure 3.37 Birdcage .......................................................................................................................... 91
Figure 3.38 "Perfect" winding. The conductor cannot "plunge" between wraps underneath ............. 92
Figure 3.39 Winding with gaps between wraps leading to stringing problems and conductor
damage ........................................................................................................................... 92
Figure 3.40 Ideal method of lifting reels ............................................................................................. 93
8
Figure 3.41 Circumscribing plate or I-beam on metal reels ............................................................... 93

Figure 3.42 Moving steel reels by the edge of the flanges ................................................................. 93
Figure 3.43 Conductor protection on the ground ................................................................................ 94
Figure 3.44 Schematic of tension stringing set-up ............................................................................. 95
Figure 3.45 Example of rollers supporting the conductor ................................................................... 95
Figure 3.46 Typical 4-bundle conductor tensioner ............................................................................. 96
Figure 3.47 Conductor threading into bull wheels .............................................................................. 96
Figure 3.48 Oversized pocket on some reels. The welded bars prevent the conductor from bulging
out of the pocket .............................................................................................................. 97
Figure 3.49 Birdcage forming between two bull wheels in the tensioner ........................................... 97
Figure 3.50 "Roller array" used for angles greater than 24 degrees on Type 3 conductors .............. 99
Figure 3.51 Examples of misalignment of conductors passing over sheaves ................................... 99
Figure 3.52 Damage from running over the side of a sheave ............................................................ 99
Figure 3.53 Damage from sheave not turning freely .......................................................................... 99
Figure 3.54 Popped wires from contact with side of sheave .............................................................. 99
Figure 3.55 Sheave position leading to conductor damage and remedial action ............................ 100
Figure 3.56 Multi-blocking with tandem sheaves ............................................................................. 100
Figure 3.57 Different types of grips Top: Woven wire pulling grip, Middle: Parallel-groove clamp,
Bottom: Bolted come along ........................................................................................... 101
Figure 3.58 Double-banding the extremity of the woven wire grip ................................................... 101
Figure 3.59 Extra precautions to use with Type 2 conductors ......................................................... 102
Figure 3.60 Birdcage created by the slip of a bolted grip ................................................................. 102
Figure 3.61 Tandem grips on gap-type conductor ........................................................................... 103
Figure 3.62 Grips used in tandem and protection over the conductor ............................................. 103
Figure 3.63 Example of worn fitting .................................................................................................. 105
Figure 3.64 Picture of drone taken by another drone ....................................................................... 106
Figure 5.1 Too narrow a thimble in a socket clevis ......................................................................... 108
Tables
Table 3.1 Recommended safe design tension with respect to aeolian vibrations for single
conductors ....................................................................................................................... 83
Table 3.2 Terrain categories (Table 2 of TB 273) ............................................................................ 84
Table 3.3 Frequency of visits for ground inspection ...................................................................... 104
Table 3.4 Frequency of visits for climbing inspection .................................................................... 105
Table A.1 Definition of general terms used for overhead line hardware ........................................ 110
9
1. Introduction
The Working Group was created at the Bangkok meeting (2011) of TAG B2.06 in the re-organisation
of CIGRE's old Working Groups into Technical Advisory Groups and Task forces into Working Groups.
The changes were announced in 2010 but for the Mechanical Aspects of Overhead Lines WG11, now
TAG B2.06, was the first of these new groups. Originally the time span of a working group was two
years and that was extended to four years.
So WG B2.47, B2.48, B2.49 and B2.50 were created at the same time and the work of WG B2.47
(TB 708 Guide on repair of conductors and conductor-fitting systems) has many similar engineering as
WG B2.50. We all met every six months as umbrella groups of TAG B2.06 in Bangkok, Reykjavik,
Tampa, Paris, Bamberg, Auckland, Brussels, Lyon, Milan, Cape Town, Montreal, Boulogne, Dublin,
Seoul and Madrid (2018).
As explained in the executive summary, we sent out a simple questionnaire, analysed the results and
show those here in the brochure. Then the members who represented the world's leading
manufacturers with hundreds of combined years of practise gave their expertise to the brochure so
that correct procedures could be followed and problems explained.
Lastly, we had utility experts construct the chapter on Inspection. As we had so much confusion on
naming of fittings across Europe, USA and Australasia as well as spelling differences, we created a
glossary with pictures as an Appendix.
10
2. Questionnaire results
2.1 Introduction
Given that many problems experienced in the field are perceived to be due to poor handling and
installation practices, the Working Group carried out a survey of current practice by manufacturers,
contractors and utilities with regard to correct handling and installation of fittings and conductors.
This was done by means of a questionnaire and subsequent analysis of the responses together with
inputs from the experts in WG B2.50 and TAG B2.06. Replies were received from Australia, Austria,
Brazil, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, Spain, and UK.
Therefore, the following information is provided in this chapter:
• Section 2.2 provides a copy of the questionnaire that was sent,
• Section 2.3 provides a summary of the replies obtained and,
• Section 2.4 provides the detailed information collected from the replies including whenever
possible the cause of the problem and the solution that was used.
2.2 Questionnaire
Given that many problems experienced with fittings in the field are due to poor handling and
installation practices, it is proposed to carry out a survey of current practice by manufacturers,
contractors and utilities to ensure correct handling and installation of fittings and conductors. This will
be done by means of a questionnaire and subsequent analysis of the responses together with inputs
from experts in the WG and TAG B2.06. Following on from this, guidelines would be produced with the
aim of promoting good practice to minimise handling and installation problems with fittings and
conductors.
This follows on from the work of WGB2.32 on ‘Assessing the performance of aged fittings: - Testing,
acceptance criteria & recommendations for HV & UHV Lines’.
Specific Actions to meet the key needs are:
Produce an ELECTRA paper or Technical Brochure by the Paris 2014 meeting.
Produce a Tutorial in 2015.
Members of CIGRE are kindly asked to submit the filled questionnaire till the end of July 2012 to
David Havard. mailto:dhavard@rogers.com; subject=WG50 Questionnaire
All respondents will be confidential.
Figure 2.1 Wrongly assembled clevis eye (left) and clevis clevis (right)
Thanks in advance.
Peter Dulhunty, Convenor WG B2.50
11
Answers from ……………………………………………………………………………
• Have you ever had wrongly installed fittings, conductors or insulators?
Tell us about it.

Remember to include the voltage, the seriousness and the remedy. Pictures or sketches would help.
Also, we are looking at all conductor fittings, hardware fittings, dampers, spacer dampers, bolted
clamps, compression fittings, joints, anchors, tools, aircraft markers, spacers but not about their bad or
good design, not about poor or good manufacture but only about;
1. Storage,
2. Warehousing,
3. Handling,
4. Conductor preparation,
5. Inhibitor,
6. Sizing,
7. Wrong conductors and,
8. Installation.
2.3 Questionnaire summary

The types of issues were analysed from the replies obtained and they are grouped as shown in
Figure 2.2. It can be determined that there are four main construction issues: compression,
installation, vibration dampers & spacers and insulator issues. These are shown in the pie chart
Figure 2.3 and are detailed in the following sections.
Figure 2.2 Line issues
12
Figure 2.3 Construction issues
2.4 Detailed questionnaire results

2.4.1 Compression issues
Most replies (49%) as shown above are due to compression issues which may be explained by the
fact that for every ACSR hydraulic compression fitting there is at least four compression actions: steel,
aluminium tail, body and lug and there are six phases. These are the common problems:
• Insufficient filler
• Insufficient wire insertion
• Insufficient aluminium sleeve insertion in ACSR
• Steel sleeve badly centred
• Insufficient compression / crimping
• Birdcaging
• Excess grease
• Absence of wire brushing or polishing
Example of compression issues are shown in the following sub-sections.
13
2.4.1.1 Compression strain clamp compressor swelled and cracked

Voltage 275 kV
Summary Compression strain clamp compressor swelled and cracked

Electric wire type: Aluminium conductor, steel-reinforced (ACSR), 610 mm 2
Cause • Insufficient filler injection

• Erroneous use of filler injection
• A large hollow at the edge of the steel clamp due to wire being cut too long
(aluminium section). Water then entered the openings and froze. As it froze, the
water swelled up and caused the cracks.
Solution Replace the strain clamp
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.4 Swollen and cracked part of the clamp
Figure 2.5 Cross section of the clamp
14
2.4.1.2 Electric wire slipped off from a straight sleeve

Voltage 77 kV
Summary Electric wire slipped off from a straight sleeve
Cause Insufficient wire insertion into the straight sleeve

Linear scars at the end where the wire slipped off were observed in approximately
30 mm of the sleeve taper (incomplete compression part)
Solution • Strictly control compression insertion length etc. during installation

• Keep a photographic record of wire insertion status
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.6 Cross-section photo of a sleeve
2.4.1.3 Birdcaging of conductor

Voltage
Summary Birdcaging of conductor
Cause Conductor slipped inside midspan joint
Solution Cut out and re-do
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.7 Birdcaging of conductor
15
2.4.1.4 Marks on conductor causing Corona and RIV issues

Voltage High
Summary Marks on conductor causing Corona and RIV issues
Cause Excess grease left in compression
Solution Wipe clean
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.8 Excess grease left in compression
2.4.1.5 Birdcaging
Voltage Medium
Summary Birdcaging
Cause ACSR went into compression
Solution Replace damaged portion
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.9 Birdcaging
16
2.4.1.6 Faulty jumper lug

Voltage 132 kV
Summary Jumper lug failed
Cause Insufficient compression
Solution Replace lug
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.10 Failed jumper lug
17
2.4.1.7 Improperly installed conductor joint

Voltage 220 kV
Summary Conductor joints wrongly installed

Cause Detonation joint for ACSR conductor Condor. The steel part was not inserted in the full
length (only 2 cm see right part of joint). After six months the joint separated from the
conductor and fell down to ground.
Solution A new joint had to be installed or install a shunt
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.11 Conductor joint wrongly installed
18
2.4.1.8 Abnormal eccentricity of a straight compression sleeve

Voltage 110 kV
Summary Abnormal eccentricity of a straight compression sleeve.

Electric wire type: Aluminium conductor, steel reinforced (ACSR), 410 mm 2 x 1
Cause Out-of-position insertion of the aluminium sleeve
Solution • Reflect this in work installation guidelines

• Reinstall the wire and replace the sleeve with extra conductor and 2 splices or a
longer splice/shunt
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.12 Aluminium sleeve position
Figure 2.13 Aluminium sleeve structure before and after compression
19
2.4.1.9 Wires broken due to overheating and softening inside straight sleeve
Voltage 66 kV
Summary Wires broken due to overheating and softening inside straight sleeve
Cause Sleeve was compression connected without sufficiently polishing old wires, with the
result that the wires overheated, softened and finally burned out as they failed to
withstand constant tension
Solution • Thoroughly study from the planning stage to ensure reliable connection. Guide and
train installation contractors.
• Tighten post-installation inspections
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.14 Burned out wires
Figure 2.15 Sleeve cross-section
20

Voltage 110 kV
Summary Abnormal eccentricity of a straight compression sleeve

Electric wire type: Thermo resistance aluminium-alloy conductor, steel reinforced
(TACSR), 330mm2 x 1, 2L middle phase, eccentricity: 130.0 mm (allowable eccentricity:
75.5 mm)
Cause Out-of-position insertion of the aluminium sleeve
Solution Reinstall the straight compression sleeve by marking a parting line of the required length
of compression and then inserting to that parting line.
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.16 Aluminium sleeve insertion length
21
2.4.1.11 Electric wire slipped off into a compression clamp

Voltage 66 kV
Summary Electric wire slipped off due to faulty wire insertion into a compression clamp. Electric
wire type: Hard drawn copper conductor (HDCC), 125 mm2
Cause Faulty wire insertion into the compression clamp

Solution Make “addition of auxiliary marking” standard practice to enable checking wire insertion
length before and after clamp compression
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.17 Faulty wire insertion into the compression clamp
22

Voltage 110 kV

Electric wire type: Aluminium conductor steel reinforced (ACSR), 330 mm 2 x 1, 2 L
Eccentricity: 115.0 mm (allowable eccentricity: 75.5 mm)
Cause • Out-of-position insertion of the aluminium sleeve

• Insufficient check during installation
Photo
etc.
23

Voltage 110 kV

Electric wire type: Thermo resistance aluminium alloy conductor, steel reinforced
(TACSR), 200 mm 2 x 1

Solution Implement proper management in accordance with inspection guidelines
Photo
etc.
24

Voltage 110 kV

(TACSR), 330 mm2 x 1

length before and after clamp compression.
Photo
etc.
25

Voltage 110 kV

Electric wire type: Thermo Resistance aluminium-alloy conductor, steel reinforced
(TACSR), 330 mm 2 x 2

• Insufficient check of insertion length during installation
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.23 Abnormal eccentricity of straight compression sleeve

2 L (upper line – outside), eccentricity: 85.0 mm (allowable eccentricity: 66.5 mm)
Figure 2.24 Structure of straight compression sleeve
26

Voltage 110 kV
Summary Abnormal eccentricity of a straight compression sleeve.

Electric wire type: Thermo Resistance aluminium-alloy conductor, aluminium-plated steel
reinforced (TA / AN), 410 mm 2 x 2

• Insufficient check on insertion length during installation
length before and after clamp compression.
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.25 Abnormal eccentricity of straight compression sleeve

1 L (upper line – inside) Eccentricity: 104.0 mm (allowable eccentricity: 87.5 mm)
Figure 2.26 Structure of straight compression sleeve
27
2.4.1.17 Tower junction between OHL and underground cable

Voltage 63 kV
Summary OHL, tower junction between OHL and underground cable (2004-12-01)
Cause Break of the connexion between tensional anchor and head of underground cable. The
bretelle of the ACAR conductor uncoupled from the pad due to a bad crimp
Solution Better crimping
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.27 Break of the connexion between tensional anchor and head of underground
cable
28
2.4.1.18 Steel sleeve badly centred in the joint

Voltage 63 kV
Summary OHL, (2006-12-22) compression
Cause Break of an ACSR conductor at the end of the compressed dead end joint leading to the
ruin of 4 arms of the tower. The break is consecutive to a mishandling of the joint (steel
sleeve badly centred in the joint).
Solution Better training of compression crews
Photo
etc.
Dissymétrie du manchonnage
sur le conducteur alu
Figure 2.28 Steel sleeve badly centred in the joint
2.4.2 Installation issues

Installation issues account for 28% of problems. B2 has produced an excellent brochure on repair of
conductors. The problems here can be seen as;
• Damaged conductors / Stay wire
• Damaged conductors by Line Bicycle
• Incorrect size of Helical rods
• Incorrect location of parallel groove clamp
• Security clip not secure
• Split pin not secure
• Upside down installation
Example of installation issues are shown in the following sub-sections.
29
2.4.2.1 Broken stay wire

Voltage 0 kV
Summary Stay wire broke above automatic fitting
Cause
Solution Replace
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.29 Broken stay wire
30
2.4.2.2 Unsecured safety clip

Voltage Low Voltage
Summary Security clip not secure
Cause Installation issues
Solution Training and inspection
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.30 Security clip not secured
31
2.4.2.3 Wrong size helical rod

Voltage 66 kV
Summary OPGW (for 55 mm2) slid in the clamp due to use of incorrect sized helical rod
Cause Helical rod of wrong size (for an outside diameter of 10.6 mm) was wound around the
OPGW (outside diameter: 9.6 mm)
Solution Repair using a correctly sized helical rod
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.31 OPGW slide
32
2.4.2.4 Branch jumper damaged

Voltage 110 kV
Summary Branch jumper damaged due to contact with the main wire support insulator mounting
bolt
(TACSR), 120 mm2 x 1
Cause Incorrect installation position of the branch clamp (S-type PG clamp)
Solution Change the installation position
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.32 Location of wire damage
2.4.2.5 Insulator string installed incorrectly

Voltage 400 kV
Summary Insulator string wrongly installed

Cause An insulator string was wrongly installed during refurbishment. The split-pin in the second
insulator from the upper end was not correctly inserted and secured. During moderate
wind the insulator string separated and fell to ground (contact). A minor fire started as the
conductor-ground clearance became too small and also caused outage of the line. A
road that crossed the line had to be closed for some hours (Electrical distance conductor
ground 4 m).
Solution A new string was installed.
33
2.4.2.6 Damage caused by line drum

Voltage 420 kV
Summary Damage on conductor caused by every new turn of line drums
Cause Damage caused by line drum
Solution Replace
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.33 Damage caused by line drum
34
2.4.2.7 Damage caused by line bicycle

Voltage 420 kV
Summary Scratches on conductor
Cause Damage caused by line bicycle
Solution Repair with armour rods
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.34 Conductor damage caused by line bicycle
35
2.4.2.8 Damage caused by line bicycle

Voltage 420 kV
Summary Damage on conductor caused by line bicycle

Cause Tower 72 Damage caused by line bicycle
Solution Repair with Armour rods
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.35 Conductor damage caused by line bicycle
36
2.4.2.9 Anchor clamp installed upside down

Voltage 225 kV
Summary OHL, (16-01-2008) upside down fitting
Cause Earth wire stalled due to the break of an anchor clamp that was installed upside down
and broke. The assembly did not allow the clamp to ensure a correct pick up of traction
efforts.
Solution Better training of line crews
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.36 Upside down anchor clamp
37
2.4.3 Spacer and damper issues

Spacer and damper issues (see also CIGRE TB 277 [2005]), occur to a lesser extent and notable
examples are:
• Loose clamps, insufficient tightening of the bolts
• Incorrect position of the clamps
• Dissimilar metals
CIGRE TB 708 [2017] also shows conductor fatigue failure at vibration clamp and damper displaced
towards the span centre on conductor.
Examples of spacer and damper issues are shown in the following sub-sections.
38
2.4.3.1 Clamp loosening on a ring spacer

Voltage 69 – 500 kV
Summary Spacer clamp Issues
Cause Loose clamp has allowed distortion of a ring spacer
Solution Remove and re-apply
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.37 Distortion of a ring spacer due to a loose clamp
39
2.4.3.2 Corrosion
Voltage 66 kV
Summary Aerial ground wire was broken

Aerial ground wire type: Aluminium-plated copper stranded wire, 70 mm 2 x 1
Cause Electrical corrosion inside a copper alloy armor rod due to installation of a copper-wire
twist prevention damper on aluminium-plated copper stranded wire
Solution Reinstall GW and replace the damper and similar metal armour rod (aluminium Armour
rod)
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.38 Wire breakage
Figure 2.39 Corrosion
40
2.4.3.3 Clamp loosening on a bretelle damper

Voltage 500 kV
Summary Wire damage due to defective installation of a jumper spacer

(TACSR), 810 mm 2 x 4
Cause • Insufficient tightening of jumper spacer gripper

• Loosening of gripper led to wire damage due to vibration, etc.
Solution Repair the jumper wire using a maintenance sleeve
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.40 Wire damage
41
2.4.3.4 Clamp loosening on a quad spacer

Voltage 500 kV
Summary Wire damage due to defective installation of a conductor spacer

Power wire type: Thermo Resistance aluminium-alloy conductor, steel reinforced
(TACSR), 610 mm 2 x 4
Cause • Failure to fasten the bolts of the 4-conductor spacer clamp (ordinary bolt type)
• Loosening of the clamp led to wire damage due to vibration, etc.
Solution Replace the spacer and repair the wires using a maintenance sleeve
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.41 Spacer damper
Figure 2.42 Conductor damage
42
2.4.3.5 Clamp loosening on a torsional damper

Voltage 110 kV
Summary Electric wire damaged at a double torsional damper gripper for twin conductors.
(TACSR), 330 mm 2 x 2
Cause • Insufficient tightening of the damper gripper bolt

• Loosening of the gripper led to wire damage due to vibration, etc.
Solution Repair by inserting repair rods
Add damper tightening to the inspection checklist and include a relevant note in contract
work specifications
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.43 Double torsional damper gripper for twin conductors
Figure 2.44 Electric wire damage
43
2.4.3.6 Clamp loosening on a torsional damper

Voltage 22 kV
Summary Electric wire wires broken due to insufficient tightening of a double torsional damper
Cause • Insufficient tightening torque of the damper gripper

• Loosening of the gripper led to wire damage due to vibration etc.
Solution Ensure tight installation management
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.45 Location of wire breakage
44
2.4.3.7 Wrong installation of a spacer

Voltage 220 kV
Summary Wire damage due to defective installation of jumper spacer
Cause The jumper spacer gripper was not installed in the correct position (condition)
Solution Ensure tight installation management
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.46 Defective installation of jumper spacer
45
2.4.3.8 Detached damper

Voltage 110 kV
Summary The damaged damper (43 years old) was sent to the manufacturer, who assumed that
the damper had fallen off due to improper tightening of the bolt during installation.
Indeed, the ground wire clamp area was checked and the wire clamp marks were thin,
suggesting that the damper may not have been tightened enough. It appears that the bolt
broke the clamp due to its impact with the tower during the fall.
Cause Insufficient bolt tightening during installation
Solution • Tighten the damper with appropriate torque during installation, while checking how it
grips the wire
• Check the right diameter clamp is suited for the conductor diameter. Mark the bolt
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.47 Detached damper
Figure 2.48 Enlarged photo of the gripper
2.4.4 Insulator and other issues

Insulator and other issues are also covered in CIGRE TB184 [2001] on insulator handling wich
includes:
• Cable head crossover
• Bent Pins
• Rubber damaged before installation
• Ceramic sheds scratched
• Use of rigging hole for long term suspension
46
2.4.4.1 Over bending load on an insulator string

Voltage Above 154 kV
Summary Pin bent suspension insulators during lifting-up
Cause Over bending load is applied to pin due to inappropriate lifting of insulator string
Solution Insulator string shall be carefully lifted so as to avoid deformation of insulator pin or split
pin due to an abnormal load
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.49 Picture of the phenomenon (bending pin)
47
2.4.4.2 Damage of rubber of polymer insulators

Voltage All
Summary Damage of rubber of polymer insulators during lifting-up
Cause Over stress to shed and sheath of polymer insulator due to inappropriate lifting position
Solution Lifting line shall be attached to end fitting of polymer insulator
2.4.4.3 Damage of rubber and/or FRP core of polymer insulator

Voltage All
Summary Damage of rubber and/or FRP core of polymer insulator
Cause The polymer insulators were dragged on the ground
Solution Polymer insulators can be carried by spreading hands apart from the middle. Polymer
insulators should be carried by two people
2.4.4.4 Scratch on ceramic shell

Voltage All
Summary Scratch on ceramic shell
Cause Due to drag ceramic insulators on the ground
Solution Insulators shall not be dragged on the ground
48
2.4.4.5 Rigging Hole used for suspension

Voltage 33 kV
Summary Rigging Hole used for suspension
Cause Porcelain post insulator with pivot support used as a suspension situation. This is a
30 mm cast hole, not a machined parallel hole.
Solution Replace insulator with a drop eye or drop tongue
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.50 Porcelain post insulator with pivot support used as a suspension situation
49
2.4.4.6 Cable head crossover terminal deformed and cracked

Voltage 110 kV
Summary Cable head crossover terminal deformed and cracked

Electric wire type: Aluminium conductor, aluminium-coated steel reinforced (ACSR / AC),
160 mm2 x 1
Cause Forced shaping of the crossover terminal
Solution Replace the crossover
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.51 Location of cracked terminals
Figure 2.52 Crack in the terminal
Figure 2.53 Deformation caused the cracking
2.4.5 Construction issues

Construction issues lastly are focused on:
• Wrongly assembled comealong
• Wrongly installed aircraft warning marker
50
• Bad conductor on drums
• Birdcaged conductors on drums
• Superfluous bonding leads
• Steel defects
• Steel plate holes not chamfered
• Clevis mating with clevis
• Wrong fitting in clevis
Example of construction issues are shown in the following subsections.
51
2.4.5.1 Comealong clamp inner sleeves assembled backwards

Voltage 66 kV
Summary Comealong clamp inner sleeves assembled backwards, stripping conductor
Cause The inner sleeves of the comealong clamp were inserted the wrong way, causing
pinpoint contact at one end and not providing enough grip, resulting in slippage
Solution Ensure clamp inner sleeves are correctly inserted and that the gripping areas are parallel
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.54 Keyway in clamp does not match keyway in holder
Figure 2.55 Other end shows keyway holder does not match clamp
Figure 2.56 Correct assembly
Figure 2.57 Consequence of incorrect assembly
52
2.4.5.2 Broken U-bolt

Voltage 400 kV
Summary Guy U-bolt broke in tower attachment plate
Cause No chamfer on tower attachment plate hole as this hole is designed to accommodate a
shackle or clevis
Solution Use shackle in combination with guy assembly U-bolt or chamfer hole adequately to
accommodate curvature of U-bolt
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.58 Yoke passed through non chamfered hole
Figure 2.59 Breakage of U-bolt leg
Figure 2.60 Wrong interface between U-bolt and attachment plate
Figure 2.61 Broken U-bolt fitting
53
2.4.5.3 Birdcaging
Voltage 400 kV
Summary Conductor Damage
Cause Birdcaged on the reel
Solution Replace
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.62 Conductor birdcage on the reel
54
2.4.5.4 Aircraft Warning Marker (AWM) incorrectly installed

Voltage 400 kV
Summary Aircraft Warning Marker (AWM) wrongly installed
Cause Attachment rods applied incorrectly
Solution Follow suppliers instructions to correctly orientate attachment rods
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.63 Correct assembly of AWM
Figure 2.64 Rods applied too high
55
2.4.5.5 Poor winding of a conductor on a drum

Voltage
Summary Bad assembly of conductor on a drum
Cause Potential for birdcaging
Solution Replace
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.65 Bad assembly of conductor on a drum
56
2.4.5.6 New conductor with loose outer layer

Voltage 765 kV
Summary Birdcaging of Conductor
Cause Unacceptable conductor issued from factory with loose outer layer
Solution Cut out and replace. At 765 kV, Corona noise will be unacceptable.
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.66 Conductor birdcaging off the drum
57
2.4.5.7 Incorrect assembly of bonding lead

Voltage 0 kV
Summary Incorrect assembly of bonding lead to hardware fittings instead of bonding directly to
ground wire
Cause Installation crew not adhering to approved hardware drawing
Solution Bonding should be to the earthwire conductor through a parallel groove clamp or a
current transfer tab in the Factory Formed Suspension unit
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.67 Bonding lead connected to hardware fittings instead of earthwire
Figure 2.68 Bonding leads connected to hardware
58
2.4.5.8 Tower Steel defects

Voltage 0 kV
Summary Tower Steel defects
Cause Bad workmanship
Solution Reject
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.69 Steel de-laminating Figure 2.70 Holes welded, redrilled

and cracking, not deburred
Figure 2.71 Lip on edge along length
Figure 2.72 Delaminating flanges
59
2.4.5.9 Shackle used instead of a clevis

Voltage 0 kV
Summary Shackle inserted in Tower clevis without being able to split pin the bolt
Cause This is not the correct fitting. It should be a Clevis tongue/boss
Solution Redesign width of plates or use a boss fitting to take up the room
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.73 Wrong installation of a shackle instead of a clevis tongue/boss
60
2.4.5.10 Incorrect training manual

Voltage 33 kV
Summary Training manual incorrectly shows Fig 11.22 a Clevis Tongue LV insulator with the clevis
end joining a clevis thimble
Cause Two thimble clevises are not required. The Clevis end should meet a tongue of an eye
tongue or an eyebolt
Solution Use Thimble Eye of eye thickness small enough to go in the clevis
Photo
etc.
Figure 2.74 Incorrect training manual
61
3. Experiences of the members

3.1 Compression fittings
3.1.1 Improper conductor preparation – brushing, cleaning, why
The number one cause of connector failures is, by a majority of nearly 75% of all recorded failures,
associated with improper conductor preparation! Most linemen are taught to brush the conductor, but
inappropriately told that the purpose is to remove the oxides. Aluminium Oxide forms on the surface of
aluminium in milliseconds, and before you can get the brush to the end of the stroke, it has grown
back on the surface. A major mistake is made in assuming that new conductor, which appears “bright
and shiny” is clean of oxides, and makes a better connection – and therefore, because they have been
inappropriately instructed, linemen assume it is better not to brush it – because after brushing, it looks
dull and ugly. The primary purpose of brushing the conductor is to provide a ROUGHENED SURFACE
which will ultimately make a better electrical contact than the shiny surface (Figure 3.1).
It is imperative, even with new conductor to brush the surface aggressively. The brushing should be
accomplished using a clean stainless steel wire brush or a brass wire brush or an abrasive fleece
(Figure 3.2). Ferrous steel brushes leave “rust residue” which will contribute to problems with the
connection over time and should not be used.
Figure 3.1 Three points of contact

Following an aggressive brushing, the conductor should be wiped with a clean “lint free” cloth, and
then coated with the same type of inhibitor as is to be used with the connector during installation.
Once the inhibitor is applied, the conductor should be brushed again – through the inhibitor – using a
clean stainless steel brush. (Note: this brush may be used a few times, but once it has been
contaminated from a few uses, it should be discarded). Again, brushes are cheap – failed connectors
can cost millions! The purpose of this second brushing is to attempt to remove some oxide layer. The
grease of the inhibitor coats the conductor surface, shielding it from direct attack from oxygen in the
atmosphere. It is not 100% effective, but it has been shown repeatedly to make a measurable
difference in the initial resistance and performance of a connector.
Figure 3.2 Scratch brush: white for aluminium, black for copper
In the event the application is a “repair” or is being performed on “aged or weathered” conductor, even
more cleaning should be accomplished. Un-laying of conductor strands, for the purpose of cleaning
individual strands is a good practice, although it is typically considered impractical, as extreme care
must be employed to assure proper re-laying of the displaced strands. There are some “cleaning
systems” that have been recently deployed and have been shown to provide excellent deep cleaning
of strands on “aged-weathered” conductor, however, the steps of brushing, wiping, applying inhibitor,
and post brushing through the inhibitor should still be employed after the “cleaning” device has been
employed.
62
3.1.2 Improper preparation and handling of clamps

A properly cleaned conductor is meaningless if the clamp body itself is not properly prepared.
The inner surface of the compression area should be treated in the same way as the surface of the
conductor to guarantee the best possible electrical connection, to ensure a reliable service time.
Proper cleaning and brushing are mandatory.
To avoid excessive pollution during transport, stocking, site logistic and installation, the clamps should
be packed to avoid contamination.
3.1.3 Insufficient amount of inhibitor
Many connectors are either supplied with inhibitor, or the accompanying instructions indicate the
amount to be used. In either event, inhibitor, like oil in your car, is the least expensive “insurance” one
may obtain to insure the longevity of compression connectors. It is common for users to think the
instructions, or the “pre-filled” connectors contain “too much” inhibitor, because as installation
progresses, it appears that excessive amounts are expelled during the compression operation. This is
intentional! The proper inhibitor used with compression connectors contains a cleaning agent (i.e. grit),
which, as it is forced under pressure along the conductor strands serves to clean them. The initial front
waves of this inhibitor have therefore absorbed and accumulated debris and contaminants that are
intended to be expelled from the connection. If the proper amount is not provided, this cleaning action
is diminished. While it may appear at first as a waste, it is appropriate. Remember – two reasonable
considerations: (1) Manufacturers of connectors must compete with price against one or more
competitors, and inhibitor has a cost. If they could reduce their cost to become more competitive, they
would do so! (2) All the inhibitor used in a given utilities entire system does not cost as much as one
failed connector! Use the proper inhibitor. By proper, it means that the inhibitor chosen must suffer the
conditions of temperature of the conductor so as not to generate noise by exuding. This can really be
a problem because crews can use the end of an inhibitor of a manufacturer for a fitting A on a fitting B
of another manufacturer which is not appropriate.
3.1.4 Prefilled connectors
Some clients request to prefill the connectors, to guarantee a higher installation quality.
For steel parts of the double unit design, the prefilling may make sense, as the drilled hole will be
completely filled up with inhibitor and then plugged. In this case the inhibitor (mainly grease based) is
protected from oxygen and therefore oxidation of the inhibitor is reduced or can be neglected.
For the aluminium body of connectors, used for thinner conductors, the same technology of pre-filling
could be applied.
For thicker conductors, the complete prefilling of the inner hole is due to cost, not a standard practice.
Instead of a complete pre-fill just the inner surface of the compression body is coated.
If the surface of the inner hole will be coated with a relatively thin layer of inhibitor, this layer will be
exposed to oxygen, even if the hole is plugged, and will age due to oxidation.
Further, the risk of dust collection is higher as the greased surface is adhesive.
Usually, the logistic time in an OHTL project is some months up to years, this long time will influence
the lifetime and characteristic of the inhibitors negatively, if they are already applied by the fittings
manufacturer.
The best way to preserve the inhibitor is the storage in hermetically sealed units in bigger volumes
(i.e., tubes).
3.1.5 One die system
Dead ends arrive on site with the steel dead end factory-crimped into the aluminium body and pre-
filled with corrosion inhibitor. All you need is one compression die setup for the installation, so there’s
less tooling to contend with. You cut installation time in half compared to a two-die conventional
method. The single piece, easy-on, core grip is available in dead ends and splices for the most
popular ACSR conductors (Figure 3.3).
The “one-die” compression system is actually not common practise.
63
Figure 3.3 One die system

The compression splice assembly for ACSR or AACSR consists of a pre-filled aluminium body and
two (or, in some designs four) core gripping units. Splice assembly for AAAC & ACAR uses the same
splice body without the core gripping units. Each splice is marked usually with part number, conductor
type size and stranding, die size, minimum press size and manufactured date.
Figure 3.4 Components for dead end assembly

1. Prior to installation the conductor must be clean, straight and in lay. Any bend in the conductor
section inserted into the splice will tend to make the splice body bow during compression.
2. Mark conductor at the end at a distance equal to the insertion length. The insertion length is the
distance from the tapered end of the splice to the crimp-start mark toward splice centre. If the
conductor is AAAC or ACAR, skip to step 5.
3. For ACSR or AACSR, cut-mark the aluminium strands at a distance equal to the length of the
gripping unit (or gripping unit pair if two pair supplied with splice), plus one (1) steel core diameter.
Tape the aluminium strands 10-15 mm (½ inch) beyond the cut mark, to hold them in lay during
cutting. Expose the steel core by cutting away the aluminium strands to the cut mark. Be careful not to
nick the steel core while cutting away the aluminium strands. If necessary, use serving wire to keep
the steel core properly in lay.
4. Install the gripping unit on to the exposed steel core. Ensure that the steel core exits the rear of the
gripping unit. If serving wire was used to keep steel core strand in lay, assure it lies outside the
gripping unit, or is removed. DO NOT twist the core grip on the steel core.
5. Remove tape wrap. With a clean stainless steel wire brush (V-brush type recommended),
aggressively brush the aluminium conductor over the full outer aluminium strands to the insertion
length mark applied in step 2. Immediately apply a generous coat of joint compound over the entire
wire-brushed conductor section.
DO NOT REMOVE ANY FACTORY-FILLED JOINT COMPOUND FROM SPLICE TUBE
6. Remove the protective plastic end plug from one end of the splice. Insert the conductor end (with
core grip installed if ACSR or AACSR) installed into the splice to full insertion length as marked in
step 2. Once inserted, avoid pulling the conductor back out.
7. Select the proper compression dies as marked on the splice body. Mount die halves in press and
lubricate both die faces and the splice body compression zone with clean oil or clean plastic bag
material (if plastic is used as a lubricant, ensure that it wraps completely around the dead end tube,
fully covering both die faces during each compression). Make the first compression at the marking
near the centre (knurled ring) and continue sequential crimping to the tapered end. Ensure full die
closure with each crimp and overlap crimps by an amount necessary to prevent the formation of ridges
between adjacent crimps. To minimize bowing of the splice, keep the compression zone lubricated
equally at both die faces and fully seat the splice body in one die half as the dies close. As
compressions are completed, wipe off excess joint compound as it is expelled from the splice tube.
8. Repeat above process for the other splice-side conductor connection.
9. Remove any compression flash from the splice body and file or sand for smooth appearance.
64
DO NOT COMPRESS IN THE REVERSE DIRECTION. DO NOT APPLY TENSION TO THE

CONDUCTOR PRIOR TO COMPLETION OF ALL COMPRESSION.
Figure 3.5 Tools for marking conductors
Figure 3.6 Compress from the knurl mark outwards
3.1.6 Restrictions on the use of joints

A mid-span joint in a conductor or an earth wire shall be no closer than 8 m to a suspension insulator
string or closer than 30 m to a tension string. Preferably not more than one joint shall be used in any
one conductor or earth wire in any one span. A mid-span joint shall not be located in spans crossing
railway lines.
When a replacement of a joint must be performed by the use of two new joints and a section of new
conductor, the new conductor should have a length of at least 1000 times the conductors outer
diameter (CIGRE TB 216 [2002]).
Where a compression fitting is to be pulled over a stringing sheave it shall be protected by an
approved oversleeve. The design and use of protective oversleeves shall be subject to the approval of
the Supervisor. The sleeves shall be numbered to aid in identification. Protective oversleeves shall not
be pulled under tension through a structure having a resultant conductor deviation angle greater than
25 degrees.
65
Where compression fittings are required to pass through deviation angles greater than 25 degrees, the
conductor tension at the angle shall be reduced to not greater than 15% MCBL (minimum conductor
breaking load) and the joints shall be lifted through the sheave in a manner approved by the
Supervisor so as to minimise bending stresses on or near the joints.
3.1.7 Example of compression fitting installation
Figure 3.7 Clean the conductor with the Scratch Brush

ALUMINIUM DEAD END ASSEMBLY
1. Immediately prior to installation, clean the conductor and dead end assembly in accordance with the
instructions. Use compounds.
2. Bind the conductor appropriately prior to cutting (multiple binding).
3. Slip the aluminium dead end body over the end and back out of the way on the conductor.
4. Mark and sever the end of the conductor (with a tube/pipe cutter) a distance equal to the depth of
the bore of the steel eye barrel plus (25 mm (1 inch). Cut and remove the aluminium strands at this
point. DO NOT NICK THE STEEL STRANDS.
Figure 3.8 Mark and measure the barrel

5. Insert the steel core into the steel eye body to the full depth of the bore.
6. Lay out the conductor straight for four and a half metres (4.5 m, app. 15 ft). Support the conductor
when making compressions to hold the weight of the conductor away from the dead end assembly.
66
There should be no tension or load on the conductor or dead end assembly until all compression
procedures are complete.
7. The die size on the die and the die size marked on the steel eye barrel must be the same. The dies
must be closed for each compression.
8. Compress the barrel of the steel part body, beginning beside the knurled (or otherwise marked)
portion and working toward the outer end. Always overlap the previous die position by approximate
one quarter of the die bite. If the steel part body is bent too much to slip inside the aluminium dead
end body, it shall be cut out and replaced and the process above repeated. It should not be
straightened.
Figure 3.9 Compression of the sleeve

9. Remove any remaining cuttings or burrs from the end of the aluminium strands and slide the
aluminium dead end body over the steel part body. If a felt gasket is used make sure, that it butts
solidly against the felt gasket.
10. Tighten the aluminium strands. For conductors containing more than two layers of aluminium
strands tightening should be by the conductor from the binding to the dead end body. Mark the
conductor at the mouth of the fitting.
11. Inject sufficient compound with a caulking gun, or similar device, into the filler hole until compound
emerges at the end of the body. Gently hammer an aluminium filler plug into the filler hole and peen
the edge of the hole over the plug. For dead end bodies not equipped with filler-plugs, insert
compound into the end of the dead end body before inserting conductor.
12. Properly align the dead end body, ensuring it is snug against steel part gasket and the dead end
pad is in proper position.
13. The die size for the aluminium dead end body and the size marked on the die must be the same.
The dies must be closed for each compression.
Figure 3.10 Cable cutter and die set
67
14. Beginning at the die mark nearest the pad of the dead end body, start the first series of
compressions. Continue the compressions outward to the next die mark. Always overlap the previous
die position by approximately a quarter die bite.
15. Do not compress the aluminium tube above the compressions of the steel part body.
16. Beginning at the third die mark, make the second series of compressions. Continue the
compressions outward to the end of the barrel of the dead end body. Always overlap the previous die
position. If the completed dead end is too bent it should be cut out, replaced and the process above
repeated. Bent dead ends should not be straightened.
17. Aluminium sleeves may be compressed on to tensioned conductor only when the measured
tension on the compression fitting does not exceed 5 percent of the conductor rated strength or
5000 N, whichever is less, before all compressions are completed.
18. Coat the cleaned end of the jumper conductor with the same compound as prescribed in clause 1.
Insert the cleaned end of the conductor into the jumper terminal to the full depth of the bore.
Compress the jumper- terminal.
Starting at the pad end and working toward the outer end. Always overlap the previous die position by
approximately one quarter die bite.
19. Clean the contact surfaces of the pads by wire-brushing and then rubbing compound on to the
pads. Without removing compound, bolt to the torque specified in stringing instructions. Remove
excess compound.
20. Carefully round all corners, projections and indentations resulting from the compressions to a
radius of not less than the radius between two inside faces of the die. Carefully round all other edges
and corners that have been damaged to their original radius. Smooth nicked, abraded and scratched
surfaces. Remove tape, tape residue and compounds from the dead end body and conductor.
Figure 3.11 Clean the surface

STEEL COMPRESSION
1. Ensure that components match the conductor on which they are to be used.
2. The conductor stranding or conductor type will be stamped onto the dead end body and jumper lug.
Ensure that the inside surface of the dead end body, jumper lug and steel part are free from blockages
or obstructions.
3. To ensure a good electrical contact, the bore of compression dead ends and the conductor itself
must be clean and free from dust and dirt. The surface of the conductor should be cleaned by using
solvent or suitable degreasing fluid. The length to be cleaned should be approximately 1.25 times as
long as the dead end.
4. Slide the dead end body over the aluminium strands, ensuring that the tapered end is towards the
middle of the span.
5. Measure the compression length of the steel part and add 15mm.
6. Measuring from the end of the conductor, mark this length on the aluminium strands
7. Bind the aluminium strands on the span side of this mark so that the conductor does not unwind
using a suitable tape or tie.
8. Cut the aluminium strands at this point to leave the steel bare but take care not to damage the steel
core wires.
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Figure 3.12 Dead end assembly

9. Insert the steel strands into the steel tail.
10. Select the correct Across Flat (A/F) size die to suit the steel tail (the AF size will be marked on the
steel part, and will be shown on the drawing).
11. Commencing from the knurl mark or other marking, compress the steel part onto the steel core.
Overlap the compressions by about 50% and progress along the tail until the end of the tail is reached.
The dies must close fully for each compression.
12. Thoroughly scratch brush the aluminium strands and immediately apply a liberal coating of jointing
grease to the surfaces that have been scratch brushed. Scratch brushing of the strands may also be
done after application of the grease.
13. Slide aluminium dead end body back to meet the steel part of the dead end. The gap between
steel and the end of the end of the body should be 5-8 mm.
14. Select the correct AF size die to suit the Aluminium body (the AF size will be stamped on the dead
end body.)
15. Make the initial compression on the aluminium body over the steel convolutions beginning at the
‘start knurl’ or other type of marking nearest the steel part tail. Continue making compressions to the
stop marking nearest the palm of the dead end.
16. Overlap the previous compression by approximately 50%. For each compression the dies must
close fully.
17. Compress the aluminium body onto the aluminium strands. Make the initial compression on the
dead end body over the conductor beginning at the ‘start knurl’ nearest the dead end palm. Continue
making compressions to the end of the dead end body, moving towards the conductor.
18.Overlap the previous compression by approximately 50%. For each compression the dies must
close fully.
19. Remove any flash or burrs.
20. Check the fitting carefully after compression. There must be no signs of cracks or distress on any
component, including the steel eye tail and aluminium body.
Figure 3.13 Example of jumper lug installation

ALUMINIUM JUMPER LUG
69
1. Follow the procedure as described for dead ends.

2. Thoroughly scratch brush the contact surfaces of the jumper lug and the palm of the dead end.
3. Liberally coat contact surfaces with approved jointing grease or contact grease.
4. Bolt the two lug surfaces together. Partially tighten the bolts and then retighten each to the
recommended torque. Use a calibrated torque wrench, tighten the bolts in sequence cross-wise, if
possible.
3.1.8 Splices
Follow the procedure as described for dead end fitting.
Figure 3.14 shows an example fo a splice installed too close to a span end.
Figure 3.14 A Splice installed too close to a suspension clamp
3.1.9 Jointing compound
Figure 3.15 Jointing compound applied in the body hole
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Joint type Compound

Steel compressed on steel or ACS Core None*
Steel compressed on steel, ACS guy or None except if covered by
ground wire aluminium sleeve
Compression dead
end and splice Aluminium compressed on conductor Compound according to
alone or on fitting manufacturer's recommendation
Copper compressed on copper
None
conductor
Aluminium compressed on any Compound according to
conductor manufacturer's recommendation
Compression jumper Copper compressed on aluminium Not recommended, improper
terminal conductor material mix
Copper compressed on copper
None
conductor
Aluminium to aluminium Electrical contact compound
Bolted pads and Copper to copper None

clamps, non-plated Aluminium clamp on copper conductor Electrical contact compound
Aluminium to copper **
Bolted pads – one or both plated Electrical contact compound
Repair rods on aluminium conductor Electrical contact compound
Repair rods or preformed grips on steel, alumoweld or copper
None
conductor
Helically wrapped shunts Electrical contact compound
Implosive fittings None
*Grease is for corrosion protection
** It is no longer a standard practice to compress copper on aluminium.
3.1.10 Cleaning instructions
Immediately prior to installing the above fittings, wire brush all contact areas of the conductor and
fittings to remove dirt, black deposits and oxide film. Do not wire brush plated surfaces, bore of steel
fittings containing grit or any other surface containing grit placed there by the manufacturer. When the
conductor is excessively oxidized (dull grey or black), clean the second layer of aluminium strands by
unwrapping a sufficient length of the outer layer to permit wire brushing of the exposed second layer
strands.
Note: It is preferable to use filler compound from the same manufacturer as the fitting manufacturer.
Figure 3.16 Ready to compress eyetail
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Figure 3.17 Slide aluminium dead end body over steel forging
3.1.11 Manufacturers instructions

Thus far, this document has provided certain instruction and information in general, and some of the
further instruction may be considered “general” however, it is imperative that specific instructions,
provided by the manufacturer of the connector be followed implicitly. There are at least 2 reasons this
is necessary:
(A) The connector provided has been tested to certain industry specifications, and for the purpose of
complying with these testing requirements, the connectors were prepared and installed with specific
tools, methods and inhibitors. Any deviation from these specifications (assuming they are provided in
the instructions with the connector) may result in worse performance than that recorded during the
testing.
(B) The manufacturer normally provides some warranty with their product, and any deviation from the
instructions provided will result in voiding that warranty. While the user may have well discovered that
enhanced performance or service life might be gained by altering the use of the manufacturer’s
recommendations of tools, methods and inhibitors, it should be noted that the warranty provided may
not be honoured.
Manufacturer’s instructions should be as detailed as possible but at the same time as simple as
possible, otherwise linemen will not read the instructions, in the worst case they will ignore it.
The most effective instruction or installation guide is based on simple pictures or sketches, without any
text.
3.1.12 Wrong type of inhibitor – gritted Vs non-gritted – why?
Recommendation: follow the manufacturer’s instructions. Connectors are tested and approved with a
particular inhibitor. If some other inhibitor is substituted, the results may possibly be better, but it is
virtually certain, that it will not be the same. The following may be considered “general rules” but may
possibly not apply in every situation.
The principal purpose of inhibitor is to prevent or “inhibit” the ingress of oxygen and electrolytes (rain
water) into the connector interface which would rapidly degrade their integrity. However, some
inhibitors incorporate particulate matter or grit for various purposes, including cleaning the interface
surfaces, perforating oxide layers, and/or serving as contact aids to improve the percentage of actual
contact surface.
As a general rule, “gritted inhibitors” are intended to be used “inside of compression connectors” and
non-gritted inhibitors” are commonly intended for use with bolted connectors.
The reason for this is that “most” gritted inhibitors incorporate “non-conductive” particles as the “grit”
and the bolted connectors typically do not produce enough compressive force to imbed them into the
connector and conductor surface. The result is that the non-conductive particles serve to prevent the
electrical contact surfaces from engaging properly.
Again, it is imperative to emphasize that the instructions of the connector manufacturer should be
followed. The difference in inhibitors and their ability to enhance or degrade a specific type of
connector is substantial, and is beyond the scope of this document.
3.1.13 Incomplete die closure during compression
Incomplete die closure is most commonly the result of either being in a hurry, or poor workmanship or
inappropriately serviced hydraulic pumps and compression dies. However, die lubricants
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(Section 3.1.22) can play a factor, as well improper calibration of the relief valve on the hydraulic
pump. It is important to have the pump and press appropriately maintained and calibrated periodically.
Other factors which may result in improper die closure may include improper seating of the dies within
the press, or foreign matter which impedes the dies from achieving proper closure. The lineman must
be careful to observe the press operation to assure complete die closure is achieved.
Proper inspection techniques should include periodic measurements of the outside diameter of
pressed connectors, to assure the dimension is within the tolerance provided by the manufacturer.
Incomplete die closure could also happen due to excess material which will form a burr between the
two dies.
Compression dies of high quality are shaped in a way to reduce this phenomenon.
3.1.14 Wrong die used
Many connector failures have been attributed to having been compressed with the wrong die. Be
certain that the correct die has been selected, and properly installed (Figure 3.18). To achieve
absolute certainty, a measurement should be taken after the first compression.
The most common reason this occurs is using the press on different applications during the same job.
The press is swapped back and forth between two crews to improve productivity.
Another cause for this problem is simply not having the correct die, and substituting something “close”
in order to get the job completed in a timely manner. Proper planning can avoid this common mistake.
Figure 3.18 Typical hexagonal compression dies
3.1.15 Die design

In order to achieve the best quality in compression the dies should be well designed.
Sharp edges must be avoided to prevent overstress of the compressed material due to shear forces.
All dies should be permanently marked with the die size and/or conductor code.
Dies should be designed in a way to be fixed rigidly in the compression tool to guarantee a proper
compression.
Upper and lower die should be symmetrically formed and should operate together properly.
3.1.16 Compression outside the “compression zone”
If the hexagonal radial compression is NOT placed properly at the marked compression zones the
radial loads will be placed on the aluminium tube only, without the underlying conductor.
The compression is placed “in air”.
As there is no counterforce from the conductor the aluminium tube will be excessive deformed and
stressed due to shear forces.
This will result in tiny cracks which usually are not detected by the lineman. Such compression fittings
will not fulfil the requirement of a safe and long term service condition due to reduced mechanical
integrity.
Accelerated aging and corrosion due to water ingress as well as complete breaks due to loading are
the usual type of failure.
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3.1.17 Conductor not fully inserted – marking where and why – and how
If the conductor is not fully inserted, different type of failures are possible. First of all, some
compressions will show the same phenomena as described under Section 3.1.16.
Usually, the compression length is based on the RTS of the conductor. If the conductor is not fully
inserted the specified breaking load cannot be reached as some mechanical grip (resistance) is
missing.
The same situation applies to the electrical loading. As contact area is missing the full current capacity
must be transferred over a reduced contact area which will lead to an increased current density.
This could result in accelerated aging as well increase of temperature.
3.1.18 Splice not properly centred – similar to 3.1.8, but worth a different mention
If the aluminium tube of a midspan joint is not properly centred all influences and phenomena
mentioned under Sections 3.1.16 and 3.1.17 could happen.
3.1.19 Not compressing to the end
This is similar to the previous section.
Usually, the compression length is based on the Rated Tensile Strength (RTS) of the conductor. If the
conductor is not fully inserted the specified breaking load cannot be reached as some mechanical grip
(resistance) is missing.
The same situation applies to the electrical loading. As some contact area is missing the full current
capacity must be transferred over a reduced contact area which will lead to an increased current
density.
This could result in accelerated aging as well as increase of temperature.
In addition, compression connectors are typically manufactured with an outside taper at the end. The
result of compressing to the end will transfer this outer taper into an inner taper (trumpet mouth) which
provides a gradual transition from no compression to full compression, commonly over 2 or more
conductor diameters. Failure to provide this results in a comparatively sharp or short transition zone
which serves as a stress riser, and also makes this area more prone to damage from vibration.
3.1.20 Bowed or “banana” connectors (causes and prevention it)
Causes:
• Not properly straightening the conductor during the installation procedure
• Compression dies not contacting simultaneously and symmetrically
• Unsymmetrical wall thickness of the tube, outside tolerance during production or processing. Non-
continuous compression and use of undersized dies
Impact:
• Reduced breaking load
• Poor visual appearance
How to prevent:
• Overlapping compression
• Turning the compression tool by 120° after each compression
• Placing the conductor each side of the hydraulic compressor on a supporting rack to avoid
bending
• Applying die lubrication
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3.1.21 Die lubrication

During the radial compression high mechanical friction occur between the soft aluminium tube and the
hardened steel dies.
This could lead in the worst case to micro cracks in the tube surface.
Lubricating the die surface reduces the mechanical friction.
“Wet” lubrication (i.e. grease, oil) is the usual way but special attention has to be made to avoid any
contamination as any particles will be pressed into the soft aluminium surface.
“Dry” lubrication (i.e. Teflon spray) is preferred as this method of lubrication will not collect
contamination particles.
In both technologies special attention has to be taken to ensure a clean working procedure and to
protect the environment.
If “wet” lubricant is used it should be harmless to the aluminium or aluminium alloy used.
An alternate lubricant is a thin sheet of polyethylene or similar plastic film wrapped about the
compression tube. Commonly, the bag the connector was shipped in may serve well if it is not dirty,
but any plastic film commonly 3-5 mils (0.07-0.127 mm typical), will provide an effective lubricant.
3.1.22 Birdcage conditions
Birdcaging (Figure 3.19) of the conductor ends usually occurs at compression type clamps due to
longitudinal forces during the compression process.
Conductors having soft aluminium at the outer layer, ACSS types and conductors having loose
strands in the outer layers are more prone to this phenomenon.
Birdcaging means opening of the conductor outer layers which will result in higher water ingress and
consequently an increased risk of corrosion due to pollution or damage due to icing.
Further the level of noise will increase due to HF vibration on the individual loosened strands; higher
risk of corona is possible.
The most essential disadvantage is the uneven mechanical load distribution on the individual strands.
Figure 3.19 Typical birdcaging

Birdcaging is more serious in short spans notably in laboratory tests as due to their reduced length. In
long spans some readjustment of strands can take place reducing this phenomenon.
The installation of armour rods or any other type of helical fittings is more difficult if there is a birdcage.
Birdcaging could also be initiated during the pulling process due to the improper use of come along
clamps. With jumper loops, depending on the type of terminals used, one may be able to reverse
crimp them. You only need do this on the last end. Some terminals are made via casting or forging,
but some are made by simply flattening tubing. Those made from flattened tube may be reverse
pressed, beginning on the conductor end and working toward the bolted pad. If they have sufficient
inhibitor in them, some inhibitor will be forced out through the pressed end, and most manufacturers
are ok with that. If they are the forged or cast type, you can drill a small hole at the base, adjacent the
bolted pad, to allow the hydraulic pressure to escape. Be sure to choose a drill size equivalent to that
of the conductor strand you are using, then you can take a piece of strand, and drive it in the hole to
reseal it. If you are concerned with warranty, you may wish to contact the manufacturer before using
any of these techniques.
Deadends are different. Reverse pressing a dead end is generally not acceptable. Reverse pressing a
dead end creates extreme stresses in the conductor core and the steel eye component of the dead
75
end due to the extrusion/expansion of the aluminium as it is pressed, which can result in internal
fractures sufficient to cause mechanical failure. This failure could occur instantly, while installation is
still in process, or possibly a few months or years later.
Usually, if during the pressing operation, assuming you have full insertion of the conductor, one can
make the first two presses, then let off of the hoist about 50%, make another couple of presses (a total
of 4 or 5), and then go ahead and let off the hoist. This allows the stranding to expand further into the
span, whereas the grip restricts that movement. Just be certain that the conductor is fully inserted, and
it is recommended to mark the conductor at the mouth of the fitting so that as you let off the hoist, you
can be certain that the conductor is held fast. For larger conductors, it may be necessary to make
another press bite or two to hold them securely before letting off the hoist.
Also, the more distance you have between the dead end and the grip, the less birdcaging you will
have to begin with.
3.1.23 Direction of compression – toward tension span – reasons why – possible
alternatives
The usual compression sequence is towards the span.
Reason:
Compression towards the span reduces the longitudinal stress on the wires inside the compression
clamp.
Further the risk of improper installation is reduced as the first compression (clamp side) creates a
mechanical fixing point and all further elongation of the aluminium tube will be directed towards the
span where the clamp can move freely on the conductor.
If the first compression is placed at the compression clamp end (span side) the subsequent elongation
of the tube and conductor is directed towards the clamp side.
In the case of ACSR conductors, where a separate steel part is pressed in, the exact elongation has to
be examined prior the compression to set the correct gap between tube end and steel part at the
beginning of the compression process.
If the gap is not well adjusted the risk of different extensions of the soft aluminium tube and steel part
is high, and will pre-stress the aluminium tube.
A similar phenomenon happens inside the clamp for ACSR conductors if the gap between the ends of
the aluminium strands and the end of the steel part is not properly adjusted.
Alternatives:
In case of special type of conductors (i.e., HTLS) the compression towards the span could provide
some minor increase of thermal capability which would affect short conductor lengths such as used for
laboratory tests.
3.1.24 Bolted pads and associated issues
A typical bolted pad is shown in Figure 3.20.
Figure 3.20 Bolted pad with weld to compression connector
3.1.24.1 Type of bolts

Usually steel bolts are used, having a grade of quality 8 (European quality; tensile strength
800 N/mm2).
The bolt size and number of bolts is based on the current capacity (maximum electrical loading of the
conductor in Amps), based on the contact area of the pad which is calculated to transfer the full
current.
76
HTLS conductors will require pads with a larger contact area compared to standard conductors.
As the pads are made of aluminium and therefore experience some creep under the bolt compression,
an appropriate elastic compensator (i.e., Belleville washer) is of benefit.
Many tests have proven that aluminium bolts provide a better electrical connection – enduring over
time – as opposed to steel bolts. The reasons are twofold:
• The coefficient of thermal linear expansion of steel is only about ½ that of aluminium. As the
connector heats and cools over time, the steel moves. The Belleville washer can compensate for
this; however, the connector still lacks the conductivity.
• Aluminium bolts, are about 1/3 as conductive as the connectors themselves (connectors typical
40-60% IACS – bolts typically 20-25% IACS), compared to steel bolts with only 2.5% IACS
conductivity or 10% that of Aluminium bolts – and thus additional current path is provided, and
connectors operate with less overall resistance.
Regarding the comment on “creep” – using a bolt of extreme tensile strength on aluminium forgoes the
spring tension intended to be provided by the bolt, and while the Belleville washer can compensate for
this, it is necessary it be properly engineered, and properly installed. This can be accomplished,
however an overwhelming abundance of empirical evidence suggests the installation is rarely
controlled to a sufficient degree.
With bronze or copper alloy connectors, the same reasoning applies for the argument to use Silicon
Bronze bolts.
With bi-metallic connections, there is no opportunity to maintain equal coefficient of linear thermal
expansion– and one must rely on the properly engineered and installed Belleville washer assembly to
maintain constant force in the joint over the entire temperature range to which the connector will be
subjected.
The science of bolted joints may be too extensive to be properly addressed in this document.
3.1.24.2 Bolt torque requirements
The tightening torque has to be chosen according to the grade of bolt used, and also to the installed
type of elastic washer.
Depending on the elastic washer a reduced torque is required. Another opinion is that the washer
must be properly engineered for the joint, which includes the bolt and the material being joined.
Bolts should be always tightened by the use of a calibrated torque wrench.
To ensure the best quality of tightening, the bolts should be tightened crosswise, at least 2 times.
3.1.24.3 Inhibitor
An inhibitor is strongly recommended to avoid water ingress and accelerated aging due to oxidation.
The inhibitor should be without additional grit.
Cleaning of the contact area:
• The contact area should be cleaned in the same way as the conductor (see section 3.1.1).
• Special attention must be taken to clean sharp edges or burrs resulting from transportation and/or
manipulation on site.
3.1.25 Special or peculiar components related to compression connectors
The felt washer/spacer on dead ends:
• Ensure the presence of a washer; felt, rubber or elastomeric material. This is to prevent contact
between the end of the aluminium tube as it is being compressed and the annular ferrule or stop
on the steel eye of a dead end.
3.1.26 Filling of cavity with filling grease/gel
Compression dead end clamps used in cold areas (North Europe, Alp areas, Canada…) can
experience cracked clamp tubes if water ingresses into the cavity in the vicinity of the steel part, and
then expands following freezing.
To avoid water ingress whether the gap is prefilled prior the installation by applying the inhibitor in this
area or, which is more effective, filling up the cavity after the compression process.
77
In this case a higher viscosity grease or gel should be used to fill up the cavity and “plug” the open
conductor end inside the clamp.
The filling hole must be properly closed after the filling process.
3.1.27 Grease for High Temperature Low Sag (HTLS) conductors
HTLS conductors are designed to run up to 250°C.
But the compression clamps which are in direct contact with the conductor should be designed in a
way to avoid temperatures higher than app. 90°C to reduce the creep phenomenon.
As the grease/inhibitor is only used inside the clamps, the grease/inhibitor will not be exposed to
temperature higher than the app. 90°C.
This is the minimum dropping point of the grease normally used.
Some clients request the same dropping point for the grease as the conductor’s maximum
temperature, which is not needed.
3.1.28 Packing for transportation
Compression fittings should be packed in a way to avoid mechanical damages or contamination
during the transport, storage or manipulation at site. A separate coating of the sensitive contact area is
of benefit. Grease/inhibitors should be packed separately and hermetically sealed to avoid oxidation.
3.2 Installation of insulators and line fittings

3.2.1 Insulators
Insulators shall be installed as shown on the drawings. Immediately prior to installation all insulators
shall be cleaned in a manner approved by the supervisor. When installing ceramic type insulators, the
contractor shall take care that they are not chipped or otherwise damaged. Damaged insulators shall
not be erected. Strings of disc insulators shall be hauled so as to minimise loading stresses on the
insulator pins and security clips.
Non-ceramic composite insulators shall not be removed from their protective packing, if so supplied,
until immediately prior to installation.
At the completion of conductor clamping, all insulator assemblies on in-line suspension structures and
all jumper assemblies on strain structures shall hang vertically. Insulator assemblies on angle
suspension structures shall be on the bisector of the horizontal conductor angle.
Deviation from correct alignment at the conductor end of the insulator assembly shall not exceed
100 mm.
Figure 3.21 Examples of jumpers
3.2.2 Preformed fittingsf

All preformed fittings shall be installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
The outer surface of the cable shall be thoroughly cleaned of all grease with a suitable solvent and
dried before application of the preformed fitting.
Preformed fittings for use in tension positions shall not be re-applied. Such a fitting shall be destroyed
after its first removal.
3.2.3 Tension and suspension assemblies
Tension and suspension assemblies shall be assembled and erected as shown on the drawings.
78
Shackles and clevis bolts do not need to be tight. The nuts should pass the split pin hole and ensure
that no threads are placed in tension.
Armour grip suspension units shall be installed such that the ends of preformed rods do not differ in
alignment by more than 15 mm.
Safety goggles shall be worn by workers handling, tensioning, or clamping in glass insulators (in case
of spontaneous shattering of the glass).
3.2.4 Bridging assemblies
Bridging / jumper assemblies are used to connect the electrical circuit on tension structures.
The contractor shall install bridging conductor such that the electrical clearances are maintained.
Where a bridging insulator string is employed, the conductor length shall be such that it exerts a
positive weight downwards on the bridging insulator string or post insulator. The bridging conductors
shall hang neatly without twists and kinks. Bridging /Jumper assemblies may also be at perpendicular
to the vertical and for low voltage can be over the top.
Where directed by the supervisor, all metallic contact surfaces between adjacent ceramic insulator
discs shall be treated with an approved conducting grease applied in a manner approved by the
supervisor. The contact surfaces of bolted conductor palms shall be thoroughly scratch brushed until
shiny, wiped clean, and immediately lightly coated with an approved jointing compound, before bolting
of the palms.
Figure 3.22 Example of bridging
3.2.5 Insulator Assemblies

◼ GENERAL:
◼ Carefully handle and install insulators and assemblies.
◼ The structure list shows the required assembly type and the drawings show the hardware
configurations.
◼ PORCELAIN AND TOUGHENED GLASS INSULATORS:
o Prior to installation, clean insulators. During installation, keep insulators clean.
o Avoid excessive tilting or tipping of yokes or bending of insulator strings, which could
deform ball pins, cotter keys, or hardware.
o Prior to use, obtain approval of lifting devices.
o Fully insert cotter keys into caps. Do not bend humpback keys. Bend back cotter pins
in hardware bolts.
o Insulators may be hung on crossarms during erection. Do not drag insulators on the
ground.
o After installation, when necessary to pull insulator strings from the vertical position,
pull the strings near the lower end. Always ease strings back to the vertical position.
◼ LENGTH OF ASSEMBLIES:
◼ The drawings show the approximate length of assemblies. Check these lengths in the
field.
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3.2.6 Other Fittings

Where required on the drawings, other fittings such as aircraft warning spheres, parallel groove
clamps and counterweights shall be installed in accordance with the drawings and the manufacturer’s
instructions. Installation of these items shall be included in the rates in the “Erection of line materials”
schedule.
3.2.7 Transpositions
Where required, phase transpositions will be effected by rolling the phases over two spans with the
orientation of crossarms reversed on the middle structure or the transpositions may occur when
changing from vertical to horizontal configuration.
Figure 3.23 High voltage transposition of phases
3.2.8 Requirements for OPGW

The requirements for handling, installation, etc. of OPGW provided by the manufacturers must be
followed.
3.3 Helical fittings

For the proper installation of the Helical fitting:
3.3.1 Final installation
Final installation of any factory formed wire product is done when the rod ends are snapped into place.
This is critical to ensure the proper performance of the product and its permanent installation.If the rod
ends are not snapped into place the helix could “unwrap” as the cable experiences cyclical tension
loading. Under this condition, the cable will have a rotational component that pulls and pushes on the
interface of the formed wire product.
All the rods supplied in or with the product must be used for the specified application. These products
were designed to use all the rods and removal of one will reduce product performance.
The need to use all rods in a helical product - rods should not be discarded during installation. If a rod
does not fit, the application may be incorrect.
3.3.2 Products installed at crossover marks
All testing of factory formed wire products is done at the appropriate installation point of the product on
the conductor. Not installing the product at the crossover or application marks can lead to reduced
holding strengths, reduced contact area, or reduced surface area for installation of other product over
the top.
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3.3.3 Limit to one application

In regards to termination and splicing products, it is important to limit the number of times they are
applied and removed. The removal of the factory formed wire product multiple times can lead to
deformation of the formed wire as well as loss of the holding strength of the device. For this reason,
they are designed for single use only.
3.3.4 Ties to be rotated in place
When installing certain tie products, it is important that they be rotated 180 degrees about the insulator
to ensure the insulator is properly captured. Other non-rotational ties still require that a loop be
installed about the neck of the insulator and locked under the shoulders.
3.3.5 Touch on proper tools – hot stick ring and fib
All factory formed wire products can be installed on the conductor or strand without the use of tools.
However, if the product is to be installed on an energized line the use of hot stick tools is required.
Proper tie, armour rod, or splice application can be achieved with the use of a hold stick and the
Applicator ring tool. In the case of removal of a factory formed wire product, a screwdriver should not
be used. Instead a nylon or plastic fib should be utilized in order to protect the conductor or strand.
3.3.6 Cleaning the conductor before installing a splice
All manufacturers of splicing products require the proper preparation of the conductor. This is no
different with factory formed wire splices and shunts. The area of the conductor where the splice or
shunt makes contact must be wire brushed clean and a quality conductor compatible inhibitor applied
prior the product's installation.
3.3.7 Rod end aligned for HV application
To ensure limited electrical noise at HV voltage levels, it is important that the rod end of the formed
wire product be treated with an HV rod end treatment. These ends must also be in relatively close
alignment.
3.3.8 Rod modification
It is never acceptable to modify in any way the formed rods of a helical product. Any modification can
have a detrimental effect on the product’s desired performance. No modification of rods on site before
installation – cutting of rods in the field is not recommended due to burrs or sharp edges that may exist
after modification. These sharp points can cause damage to the conductor.
3.3.9 Helical products not to be used as a tool
Helical Products are not meant as pulling tools for tensioning devices unless specifically designed for
that application.
The above recommendations apply to both transmission and distribution products.
3.4 Vibration dampers

3.4.1 Installation of dampers
When dampers must be installed, the contractor shall install them on conductors and earth wires in
accordance with the drawings and the manufacturer’s instructions. Vibration dampers shall be
installed immediately after the conductor is clamped in the suspension clamps. Delay of a few days
may cause fatigue of outer strands of the conductor at the suspension clamps.
The supervisor may require the contractor to install additional dampers at specified locations.
Aeolian vibration dampers are available in a variety of configurations and designs, making ingenious
use of several different materials (Figure 3.24). Some dampers have helically attached clamps but
most Stockbridge dampers, bretelles, and festoons are installed by means of bolted metal-to-metal
clamps.
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Figure 3.24 Aeolian vibration dampers: top left to bottom right: Symmetrical Stockbridge damper,
asymmetrical Stockbridge damper, torsional damper, elastomeric damper
The specifying of a torque value for the tightening of bolts on vibration dampers has so far been the
best means of determining the clamping force required and this value has been shown on all vibration
dampers.
If the bolt has a breakaway outer head, tighten the bolt until the breakaway head shears off. Ensure
that the wrench socket axis is aligned with the bolt axis during tightening. It is suggested to collect the
heads since they may be a hazard for animals and it is a good way to make sure that the clamp bolts
have been properly tightened.
When inserting the conductor in the damper clamp, loosen the bolt but it should not be required to
remove the bolt.
The damper clamp shall be able to accommodate any variation of the conductor diameter induced by
conductor creep and temperature variation.
3.4.2 Protected span length
The number and position of vibration dampers is optimised to attenuate aeolian vibrations on the
conductor below an acceptable limit. The length of span which may be protected with dampers to
prevent conductor fatigue depends to a great extent on the following parameters:
• The mechanical tension in the span
• The terrain category which determines the wind turbulence to which the conductor may be
exposed
• The type of conductor which determines its self-damping ability and its propensity to vibration
It is well known that stranded conductors get more vulnerable to aeolian vibrations as tension is
increased. Guidance to establish safe design tension for both single and some bundle conductors was
provided by Task Force B2.11.04 [CIGRE TB273, 2005] and is reported in Table 3.1. They discarded
the EDS concept since it led to fatigue failures in a significant number of cases. Thus, the parameter
H/w, the ratio between the initial horizontal tensile load H and conductor weight w per unit length was
adopted. This tension refers to initial horizontal tension before any significant wind and ice loading and
before creep, at the average temperature of the coldest month on the site of the line.
For damper recommendations, H/w is used in conjunction with another parameter intended at rating
the protective capacities of the damping system LD/m. That is the ratio of the product of span length L
and conductor diameter D over the conductor mass per unit length.
The recommended safe design tension for single conventional round strand conductors (all aluminium
A1 (AAC) conductors; all aluminium alloy A2 or A3 (AAAC) conductors; aluminium/aluminium alloy
A1/A2 or A1/A3 (ACAR) conductors and steel-reinforced aluminium A1/Syz (ACSR) conductors) with
respect to aeolian vibrations is provided in Table 3.1 and illustrated in Figure 3.25. The safe design
tensions depend also on terrain categories that have been divided into four categories according to
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general characteristics (Table 3.2). Should there be any doubt about real terrain category, the lowest
class should be selected.
Safe tension guidelines for single conductors with elastomeric suspension clamps were analysed and
presented in CIGRE technical brochure No. 653 "Safe design tensions for single conductors fitted with
elastomer cushioned suspension units" [2016].
The analysis of safe conductor tensions was extended to bundle conductor lines and is available in
CIGRE TB 273 [2005].
Table 3.1 Recommended safe design tension with respect to aeolian vibrations for single conductors
Terrain Cat. #1 Terrain Cat. #2 Terrain Cat. #3 Terrain Cat. #4

Conductor
system LD/m LD/m LD/m LD/m
H/w (m) H/w (m) H/w (m) H/w (m)
(m3/kg) (m3/kg) (m3/kg) (m3/kg)
Undamped
single < 1000 < 1125 < 1225 < 1425
conductor
Single
conductor
with span- < 15 < 15 < 15 < 15
end
dampers
Single
conductors
with 1100 m 1250m 1425m 1600m
elastomer (1275m) (1425m) (1625m) (1800m)
lined
clamps*
* The initial values are based on statistical analysis of the field data including dispersion of data.
Values in brackets are based on lower limit of field data.
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Table 3.2 Terrain categories (Table 2 of TB 273)
Terrain
Terrain characteristics
category
Open, flat, no trees, no obstruction, with snow cover, or near/across large bodies of
1--------
water; flat desert.
2-- -- -- Open, flat, no obstruction, no snow; e.g. farmland without any obstruction, summer time.
Open, flat, or undulating with very few obstacles, e.g. open grass or farmland with few
3-- --- ---
trees, hedgerows and other barriers; prairie, tundra.
Built-up with some trees and buildings, e.g. residential suburbs; small towns; woodlands
4_______
and shrubs. Small fields with bushes, trees and hedges.
(The color of the curves corresponds to those indicated in Table 3.2)

Figure 3.25 Recommended safe design tension for single conductor lines with and without Stockbridge
dampers
3.4.3 Damper Placement and orientation

On free spans, i.e., in spans where there are no reflection points, such as warning devices, or other
heavy items, vibration dampers are normally applied at span extremities. Other position criteria called
in-span damping are considered only in very special cases such as long spans over rivers. For normal
spans, under noncritical wind conditions, one damper per span can generally provide adequate
protection. However, it is a good engineering practice to install at least two dampers per span (one at
each extremity) to introduce a suitable safety factor. In fact, if for any reason (manufacturing defects,
wrong location, clamp loosening, etc.) the single damper cannot work properly, the entire span would
be left unprotected.
Correct positioning is essential for the performance of vibration dampers like Stockbridge dampers
and elastomeric dampers. The dampers position is usually provided by the manufacturer but the
CIGRE Green book on overhead lines Chapter 10 [Cosmai et al, 2014] explains how to calculate this
position.
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The efficiency and durability of the damper system should be validated through field testing or
laboratory tests.
Unless stated otherwise by the manufacturer, it is not critical if the asymmetrical damper is placed with
its low frequency (large weight) end outermost in the span or its high frequency (small weight) end,
however if vibration frequencies are unknown, it may be prudent to alternate their orientation from one
end of a span to the other.
3.5 Spacers and spacer dampers

3.5.1 General
On bundled conductors, spacers shall be installed at the locations defined in the manufacturer’s
placement instructions.
The following paragraphs provide general guidelines on handling and installation of spacers. In all
cases, the spacers shall be installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
Rigid spacers, semirigid spacers, articulated spacers, flexible spacers and spacer dampers,
hereinafter called with the generic name of spacers for sake of simplicity, should be safely handled
and properly installed following some general rules detailed in these notes.
The spacer manufacturers must provide the contractors with clear handling and installation
instructions. The instruction manual must be prepared taking into account that, whenever possible,
photos and drawings should be used as they are more effective than words.
The instruction manual shall be approved by the client and included in the contract documents. The
contractor shall demonstrate that the personnel involved has been properly trained and provided with
the devices and tools needed for the spacer installation.
The spacer manufacturer may be required to train the contractor personnel and witness the installation
of the first units.
3.5.2 Spacer handling
Units shall be taken out of the boxes as soon as they reach the camp store.
Long permanence in poorly ventilated areas, especially in cold and humid weather can favour the
formation of white rust on galvanized components. If the boxes are left, open or closed, under the rain,
some packing elements (carton, tar board, corrugated board, etc.) can release substances that alter
the surface of the spacers.
Units shall be placed in shelves protected by a shelter as a minimum and not piled on the ground in
open air. Units shall be handled carefully, avoiding scratches that could damage clamp surfaces
creating Corona problems or damage the fastening system especially when breakaway bolts or nuts
are present. Care should be taken to avoid contamination of any threads by sand or similar particles.
The replacements of any fastener component, or other spacer components, broken or lost, shall be
made only using spare parts supplied by the manufacturer.
3.5.3 Installation devices and tools
The best installation method for spacers makes use of a bucket truck (Figure 3.26). In this way, the
lineman can reach the best position for the installation of the spacer without deforming the bundle
catenary.
If the bucket truck is not available or cannot be used, the linemen shall employ a suitable cable cart
(Figure 3.27) able to keep the bundle in its design configuration during the installation of spacers. The
cable cart shall distribute its weights evenly on each subconductor of the bundle to avoid longitudinal
misalignments of spacer clamps and to prevent the need for linemen to keep the subconductors in
place by hand, during the installation.
It is strongly recommended not to climb on the bundle to install the spacers since the weight of the
lineman will not be evenly distributed on the subconductors and it is much more difficult for the
lineman to install the spacer damper clamps on the bottom conductors which may easily lead to a bad
installation.
Helicopters can be used, in special circumstances for the installation of spacers.
85
Figure 3.26 Bucket truck
Figure 3.27 Cable carts

The linemen should have access to the following tools:
Torque wrench: Has to be short and light; the pre-set of the required torque shall be made only by
means of a specific tool and cannot be changed even accidentally by the linemen (Figure 3.28).
Spanner: Using breakaway bolts, a normal spanner (open end wrench) can be used, although a
torque wrench should be available for the possible repositioning of spacers. It is preferable to use
ratchet spanners instead of fork spanners, adjustable wrenches or others.
Special installation tools: They are necessary for the installation of boltless clamps like nut cracker
rubber lined clamps with latch fasteners (Figure 3.29).
Plastic brush and flannel cloths: Required for removing mud and other foreign materials from
conductors and clamps before installation.
Moreover, the linemen shall dispose of a number of spare components such as, according to the case,
lamp caps, bolts, breakaway bolts, washers, latches and armour rods.
The foreman shall control the torque wrench efficiency and calibration every day and assure that the
linemen are always equipped with the required tools and spare parts.
The foreman shall also verify the accuracy of the device used to measure the conductor length
(Figure 3.30) for the location of spacers and provide the linemen with suitable spacer positioning
tables.
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Figure 3.28 Pre-set torque wrench
Figure 3.29 Left: Installation of a nut cracker rubber lined clamp with latch fastener – Right: Spacer
closing tool
Figure 3.30 Distance counter of a cable cart
3.5.4 Training of the linemen

The training of the linemen should be made emphasizing the disastrous consequences of the clamp
loosening.
A length of the conductor bundle, about 3 to 4 m, should be set up in the camp for installation training
at ground level. Each lineman should be invited to install some spacers on the trial bundle during
which the relevant part of the following points will be carefully explained (Figure 3.31):
Set up of the spacer for the installation: It will be shown how to open the clamps, considering the way
the clamp components are made captive, in order to avoid loose parts during the installation.
Cleaning of the conductor and the clamp bore: It consists in verifying that, at the installation point, the
subconductors are clean, not damaged or birdcaged; checking that the spacer clamps are clean and
all the components are not damaged; removal of any foreign material into the clamp grooves that can
damage the conductor and contribute to the clamp loosening.
87
Positioning of the spacers on the conductors: It will be shown how to decide the orientation of the
spacer in respect to the bundle (asymmetric spacers shall be installed with alternate orientation), the
top position and how to hang the spacer on the bundle before tightening the clamp bolts.
Use of torque wrench or other installation tools: A careful training will be performed on the correct use
of spacer installation tools especially torque wrenches and fastening latch tools, in accordance with
the procedure suggested by the manufacturer.
Measurement of the subspan length: The use of cart distance counters will be explained and verified
on the trial bundle.
Control the washer position. The right orientation of the Belleville washers and the right position of the
plane washers and safety plates, if any, should be regarded in view of possible disassembling and
reassembling of the clamps.
Helical rods: The correct procedure for the positioning, alignment and installation sequence of the rods
will be explained during a trial installation.
Figure 3.31 Example of installation instruction for spacer clamps
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3.5.5 Breakaway bolts

The mechanism of breakaway bolts, if any, shall be considered. It should be recommended not to drop
the sheared head on the ground. Problems with the cattle eating the bolt heads have been reported. In
a normal span, the number of sheared heads can be between few units and more than 200,
depending on the number of circuits and the bundle configuration. Sheared heads may be given to the
foreman as further demonstration that the installation procedure has been correctly performed.
3.5.6 Installation procedure
In each span, the measurements of the subspan length should start from the reference points shown
in Figure 3.32 and Figure 3.33.
Figure 3.32 Suspension clamps , Left: Metal-to-metal clamp, Right: Elastomer lined clamp
Figure 3.33 Dead end clamps, Left: Compression dead end, Middle: Preformed dead end, Right: Strain
clamp
The lengths shown in the in-span distribution tables for spacers are intended as actual sub-conductor
lengths, to be measured along the bundle catenary.
The maximum permissible tolerance on the spacer positioning is one meter.
The spacer shall be installed at a minimum distance of two meters from the mouth of joints, repair
sleeves and warning spheres in order to avoid concentration of masses that can generate fixed points
for aeolian vibration. When a spacer is to be displaced for the presence of one of these fittings, the
position of the other spacers of the span remains unchanged.
In presence of night warning devices, interphase spacers, and other heavy fittings, the spacer damper
positioning will be determined case by case in relation to the characteristics of the fittings and the
parameters of the line.
On twin bundles, the body of the symmetrical spacer dampers shall be positioned below the bundle
long axis.
On triple and quad bundles, the clamps nearer to markings like ’Up’ or ‘Top’ shall be installed on the
upper sub-conductors.
Spacers shall be installed perpendicularly to the bundle long axis with a tolerance of 3°, unless
otherwise specified by the manufacturer, that can be easily assessed visually.
When break-away bolts are used, the bolt heads shall be visible from the ground for installation
verification.
With normal clamp bolt, the use of a torque wrench is mandatory and the torque shall be the one
recommended by the manufacturer, that generally is marked on the clamp cap.
The correct installation of the spacer clamps, including the alignment in the plane perpendicular to the
bundle long axis, shall be witnessed and verified from the ground by a foreman equipped with a
binocular.
It is worth to stress that even one single clamp not correctly installed can produce conductor failures
and very expensive outages. Moreover, a survey has shown that spacer clamps account for 28% of
the problems and damage to conductors are an additional 30% of the problems reported with spacers
[CIGRE TB 277, 2005].
89
On triple and quad diamond bundles, the spacers are installed with alternate orientation so that the
lower arm is positioned alternatively at the right and at the left of the lower sub-conductor
(Figure 3.34). The orientation of the first spacer in each span is optional. The same principle applies to
any asymmetrical spacer-damper design.
Figure 3.34 Alternate orientation of triple spacer dampers

It is strongly recommended to install the damping units immediately after the stringing operations and
final sag adjustments, possibly within 24 hours, in order to prevent sub-conductor damages due to
severe aeolian vibrations and sub-span oscillations.
The temporary installation of vibration dampers before the application of the spacer dampers is
beneficial to avoid fatigue accumulation on the sub-conductors due to aeolian vibration but has no
effect on the control wake-induced oscillation. It should be recognized that the bundles without
spacers are very sensitive to the latter that can be excited even at low wind speed and can cause
severe sub-conductor clashes.
After the installation of the spacers, any relative sag adjustment between sub-conductors shall be
performed only after having previously removed all the spacers involved or all the clamps but one
have been loosened.
Most spacers are suitable for live line installation using the bare hand technique.
3.6 Safe Handling of conductors

For the purpose of this section, conductors are classified into the following types [TB 695, 2017]:
Type 0: Conventional conductors, expected to be operated at "low" temperature not exceeding 95°C
for extended periods of time.
Type 1: Conductors consisting of a strength member made of steel, coated steel, or steel alloy, and an
envelope for which the high temperature effects are mitigated by means of thermal-resistant
aluminium alloys.
Type 2: Conductors consisting of a strength member made of steel, coated steel, or steel alloy, and an
envelope for which the high temperature effects are mitigated by means of annealed aluminium.
Type 3: Conductors consisting of a metal-matrix composite (MMC) strength member, and an envelope
for which the high temperature effects are mitigated by means of thermal-resistant aluminium alloys.
Type 4: Conductors consisting of a polymer-matrix composite (PMC) strength member, and an
envelope for which the high temperature effects are mitigated by means of annealed aluminium,
aluminium alloys, or thermal-resistant aluminium alloys.
3.6.1 Introduction
There are many opportunities for conductors to get damaged during construction of transmission lines.
Almost every operation, from receiving and handling reels to sagging in, is susceptible to damage
unless some precautions are taken. For the purpose of this discussion, the main types of damage that
can occur to a conductor are broken down into three broad categories:
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Surface defect (see Figure 3.35), where the conductor surface has been nicked or scratched, dented
or smashed. The depth and extent of damage determines the repair method to be used. Simple
abrasion, nicks, protuberances, can be sanded down using emery cloth or fine sand paper. The use of
steel wool is not recommended since it could leave hair-like residue that could lead to corona
problems later on. In cases where individual wires have been severely gouged or broken, it may lead
to an unacceptable loss of strength, and the conductor section must be cut out or repaired with
preformed rods or compression repair sleeves. A discoloration of the conductor's surface is sometimes
observed after ocean shipment due to contact with salt water. This discoloration does not affect the
performance of the conductor.
Left to right: Abraded surface, broken wires, Drake AACSS with indentations from Klein Grip
Figure 3.35 Surface defects
Popped wire (see Figure 3.36), sometimes called proud wire, is the phenomena by which a wire is
forced out of the outside layer of the conductor. It occurs when the conductor is subjected to torsion
and the wire is more or less wrung out of place. This happens most frequently around sheaves and
travellers. Note that it can also be the result of poor manufacturing. Popped wires produce corona and
radio noise problems and in general should be dealt with by either carefully hammering them back into
the conductor with a wooden mallet, or cutting them out, covering the cut ends with preformed rods.
Type 4 conductors having up to 30% of damaged aluminium wires may be repaired using high
temperature armour rods with grit glued to the inside of the rods.
Figure 3.36 Popped wire

Birdcage (see Figure 3.37) is usually the result of over stretching the outside layer of the conductor. In
some instances, it can be caused by an accumulation of slack in the conductor. A birdcage can lead to
both electrical and mechanical problems and cannot be repaired. Generally birdcages cannot be fixed.
For homogeneous conductors (ASC, AAC, AASC, AAAC, ACAR), where the birdcage diameter is
within 2 to 3 times the conductor diameter, they may be ignored, as it is likely that the birdcaged wires
will eventually take up their share of the tensile load as creep takes place in the conductor, and
disappear. In other cases, they will have to be spliced out.
Figure 3.37 Birdcage
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Other types of defects occur but are usually a combination of the three listed above. In most cases,
the affected part of the conductor must be spliced out.
3.6.2 Reel handling
Damage to reels during set-up in the field can lead to conductor damage and stringing problems. The
main concern when manipulating reels is to keep the conductor winding on the drum as tight as
possible (Figure 3.38) and not create conditions where the conductor could plunge within the wraps
(Figure 3.39) or come in contact with rough surfaces or sharp edges (unprotected reel flange edges,
for example) during stringing.
Reels should always be kept upright, never on their side like pancakes, and should never be dropped.
Lifting reels must be done in such a way as to ensure the conductor never bears the total weight of the
reel. Slings, straps or other types of lifting device directly on the conductor covering or wood lagging is
definitely not desirable. If forklift trucks must be used, then the forks have to be placed directly under
the flanges. This operation is not very safe and therefore not preferred.
The proper way to lift a reel is illustrated here in Figure 3.40. Reels are designed to be supported on
their axis and it is the best way to handle them.
Some metal reels have a plate or I-beam welded to their flanges, as illustrated in Figure 3.41, used as
reinforcement and space to house the ends of wood lagging. Hooks are sometimes used to grab the
welded plate or the outside of the flange of the I-beam. This method is usually not recommended by
reel manufacturers, so contractors and users should consult the conductor supplier before using this
method.
In all cases, the use of a spreader bar (Figure 3.42) is of prime importance, to prevent the flanges from
bending inward under the weight of the reel, destroying the winding, the conductor and causing it to
rub on the flanges of the reel during stringing.
Figure 3.38 "Perfect" winding. The conductor cannot "plunge" between wraps underneath
Figure 3.39 Winding with gaps between wraps leading to stringing problems and conductor damage
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Figure 3.40 Ideal method of lifting reels
Figure 3.41 Circumscribing plate or I-beam on metal reels
Figure 3.42 Moving steel reels by the edge of the flanges

Rolling reels is not very common but is possible. The reel must rotate in such a direction as to avoid
introducing slack in the wraps. This happens when the tail end of the conductor is not tightly attached
to the reel. The rotation of the reel "propagates" the slack from the tail end to the wraps over the drum
at every turn. Some manufacturers provide guidance to rolling by painting an arrow on the side of the
reel indicating the proper direction of rotation.
93
Conductor suppliers wind up conductors on reels in a manner called "layer winding", which means that
each turn is tightly wound over the layer underneath. All the wraps touch each other all along the
winding to fill the reel as efficiently as possible, and to avoid the creation of space between the wraps.
What can happen when the winding of the conductor is disturbed, is that there is a possibility for the
conductor to “plunge” between the loose wraps during paying off of the conductor. Plunging leads to
snagging, which leads to wire breaks and conductor damage.
Plunging can happen by applying too much tension to the conductor, or by using wood reels with
relatively small conductors. Wood reel flanges are not as rigid as metal reel flanges and can bend
more easily. This deformation is not large but could be sufficient to create enough interstitial space for
the conductor to plunge in. For this reason, it is not advisable to use wood reels with equipment that
rely on the reel to apply tension to the conductor (such as puller-tensioners). Reels should be
specified according to the kind of conductor and stringing technique used.
3.6.3 Stringing
Stringing can be done in many ways because unusual situations call for unusual procedures, but there
are two broad techniques used to string conductors: slack stringing and tension stringing.
3.6.3.1 Slack stringing
As its name implies, slack stringing involves installing the conductor using as little tension as possible.
It is not recommended for use with conductor Types 2 and 4, and for high-voltage lines. The conductor
is laid down on the ground along the line's right-of-way. It can be dragged or “deposited” along the line
usually by carrying the reel in the back of a truck, unravelling it as it goes. It is then pulled up at every
pole or tower. The conductor lying on the ground must be protected from sharp obstacles, such as
rocks, debris and others, usually with pieces of timber laid along the right of way. Figure 3.43 shows
such a method of protection. Tension is used only for sagging in the conductor. Slack stringing is used
mainly for distribution line construction where the spans are short, the poles not very high and the
voltage low enough to be of no corona concern. It has been used for transmission line erection in the
past but cannot compete with the efficiency of using tension stringing techniques on long transmission
lines projects.
Figure 3.43 Conductor protection on the ground
3.6.3.2 Tension stringing

The tension stringing method is much more involved. Basically, it consists of constantly maintaining
the conductor under tension, pulling it over pulleys or sheaves suspended from the poles' or towers'
cross arms, never touching the ground. The conductor is pulled by a winch or puller, while a tensioner,
located at the other end of the pull section, holds back the conductor to create tension in it
(Figure 3.44). As simple as this description is, this method requires a lot of attention and planning.
In most set-ups, as shown in Figure 3.45 and Figure 3.46, the conductor feeds the tensioner from
behind. The distance between the reel and the tensioner should be as long as practical to allow any
slack build up between the reel and the tensioner to spread evenly along that length as it pays off the
reel. The conductor tension coming out of the reel should be minimum to prevent plunging, as
discussed previously, and the reel should be placed in such a way as to minimise the sweep angle of
94
the conductor entering the tensioner. The best way to avoid problems and damage while tension-
stringing is to keep everything aligned as much as possible.
As it exits the reel, the conductor should be supported to avoid touching the ground or other
conductors being pulled at the same time. Figure 3.45 shows a support system consisting of rollers,
keeping sub-conductors apart as well as allowing them to travel laterally (for Types 2 and 4 these
rollers should not be used. Full-size sheaves should be used instead).
A tensioner usually consists in one or more pairs of grooved wheels, called bull wheels, rotating in
tandem. Friction builds up along the conductor the same way as it does on a capstan. The two bull
wheels are usually aligned at an offset relative to each other to make the transition from one wheel to
the other as smooth as possible for the conductor (Some tensioners have the back bull wheel tilted
instead of offset). This offset should be in the direction of the lay followed by the outside layer of the
conductor. This way the passage of the conductor in the tensioner tends to tighten up its outer layer
which helps prevent the formation of birdcages.
Most bull wheels have a right-hand offset, matching the direction of lay of the outside layer of
overhead aluminium conductors. Some tensioners have a left-hand offset, meant to be used with
copper conductors or other constructions. Although it is possible to thread a left-hand tensioner to the
right by skipping a groove, this practice is not recommended and should be avoided (Figure 3.47).
Inspectors should be on the lookout for it. Using all the grooves of the bull wheels as shown in
Figure 3.47, is important to build friction forces gradually along the conductor.
The diameter of the bull wheels is a very important parameter, especially with Type 2 and Type 4
conductors, where it should not be less than 35 times the conductor diameter. Annealed aluminium
wires have much greater elongation than hard-drawn wires and deform more easily. V-grooved
tensioners should not be used for those two types.
The distance between the tensioner and the first tower is also important. For most high-temperature
conductors, this distance should be at least three times the height of the first break-over point.
Figure 3.44 Schematic of tension stringing set-up
Figure 3.45 Example of rollers supporting the conductor
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Figure 3.46 Typical 4-bundle conductor tensioner
Figure 3.47 Conductor threading into bull wheels
3.6.4 Damage during stringing

As stated before, there are many possibilities of damage during stringing. The following is a list of
important points to consider in order to reduce the chances of damage when planning a stringing
operation:
• Stringing tension: In general, high stringing tension can create problems in the tensioner as well
as around pulleys and sheaves. The best practice is to use the lowest tension possible that will
keep the conductor off the ground. If there are obstacles such as railroads or other lines along the
pull section, it may be worth installing temporary structures, or hang sheaves from a crane just at
the obstacle's location to raise the conductor above it. Some manufacturers recommend stringing
at a maximum of 10% of the rated tensile strength of the conductor.
• Pay-off control: The pay-off equipment must have adequate braking capability and be in good
order. Pay-off equipment that jerks the conductor should not be used, the danger being for the
conductor to jump grooves in the tensioner or get snagged on equipment. As the reel pays off, the
force required to pull the conductor increases, and the reel braking system should be capable of
adjusting to this variation. Hand-tightened brakes apply an uncontrolled force on the reel and
should be avoided.
• Proper stringing equipment: Dimensions of tensioners, sheaves, rollers, etc. have to respect
certain ratios relative to the dimension of the conductor. Manufacturers, guides and industry
standards provide information that should be followed.
• Alignment: The alignment of the conductor with stringing equipment is very important, whether it is
with the tensioner or the sheaves. Misalignment leads to rubbing which can lead to abrasion,
birdcages or popped wires. This is particularly true (and evident) around sheaves or travellers.
96
Some reels come with an oversized side pocket used to secure the conductor at the bottom of the
winding (Figure 3.48). The large size is necessary to accommodate large conductors. If the
manufacturer did not take steps to prevent it, there is a strong possibility for small conductors to bulge
out of it during stringing and get damaged. If this is the case, the stringing operation has to be slowed
down every time the conductor is paying off close to the pocket, and if necessary, the conductor must
be moved away "by hand" from the pocket to avoid serious problems.
Figure 3.48 Oversized pocket on some reels. The welded bars prevent the conductor from bulging out of
the pocket
Accordingly most of the birdcaging occurs from the reel to the tensioner. As the number of layers
increases in the conductor, birdcages start to appear beyond the tensioner, up to the first sheave.
They usually occur, and are noted, around stringing equipment.
Birdcages between the reel and the tensioner may occur because of slack in the conductor at the
beginning of the reel. One way to mitigate this problem is to increase the distance between the reel
and the tensioner. The slack present in the conductor will be spread over a longer distance and most
likely will "pass into" the tensioner. Once under tension, the slack has more chances to disappear.
Another common location for birdcages to occur is inside the tensioner, between the bull wheels
(Figure 3.49). In most cases, this birdcage is formed because the conductor enters the tensioner with
insufficient tension, and/or the pulling tension is too high. The stringing tension must be developed by
friction within the bull wheels. Because of the large difference between the tension from the reel and
the exit tension from the tensioner, the outside layer of the conductor gets stretched, thus creating
birdcages. Increasing the back tension is usually the way to solve this problem.
Figure 3.49 Birdcage forming between two bull wheels in the tensioner
If a birdcage is formed in the tensioner and grows to a size that could impede the stringing operation
(especially if multiple conductors are strung simultaneously), it will be necessary to get rid of it. In this
case a desperate tactic is to tape the conductor ahead of the tensioner, over a distance equal to or
longer than the distance between the two bull wheels. This will push the birdcage beyond the
97
tensioner and into the span. This section of conductor may get damaged and will have to be spliced
out later on.
3.6.5 Sheaves
Sheaves, if not set-up properly, can cause a lot of damage to the conductor. The most important
factors to consider are the dimensions of various components of the sheave (groove diameter, overall
diameter, etc.), and their alignment with the conductor during stringing.
Sheave dimensions guidelines for Type 0 conductors are well known and can be found either from
industry guidelines such as Aluminum Company of Canada, Limited, REPAIR OF DAMAGE, Electrical
Product Bulletin [1965], or directly from the conductor or sheave manufacturers. Recommendations for
conductors of Types 1 to 4 must be obtained from manufacturers as there is no industry standard yet
that encompasses guidelines for high-temperature conductors. As a rule of thumb, sheave diameter
(for all Types) at the bottom of the groove should be approximately 20 times the conductor diameter.
Some manufacturers of Type 2 conductors recommend the use a larger "break over" sheave, that is,
the first sheave in front of the tensioner, in order to ease the conductor into the span.
Sheaves must be clean and free-wheeling. Lining, neoprene or urethane, is essential, especially with
Types 2 and 4 conductors. The lining must be in good condition. Given the relatively large bearing
pressure between the conductor and the sheave, imperfections or discontinuities in the lining may
leave imprints on the outside of the conductor. Solid, unlined plastic-moulded sheave have been
problematic with Type 2 conductors and should be used with caution. For Type 3 conductors a “Roller
Array” as shown in Figure 3.50 is used for flying angles greater than 24 degrees.
It is of the utmost importance to have the conductor travel in the centre of the sheave, and more
generally that the conductor and the sheave be in the same plane. This is generally not a problem for
sheaves suspended from cross-arms on tangent towers. Attaching the sheave directly to the pole (on
lower voltage lines) is sometimes done but is not desirable because the sheave will naturally hang at a
vertical angle. If the conductor is not running in the middle of the groove, it will rub on the flange on
entry or exit of the sheave and get damaged. Examples of what NOT to do are shown in Figure 3.51,
while pictures in Figure 3.52 to Figure 3.54 show examples of the damage that can occur around
sheaves.
Pulling conductor through angles is also critical (Vertical angles can create problems but to a much
lesser extent, since they are in the same plane as the conductor). In this case, if left alone, the sheave
will hang at an angle determined by the resultant of its own weight and the pulling tension in the
conductor. The conductor will in fact support the weight of the sheave, the angle of which is set by the
rules of static equilibrium. To do so, it will ride up on the flange. As illustrated, when the conductor
travels on the sheave's flange, it tends to roll down to the bottom of the groove and, depending on the
direction of rotation, may create popped wires or birdcages. To avoid this situation, the sheave must
be supported by mean of a sling to the angle at which the conductor will naturally lie in the middle of
the groove as shown in Figure 3.55.
Pulling through horizontal angles is not ideal and in extreme cases it should be avoided by splitting the
pull in two or more sections. There is no specific angle above which this should be considered, and
techniques such as the one discussed in the previous paragraph go a long way to avoid problems.
As a rule of thumb, horizontal angles above 20° should be given special attention. Angles above 30°
may require larger sheaves, or multiple-sheave arrangements (tandem sheaves as shown in
Figure 3.56). The principle behind tandem sheaves is to create a larger "virtual" diameter in order to
reduce the bearing pressure seen by the conductor. Tandem sheaves and their frames have to be
sturdy and are, usually, very heavy. They must be supported as discussed previously.
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Figure 3.50 "Roller array" used for angles greater than 24 degrees on Type 3 conductors
Figure 3.51 Examples of misalignment of conductors passing over sheaves
Figure 3.52 Damage from running over the side of a sheave
Figure 3.53 Damage from sheave not turning freely
Figure 3.54 Popped wires from contact with side of sheave
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WRONG WAY CORRECT WAY
Figure 3.55 Sheave position leading to conductor damage and remedial action
Figure 3.56 Multi-blocking with tandem sheaves
3.6.6 Pulling grips

Gripping the conductor for holding, pulling or sagging purposes, is an operation that requires attention,
otherwise a lot of damage can happen. The main sources of damage with grips are: using the wrong
grip size, mis-installing the grips, or using them above their capability. Grips come in many designs
and variations. We show only the most common types used in Figure 3.57.
Grips must be selected for the conductor and the Type being installed. In general they are not
interchangeable so it is important to seek recommendations from the grip, or conductor
manufacturers. Equally important is to realise that the rating of a grip usually applies to its mechanical
strength, not necessarily to its capacity to grip the conductor.
100
Figure 3.57 Different types of grips Top: Woven wire pulling grip, Middle: Parallel-groove clamp, Bottom:
Bolted come along
Woven wire pulling grips are used mainly to pull the conductor during stringing. They are perfect for
that application. The working principle of this type of grips is that pulling on them increases the radial
force applied to the conductor and increases its gripping force. The woven design makes this grip
strong, flexible and thin, so it can be passed through equipment such as tensioners and sheaves.
It is important to always keep this grip under tension. Double-gripping (with a swivel between the
grips) is a very common practice with this type of grips. When this is done, the forward grip actually
passes "backward" in the equipment. The danger in this situation is to inadvertently "push" the end of
the forward grip, opening it, with catastrophic consequences.
To reduce the chances of this occurring, it is recommended to apply one or even two steel bands at
the end of the grips (Figure 3.58). This ensures that it will not be pushed open. Tape should be applied
over the band(s) to protect the lining of the tensioner or sheaves.
For Type 2 conductors it is also recommended to band the aluminium under the grip, add washers in
front of it, and compress a steel sleeve over the core, as seen in Figure 3.59. This is because the
woven grip could pull only on the annealed aluminium layers, which could elongate over the core,
bunch up under the grip, damage the sheaves and eventually break. Applying the extra band, washers
and compressed steel tube helps the grip to pull the core with the aluminium layers.
Figure 3.58 Double-banding the extremity of the woven wire grip
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Figure 3.59 Extra precautions to use with Type 2 conductors

Parallel groove clamps operate somewhat the same as woven wire grips, as they tighten down on the
conductor as the tension increases. However the force on the conductor is not radial but in a single
plane. They are appreciated because of their light weight and ease of installation on the conductor.
Some variations of this type of grips are designed in such a way that pulling on the bail may
sometimes introduce a bending moment to the conductor. This in turn applies more force at the front
of the grip and may damage the aluminium layers at that point. It is important to use the right parallel
groove clamp for a given conductor. Grips designed for ACSR will not be appropriate to Types 2 and 4
conductors. If in doubt, consult the grip manufacturer to ascertain the adequacy of the grip.
Bolted comealongs are heavier and more cumbersome to use than other types of grips but are
commonly used when the conductor must be tied down for an extended period of time, at relatively
high tension. It will do this well if properly installed. Bolts must be torqued in sequence and in multiple
passes to ensure the pressure is well equalised along the conductor inside the grip. If the torque in the
bolts is unequal, the conductor may be allowed to slip in one region of the grip, leading to more
unevenness. Some bolts can get more loose, and the grip will fail. Figure 3.60 is an example of such
failure.
Figure 3.60 Birdcage created by the slip of a bolted grip

Many users perform grip tests, in situ, by applying a grip on the conductor and pulling on the other
end. This type of tests, under uncontrolled conditions, mainly verifies the slip strength of the grip over
the outside layer of the conductor. This is an important property of a grip, but an equally important
value is to know the capability of the grip to transfer the gripping force all the way down to the core of
the conductor. If the grip does not pull the conductor as a unit, the aluminium will be stripped off the
conductor.
To that end, a better test is to apply the grip at one end of a conductor sample, and pull only on the
core at the other end. This will provide a better idea of the efficiency of the grip.
It may be necessary sometimes to pull a conductor above the grip's capacity. This is usually achieved
by using grips in tandem, as many as necessary. In Figure 3.61, the sagging tension of this gap-type
conductor was such that, in addition to the four grips needed to pull the conductor, it was seen
essential to install a fifth (forward) grip only for the purpose of gripping the core.
When using grips, it is good practice to insert a protective sleeve over the conductor to prevent the bail
or the sling from rubbing on the conductor (Figure 3.62).
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Figure 3.61 Tandem grips on gap-type conductor
Figure 3.62 Grips used in tandem and protection over the conductor
3.7 Inspection
These recommendations for inspection are for a new installation.
For each installation, a control plan is made to be followed by crews responsible for inspection.
First of all, the plan can be checked that appropriate precautions notified in the assembly instruction
are followed by the linemen. This can be during the assembly of fittings and also during unloading and
handling. Controls can be organized with planned meeting or unexpected visit. Special attention shall
be made to the attached joints, crossing spans, railway crossings, highway crossings and clipping-in
once the conductor has been brought to sag. All types of installed fittings shall be checked.
3.7.1 Inspection and maintenance during line life
The implementation of a preventive maintenance policy is necessary to optimise and to standardize
practices while ensuring compliance of existing work and maintain their capability of continuing
operation. The policy must take into account the behaviour of the fittings, the works, the constraints
they have to deal with, the environment and the stakes of the transmission grid.
Maintenance visits are recorded when done in a systematic way. They are part of the feedback that
Transmission System Operators (TSO) use to make accurate decisions about their systems in terms
of fitting behaviour and take the necessary actions for corrective maintenance or replacements if
necessary.
TSOs employ various inspection techniques to check the integrity of their transmission lines to ensure
continuous supply of power to their customers. Depending on the terrain and budgets, utilities will
determine the proper line inspection method. The most common forms of inspection are listed below:
• Walking visits
• Climbing visits
• Helicopter visits
• Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (RPAS) visits
Combination of different visits give accurate assessment of the line for asset management to consider
when making decisions about their lines.
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Strategic planning is required by TSOs to ensure that the correct maintenance schedule is in place
including inspection methods and the frequency of each inspection. Visits planning is determined
according to the quality of electricity supply, safety of people and assets, current condition of the line
(pollution, lightning, wind, age and type of components). Wide variety of items need to be inspected for
potential defects which generally depends on the size of the item and the level of importance. A whole
line does see the same constraints homogeneously along its length. Planning deals with homogenous
sections.
The different possibilities of visits are explained as far as conductors and fittings are concerned.
3.7.2 Walking visits
Walking visits or ground inspection are by far the oldest method or the most common of power line
inspection. The primary reason of this method is to visually assess the condition of the line. Walking
visits offer the following visual control:
• Post construction of power line inspection -Proposed right of way
• Condition of conductors where birdcaging and broken layers can be detected
• Condition of fittings (see CIGRE TB 708 [2017])
The frequency of the visits may vary from utility to utility. Frequency of the visits depends on age,
condition of the section, environment, and safety of assets. An example of frequency is given in
Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Frequency of visits for ground inspection
Criteria Level Normal Stake High Stake Particular Areas
1 12 years 6 years 6 years
Age 2 12 years 6 years 6 years
3 6 years 6 years 6 years
3.7.3 Climbing visits

Climbing visits is the next logical step after ground visits. Climbing visit is preferred if inspection cannot
be made by helicopter, RPAS (drone) or by walking. This method can offer a simple inspection to
determine the current condition of the conductor and its fittings (wear and corrosion). Sometimes,
based on the inspection results, disassembly of fittings is needed. In this case, if fittings are found to
be defective, replacement of fittings is required.
For example, wear of fittings as shown in Figure 3.63 can provide interesting information for the asset
management. Decision to replace the defective fittings can be made according to the maintenance
procedure provided by each TSO. Frequency of the visits is established based on the same criteria as
for walking visits on each section.
Table 3.4 shows the frequency of visits for this inspection method.
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Figure 3.63 Example of worn fitting

Table 3.4 Frequency of visits for climbing inspection
Stake Frequency Volume

12 years, 6 years possible if:
1. age on level 3 of line security level
Normal
2. wind on level 3 or
3. fittings concerned by a special plan of maintenance
12 years, 6 years possible if:
• age on level 3 or
• wind on level 2 or 3 10 % of
High
• fittings concerned by a special plan of maintenance towers
or
• pollution level 2
12 years, 6 years possible if
• age on level 2 or 3
Particular • wind on level 2 or 3 or 50 % of
Areas • fittings concerned by a special plan of maintenance towers
or
• pollution level 2
3.7.4 Helicopter visits

If ground or climbing inspections are not sufficient, then helicopter visits are necessary to provide a
quick and efficient way to observe the general condition of the grid.
Helicopter inspection offer the following visual control:
• Post construction of power line inspection - Proposed right of way
• Identify failure prone fittings
• Wild life evaluation
• State of conductors where birdcaging and broken wires can be detected
• Frequency for infrared inspection could be every year
3.7.5 Drone visits (RPAS)
Drones inspection offer a quick and cheap way to inspect transmission lines (Figure 3.64). They use
high definition cameras that offer a close-up view of the fittings to make it easy to identify defective
fittings or issues on the line. They also have the capability to offer infrared inspection to detect hot
spots that could lead to damage. This detection is particularly helpful to target the followings:
105
• Joints
• Suspension Clamps
• Bretelle clamps (Parallel Groove Clamps)
Figure 3.64 Picture of drone taken by another drone
106
4. Guidance for Decisions on Safe Practice

Dealing with installation of fittings and their ageing, maintenance during their life is a matter of different
compromises. Linemen must follow the installation procedure for each fitting and respect out of
service delay (outage) of the line. TSOs have to ensure the good functioning of the fittings (ageing and
interface with other components) throughout the line life by specifications and tests done that are
representative of conditions of installation and environment of the fitting. Manufacturers have to carry
out the tests and to produce procedures that are achievable in the field, using tools and practices
compatible with constraints of the field. The balance between all these constraints is not so easy. For
instance, it is well known that linemen do not use a torque wrench every time to tighten spacer bolts at
nominal torque; in these cases, most of the time, they over torque, wanting it not to come loose. This
can be dealt with by understanding the spacer bolt function, that facilitates installation and/or are
designed to stand higher torques or by training.
Safe practice is thus a balance between:
• Design and planning (range of application, constraints of field taken into account…).
• Specifications and tests on fittings regarding service expected from the line (tests that are
rigorous enough to evaluate and discard bad fittings but not too difficult or prolonged to apply).
• Out of service delay, including consequence of outages on critical circuits.
• Training of linemen regarding correct procedures.
• Interfaces with other components considering their technology and history (of design, age…).
While a compromise has been defined, every participant (manufacturer, linemen, consultant, TSO)
has to respect its commitment (conformity of products and procedures).
To address it, guidance could be:
• Keep bibliography updated about documents on fittings so as to keep the history of incidents
and previous mistakes and not reproduce them and/or to keep results of tests, ideas, etc.
• Use at least standards as a base for specifications tests and adapt them if necessary to the
specific conditions of the country or location regarding environmental constraints and service
expected from the line (end of life noticeably).
• Check that design and application fit with usual practices of linemen.
• If not, plan and organise specific trainings with linemen.
• Ensure that fittings are properly marked so as to be able to identify them in case replacement
would be required due to ageing or non-compliance.
• Ensure a quantity is stored or that there is capacity to produce them again in a timely manner.
It has to be noted that there are:
• Different standards used all around the world (IEC, AS, IEEE, CEI, DIN, ANSI …).
• Different history of lines and specifications around fittings in each country.
107
5. General conclusions
The responses to the survey highlighted that most problems are with compression fittings. It may be
wise to train linemen by compressing spare conductors at ground level before taking the hydraulic
compression tools in the air.
The survey showed, and the members feel, that there are also numerous problems with conductors,
spacers and spacer dampers installation issues, notably with loosened clamps.
APPENDIX A includes a glossary of line fittings. This allows the reader to see what is designed to
mate with what.
In instances where a failed fitting is found, the risk of having other fittings fail in a similar fashion
should be evaluated. The need to inspect other similar fittings installed on the line (e.g. inspection,
replacement) should be evaluated. Where one bad installation has been found then maybe all the
hardware strings in the line share the same fault.
A good proportion of conductor damage is generated during the construction of lines (Figure 5.1).
Although failures detected during construction will generally be repaired rapidly before the line is
commissioned, corrective actions to avoid re-occurrence may not automatically be taken. Corrective
actions could take the form of a review of procedures used for conductor stringing, installation of
fittings, or a requirement for increased training for contractors and linemen.
Figure 5.1 Too narrow a thimble in a socket clevis
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6. Future work
1) A survey of Lines Training schools would help with the prevention of wrongly installed fittings and
insulators. The survey could include: Curricula and levels of training, duration of courses, whether the
school accepts national outsiders and international outsiders.
2) There appears to be a need for a chart showing the differences in millimetres between IEC and
ANSI balls, sockets, eyes and shackle ears.
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APPENDIX A. Glossary
For the purpose of this Glossary the following definitions apply. These definitions are those which do
not appear in the International Electrotechnical Vocabulary (IEV) or differ from those given in the IEV.
The definitions do not include electrical, structural or civil terms. Some items like Arcing Horns and
Grading Rings are too numerous in design shapes to mention.
Table A.1 Definition of general terms used for overhead line hardware
Term Definition
Usually a flat merchant bar assembly of

Adjustable
3 plates with holes for longitudinal
extension link
adjustment.
A functioning device that has been in service

Aged fitting
for at least 30 years.
Marker designed to warn aircraft of power

lines in the vicinity of airports. Also used to
Aircraft warning
warn trucks in mining areas and boats near
marker (AWM)
power line water crossings. See CIGRE
Electra #224, February 2006.
USA, Canada spelling of Aluminium referring

Aluminum (Al) to the alloys used in conductors in contrast
to the chemical element.
Forged or fabricated steel bars connecting

Anchor rod the earth (ground) anchor with guy (stay)
wires.
Forged steel bar bent in the shape of an

Omega sign with a clevis.
The clevis can be either a bolt or rivet.
Typically a bolt has a nut which is not
tightened and a split pin to secure the nut.
Typically a rivet has one upset end and a
Anchor shackle split pin at the other end. Some rivets are
hexagon bar with split pins at either end (to
reduce radio noise) A twisted shackle keeps
the axes in line.
Sizes range from 70 kN (16 mm), 120 kN
(16 mm), 125 kN (20 mm), 160 kN
(20 mm), 187 kN (22 mm) to 410 kN.
A suspension clamp used in a flying angle

Angle clamp
situation.
Angle suspension clamps are offered in

Angle suspension either aluminium series or in ductile iron
clamp series. The one piece design allows the
installer to perform hot line work.
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Annealed wire See tie wire.
Anti-galloping See "State of art of galloping control

devices devices" CIGRE TB322 [2007].
Protective device to protect insulators from

Arcing horn
electrically flashing over.
Armour rods, Trade Mark name of helically attached

armor rods (US) aluminium, steel or copper protection rods.
TM Used over conductor.
Fast method of dead ending Steel, Copper,
AAC or AAAC conductor.
• Flared mouth of gripping unit permits
Automatic dead
easy conductor installation.
end
• Four segment jaw is precision machined
and automatically adjusts to the contour
of the wire.
Automatic splices use similar technology to

automatic dead ends to join a severed
conductor mechanical and electrically. They
Automatic splice
are rated to hold a minimum of 95% of the
rated breaking strength (RTS) of the
conductor.
A sacrificial electrical clamp that is attached

Bail to the conductor and the bail is used for
repeated clamping with metal jaws.
Forged and coined ball fitting with two axes

of freedom. Dimensions of shank sizes
Ball range from 70 kN (16 mm), 120 kN
(16 mm), 125 kN (20 mm) 160 kN (20 mm),
187 kN (22 mm) to 410 kN.
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Ball and socket Coupling consisting of a ball, a socket and a

coupling locking device (IEC 61284, 3.1).
Ball clevises and ball - “y” clevises are used

Ball clevis
to connect ball and socket insulators.
Used to connect ball and socket insulators

to other hardware. They are most used
Ball eye
along with an anchor shackle for tower
(also oval ball
connect. An IEC oval will accommodate an
eye)
IEC Shackle. ANSI and IEC are not
compatible.
Ball clevises and ball - “Y” clevises are used

Ball Y clevis
to connect ball and socket insulators.
Device which is suitable for jointing

Bimetallic fitting conductors of different materials.
(IEC61284, 3.2)
Loosening or buckling of the outer wires of
a conductor resulting in a localized increase
of its overall diameter and a loss of cohesion
Birdcage between its layers. In line design the
assumption is made that aluminium does
not take compression and therefore
birdcages.
Used to warn flying birds about the
presence of a power line. Coloured orange
Bird diverter or white, they present a larger diameter in
profile. Larger bird diverters are called swan
diverters.
System of ropes and pulleys to make lifting

Block and tackle
or pulling easier.
112
Hexagon headed round bar with thread and

optional split pin hole. The clear shank is
designed so that no threads of the bolt are
in tension or shear.
Bolt
Strengths and sizes range from 70 kN
(16 mm), 120 kN (16 mm), 125 kN (18 mm)
160 kN (20 mm), 187 kN (22 mm) to
410 kN.
A bolted connection is usually used after the
conductor has been installed. Also bolted
Bolted connections can be removed whereas a
connection compression connection cannot. Some
bolted connections are cheaper than
helically attached connectors.
Bolted
A compression tee that has a bolted clamp
compression run
at one end.
tee
Boss A thicker tongue or barrel.
Bow shackle See anchor shackle.
Brace
Aluminium - White
Brush, conductor
Copper – Black
Conductors that are placed underwater or

underground.
Cable
In a cross-rope tower the cable element is
used in tension between the supporting
towers. Cables do not take compression
Carriage bolts have rolled threads with a

Carriage bolt square shoulder.
Each is furnished with one square nut.
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An extension link that is forged or cast. May

only be connected to bow shackles or y-
clevises.
Chain link
(16 mm), 125 kN (18 mm) 160 kN (20 mm),
187 kN (22 mm) to 410 kN.
Parallel sided shackle, usually attached to

Chain shackle
towers.
Dimension of a component of the test circuit

or of a fitting which characterizes its effect
on the electric field. In the case of a bundle,
Characteristic
this dimension is approximately the
dimension
diameter of an enclosing circle; in the case
of a corona ring or sphere, it is its largest
dimension, etc. (IEC61284, 3.3).
Coupling consisting of a clevis, a tongue and

a clevis pin or bolt (IEC61284, 3.4). The
Clevis and clevis tongue can be twisted so that a
tongue coupling 90 degree rotation is achieved for example
from a suspension yoke plate to the clevis of
a suspension clamp.
Two parallel ears with a hole for a bolt or

rivet. The other end of the clevis can be a
tongue, ball, thimble, socket or another
clevis. Note that two flat plates or a double
link plate can also form a clevis but these
are fabricated from merchant bar, whilst a
clevis is forged or cast from steel or
aluminium. The clevis security can be either
Clevis a bolt or rivet. Typically, a bolt has a nut
which is not tightened and a split pin to
secure the nut. Typically, a rivet has one
upset end and a split pin at the other end.
Some rivets are hexagon bar with split pins
at both ends (to reduce radio noise).
(16 mm), 125 kN (18 mm) 160 kN (20 mm),
187 kN (22 mm) to 410 kN.
A cast or forged fitting with two clevis ends
of the same pin orientation. The fittings can
Clevis-clevis
either be secured with a bolt and nut or
rivet pin.
114
Clevis eyes are primarily used to connect

strain clamps to clevis tongue insulators or
Clevis tongue
to yoke plates. Tongue can be twisted
(Also clevis eye)
90 degrees to change orientation of the
bolts.
Thimble clevises are used for normal duty
guying and dead ending applications of
Clevis Thimble cable or conductor factory formed helical
fittings connecting to the tongue of an
insulator.
Thimble clevises are used for normal duty

guying and dead ending applications of
cable, wire grips and bails where 25-35 mm
Clevis thimble
wire seat diameters are required. These
pulling eye
clevises include an integral side pulling eye
to facilitate tensioning the guy wire or
conductor.
A lever clamp that is used to pull the

conductor temporarily during stringing. Can
Come-along
be lined or un-lined. Alternatively use a
stocking grip.
Aluminium or steel compressed, with

appropriate hexagon dies over conductor
allows the conductor to be joined
Compression (compression midspan joint (CMJ), dead
ended (compression dead end (CDE) or as
a non-tension joint for carrying current
(compression lug).
Conductor Overhead line stranded cables.
A device which is in direct contact with the

conductor, used to tension, support, join two
Conductor fitting
lengths, control motion, or warn of a
conductor’s presence.
Device for jointing one or more conductors
or earth wires. It may be a tension or non-
Connector tension fitting (IEC61284, 3.5). It may be
factory-formed helical, hydraulic
compression, or implosive in nature.
Electric discharge that only partially breaks

Corona
down the gas insulation around the fittings
discharge
under test (IEC61284, 3.6).
Voltage or conductor voltage gradient at

Corona which corona discharges cease during a
extinction decreasing test voltage sequence
(IEC61284, 3.7).
115
Voltage or conductor voltage gradient at

which corona discharges initiate during an
Corona inception
increasing test voltage sequence
(IEC61284, 3.8).
A protective ring around the end of an

insulator string or around fittings. Live end
corona rings are necessary above 132 kV
(@132 kV for composite insulators without a
thickened sheath at the live end). Earth end
corona rings are necessary above 250 kV.
Corona ring
Corona rings match the design of the
insulator and should be obtained from the
same supplier. Alternatively use grading
rings especially around fittings hardware
containing sharp edges (split pins, cotter
keys, etc).
Cotter key (US) see R-clip.
Cotter pin (US) see split pin.
Cranked link (ZA) see trunnion straps.
For horizontal or delta conductor separation,

a crossarm can be king bolted to a pole with
braces to prevent rotation. The crossarm
Crossarm then acts as support for pin insulators,
eyebolts or earth wire support points.
Typically made from timber, laminated wood
or steel, they are usually predrilled.
Crossarm
Crossarm brackets are used to mount a
mounting
variety of apparatus.
bracket
To prevent conductor uplift when the wind

span exceeds the weight span,
Counterweights counterweights may be added to the
suspension string, below the suspension
clamp.
A device used to protect a line and

distribution transformers from over-current
Cutout caused by a line fault. The system
incorporates an insulator and fuse which is
designed to blow at a given amperage.
116
An individual wire which is severed,

Damaged wire cracked, abraded, nicked or indented more
than 1/3 of its diameter.
Device for joining the end of a conductor or

guy wire with the support. Not to be
Dead-end
confused with live and dead parts of the
system as most dead ends are live.
Clamps are primarily used for ACSR loop

dead ends. They may also be used for
Deadend loop splicing or tap connections. In splicing
connections, it is recommended the installer
uses a sealant.
Weight suspended under the conductor to

Detuning
detune natural vertical and torsion
pendulum
frequencies. Intended to control galloping.
Distribution ties are a formed wire product

used to secure conductors to the grooves of
tie-top insulators (pin or post type). The
Distribution tie
2 main variants are Top-Ties, for installation
on the top groove, and Side-Ties, for the
installation on the side grooves.
Double side tie accommodates line

Double side tie deviations greater than 20 degrees in-plan
view.
Double arming bolts are furnished with four

Double arming square nuts. The cone points at each end
bolt allow the installer to easily drive the bolts
without damaging the threads.
Two pieces of merchant bar say 50 mm
wide and 16 mm (70 kN) to 24 mm (187 kN)
thick with holes to accommodate bolts or
rivets and form a double clevis. The
Double plate link
advantage is that they are cheap to make
and can be supplied in lengths from 100 mm
in 10 mm steps to 1 metre. Particularly
useful on flying angle tension strings.
On a horizontal post insulator, a dropped

Drop tongue tongue ensures that the insulator swing
angle does not impact on the post insulator.
117
The hooks have a pilot point and rolled fetter

threads for easy driving. These hooks are
Drive hook
used for various applications, the most
widely of which is drop wire support.
The hot line clamps are offered in a variety

Duckbill earth of conductor combinations. Each eye screw
clamp is filled with inhibitor to prevent corrosion
and promote an ease of operation.
Earth rod Also ground rod.
Also ground rod clamp.

These clamps provide a high pressure
Earth rod clamp contact between the rod and the copper
ground wire. They are furnished with hex
head bolts.
Conductor that is designed to protect the
phase conductors from lightning strike. On
twin circuits, two earth wires exist. The earth
wire may contain optical fibres for
Earth wire
communications purposes and is called
Optical Ground Wire (OPGW). Also known
as ground wire, sky wire, static wire and
shield wire.
Any component of an assembly for attaching
an earth wire to a supporting structure other
Earth wire fitting than a suspension clamp, a tension fitting or
a mechanical protective fitting (IEC61284,
3.9).
A guying anchor that is installed into holes

augured by a drilling tool. This anchor does
Expanding not require it to be screwed into the earth,
anchor instead as it is pulled back through the soil
special designed wings expand locking it
into place.
Extra-high
voltage Transmission line operating at a phase-to-
transmission line phase voltage of 300 kV or higher.
(EHV)
See oval eye.

Eye
(US) see tongue.
118
Oval eye bolts are furnished with one

square nut. The cone point at the end allows
Eye bolt, forged
the installer to easily drive the bolts without
damaging the threads.
A forged eye fitting with an internal thread.

Eye nut Can be attached to the end of anchor rods
for guy installations or eye bolts.
Fitting consisting of helically formed wires

Factory-formed
which provide the force necessary to grip
helical conductor
the conductor or earth wire by self-tightening
fitting
(IEC61284, 3.10).
A fid is a conical tool traditionally made of

wood or bone. It is used to work with rope
and canvas in marlinespike seamanship. A
fid differs from a marlinespike in material
and purpose. A marlinespike is used in
Fid working with wire rope, may be used to
open shackles, and is made of metal. A fid
is used to hold open knots and holes in
canvas, and to separate the "lays" (or
strands) of synthetic or natural rope for
splicing.
Another name for the electrical connection

of the compression dead end. Also, Palm,
Pad.
Flag
A warning flag attached to overhead lowest

phase to warn trucks in mines about power
lines overhead.
Spacer damper allows large displacement of

the conductor clamps resulting in significant
Flexible spacer energy dissipation within the connection
between the central frame and the
conductor clamps.
Insulator fibreglass rod (dielectric) coated
with UV (ultraviolet) inhibitor for long life.
Fibreglass guy
Provides electrical insulation to the guy to
strain insulator
prevent leakage currents to the anchor.
Prevents reflection of transmitted signals.
119
When the centreline profile of a power line

deviates by more than 3 degrees and less
than say 45 degrees (135 degrees included
angle) then it is not feasible to use a
Flying angle
suspension clamp or a tension arrangement.
The clamp can be a flying angle. The clamp
may be either an angle clamp or a double
suspension clamp.
In order to connect flat fittings such as

Gain base: crossarms to round poles, a gain base is
used that accommodates both.
A low frequency oscillation phenomena

caused by ice giving a different profile on
Galloping the conductor and wind exciting that iced
conductor with very large amplitudes. See
CIGRE TB322 [2007].
A protective ring around fittings. Grading

rings are necessary above 132 kV. For
grading rings match the design of the fitting
Grading ring string so get them both from the same
supplier. Alternatively use corona rings
especially around insulators containing
sharp edges (split pins, cotter keys, etc).
(US): Conductor that is designed to protect
the phase conductors from lightning strike.
On twin circuits, two ground wires exist. The
ground wire may contain optical fibres for
Ground wire
as earth wire, sky wire, static wire and shield
wire.
These clamps provide a high pressure
Ground rod contact between the rod and the copper
clamp ground wire.
They are furnished with hex head bolts.
Angled bracket to accommodate guy wire in

Guy hook
the thimble.
Guy attachment Angled bracket to accommodate guy wire in

flat head type the cross bars
Angled bracket to accommodate guy wire in

Guy attachment
the hooks.
120
Conductor or steel strand that is intended to

support a pole or tower in tension. The guy
Guy wire wire should oppose the direction of
destabilizing forces that can be in-line or as
a bisector. Also called a stay wire
Fitting consisting of helically formed wires

Helically formed which provide the force necessary to grip
guy fitting the conductor or earth wire by self-tightening
(from IEC 61284).
Stringing roller with large guides to make

Helicopter sure the helicopter strung conductor meets
stringing roller the stringing roller. Roller can be lined or un-
lined.
Compression dies used in hand

Hexagonal die compressors or in hydraulic compression
sets.
Conductor designed for applications where

continuous operation is above 95°C or
High designed to operate in emergency
temperature conditions above 150°C.
conductor
See CIGRE TB 695 [2017] – Type 1
conductors.
A conductor consisting of a single material

Homogeneous
component of individual wires of the same
conductor
diameter.
Hot line (US) see live line.
Insulated stick (fibreglass) tool for isolating

Hot line stick
an operator from the electrical live line.
A connector consisting of a metallic cylinder

Hydraulic used to join two pieces of conductor or to
compression terminate a conductor through intimate
fitting (HCI) contact achieved through the application of
a hydraulic compressive force.
Twin spacer made from factory formed

Hairpin spacer
helical rods
121
A fitting used for connecting ball and socket

Hook disc insulators to end fittings or suspension
clamps.
High Temperature Low Sag conductor. See

HTLS CIGRE TB 695 [2017] – Type 2, 3, and 4
conductors.
A connector consisting of a metallic cylinder

used to join two pieces of conductor or to
terminate a conductor through intimate
Implosive fitting
contact achieved through the application of
an implosive force. Usually achieved by
discharging multiple wraps of primer cord.
Insulator pins are for use on low voltage

insulators having rope thread pin holes
depending on their length. These pins can
Insulator pin be used for mounting on wood or steel
crossarms.
The pins are a one-piece forged design with
either cast lead or plastic heads.
Any component of a suspension or tension

insulator set other than a string insulator
Insulator set unit, a suspension clamp, a conductor
fitting tension fitting, an insulator protective fitting
or a mechanical protective fitting (IEC61284,
3.11).
An insulator is a dual purpose fitting that not
only holds and supports the conductor
mechanically, it maintains an air gap to
prevent the voltage from grounding. The
length of the insulator (air gap) is dependent
Insulator
on the system voltage and environment.
Insulators are primarily made from
porcelain, glass and polymer (composite).
They can be fitted with a variety metal end
fittings to hold the conductor.
Component used to mechanically link

conductor fittings to the insulators, and
Insulator string
insulators to the tower (e.g. Shackle, chain
fitting
link). These fittings are not in direct contact
with the conductor. Also called hardware.
An attachment stud used for line post

Insulator stud
insulators.
122
An attachment used with low voltage aerial

J-hook
bundled conductor (LVABC) strain clamps.
Connector and that part of the conductor or

earth wire that has been brought into
Joint
intimate contact with it by compression or
other mechanical means (IEC61284, 3.12).
Anti-oxidation jointing compounds are

formulated to improve jointing conductivity
and inhabit oxidization and corrosion
between jointing contact areas. Jointing
Jointing
compound should always be applied to the
compound
contact surfaces of all aluminium to
aluminium, aluminium to copper and copper
to copper connections prior to compression
or bolting.
Jubilee clips Hose clamp.
A length of conductor that electrically joins

Jumper
2 termination points on an overhead line.
A part of a conductor fitting which applies

the clamping pressure to the conductor to
Keeper hold it in place. They are designed to reduce
the point pressure on the conductor to
prevent conductor damage.
A latch over a hook fitting prevents de-

Latch
coupling caused by vibration or uplift.
123
A fitting made from helically formed wire that

protects the conductor from abrasion,
Line guards compressive forces, and arcing at support
points. They can also be used to repair
minor damage to the outer strands.
One piece of merchant bar say 50 mm wide
and 16 mm (70 kN) to 24 mm (187 kN) thick
with holes to accommodate bolts or rivets
Link plate and form a tongue or eye. The advantage is
that they are cheap to make and can be
supplied in lengths from 100 mm in 10 mm
steps to 1 metre.
A roller can be lined with neoprene or

silicone rubber to prevent the conductor
from metal-metal damage. Most rollers are
Lined roller
cast 401 aluminium, so when stringing steel
earth wires, a lined roller may be more
suitable.
The collar under the socket accommodates

Live line collar live line tools so that the fitting can be
engaged without fouling the socket or clevis.
Denotes a longer stem adjoining a ball joint

Long shank
creating a larger arc of articulation.
Marker ball See aircraft warning marker (AWM).
Maximum load which can be applied to a

fitting without an unacceptable permanent
deformation when the fitting is tested under
Mechanical specified test conditions (IEC61284, 3.13).
damage load
NOTE – The unacceptable permanent
deformation should be agreed upon
between purchaser and supplier.
Maximum load which can be applied to a

Mechanical
fitting under specified test conditions
failure load
(IEC61284, 3.14).
Any device attached to a conductor or to an

Mechanical
earth wire for their mechanical protection
protective fitting
(IEC61284, 3.15).
124
US spelling of metre.
Meter
Device for detecting current flow or other

flow, such as watt-hour meter for electricity
or gas meter.
Midspan joint Joining of two conductors.
A conductor consisting of at least two

different materials, usually one used as a
Non-
strength member in the core (e.g. steel), and
homogeneous
another one, usually aluminium or
conductor
aluminium alloy, used to carry current in the
envelope.
Forged or fabricated, open or closed, the

Oval eye eye forms a large hole for more freedom in
two dimensions.
Earthed (or grounded) conductor installed

on overhead power lines to minimize the
Overhead earth
likelihood of lightning strike on phase
wire (OHEW)
conductors. Also referred to as shield wire,
ground wire, static wire or sky wire.
Pad see Flag
Palm See Flag
125
Aluminium parallel connectors are furnished

with a copper tap liner and are to be used
for aluminium to copper connections only. It
Parallel groove is recommended that the connectors be
clamp prefilled with sealant. With the use of this
clamps interlocking features, the top and
bottom part of the clamp are able to fully
embrace any conductor combinations.
Parallel groove Double groove ground clamps are used to

ground clamp clamp two copper cables to flat bar.
Trunnion clamps are used with clamp top

line post insulators. The reversible keeper
Pivot clamp gives the installer a wide conductor range.
Each clamp contains a RIV suppressor
spring.
Plate Also see yoke plate.
Pole band, Steel pole bands are adjustable to be used

adjustable on a wide range of poles.
To facilitate climbing of poles and towers,

pole steps are screwed, driven or bolted to
Pole step:
the support structure at a commencement
height above access by the general public.
A bracket mounted on a pole to attach an

Pole top bracket insulator so that a phase conductor can be
supported.
Pole top pins are made of pressed steel and

Pole top pin can be mounted to a pole by a 16 mm bolt.
Each pin has lead insulator threads.
Power installed A guying anchor that is screwed into the

screw anchor, earth via a drive bar that is inserted over the
single helix square hub of the anchor.
Power installed A guying double helix anchor that is

screw anchor, screwed into the earth via a drive bar that is
double helix inserted over the square hub of the anchor.
Power installed
screw anchor,
The drive bar.
Kelly bar
extension
126
Pulling Grip,
For pulling up conductor, can be used many
woven wire
times.
stocking
Pulling Grip, For pulling up conductor, can be used many

bolted times.
A fitting for quad conductor bundles that

Quad spacer
acts as both sub-conductor spacer and
damper
vibration control device.
Quadrant dead Quadrant dead end clamps are offered in

end clamp aluminium and malleable iron.
Locking device used for ball and socket

R-clip
couplings.
Voltage in the radio frequency range

Radio- produced by an electromagnetic disturbance
interference and which can be measured in accordance
voltage (RIV) with CISPR 16 on the test circuit equipped
with the fitting (IEC61284, 3.16).
A number calculated to provide a minimum

Rated Tensile
theoretical tensile strength value of a
Strength (RTS)
conductor.
Restoration of the mechanical design

strength and the electrical design
conductivity of a conductor by means of a
repair fitting. The mechanical design
strength is commonly taken to be 95% or
100% of conductor RTS. Restoration of
electrical design conductivity means that the
Repair of a resistance of the repair fitting and the length
conductor of conductor along which it is applied is not
higher than the design resistance of the
equivalent length of free conductor. The
above refers to new conductors, on which
repair fittings are validated. In any case,
repair fittings will not restore properties
above those of the undamaged conductor
(aged or new).
A hole 'C' machined or cast in fittings such
as yoke plates for attachment of stringing
Rigging hole and tensioning equipment. They can also be
used to hold tension strings during
maintenance.
127
Spacer allowing no relative movement

Rigid spacer between the subconductors at the spacer
location (IEC61854, 3.1)
A pin with an upset forged cup head on one

end and a hole drilled for acceptance of a
Rivet split pin at the other. Used as an alternative
to a nut and bolt for connecting insulator
fittings.
Rotated See twisted.
An assembly of link plates with adjustment

Sag adjusters holes along its length. Used to adjust the
sag height of a power line.
Clamps are used primarily in service drop

applications, where strain relief is needed.
They can also be used for dead ending the
Service wedge drop wire as well as adjusting the sag in
clamp drop wires.
The service wedge clamps are furnished
with a rigid stainless steel bail. Flexible bails
are also available.
OHGWs may intercept the lightning stroke
and shunt the current to the ground through
the tower impedance and footing resistance
if they are properly located. The resultant
voltages across the transmission-line
insulation, and the likelihood of flashover are
substantially reduced. Shield wires or static
Shield angle wires are normally employed on
transmission and distribution lines, and are
located high above the phase conductors to
shield the phase conductors from direct
lightning strokes. The shield wires intercept
most direct strokes and allow the current to
be conducted harmlessly to ground, that is
providing low resistance path to ground.
Shield wir See earth wire, sky wire.
A shunt repairs conductor electrically and

Shunt
mechanically by shunting over the damage.
Side opening dead end clamps are primarily

used for live line dead ending.
Side opening
dead end clamp Each is furnished with a spring loaded
keeper, which is in an open position for
installation.
128
A helically formed wire product used to

Side tie attached conductors to the side groove of
tie-top insulators (pin or post type).
One piece of merchant bar say 50 mm wide

and 16 mm (70 kN) to 24 mm (187 kN) thick
with holes to accommodate bolts or rivets
Single plate link and form a tongue or eye. The advantage is
that they are cheap to make and can be
supplied in lengths from 100 mm in 10 mm
steps to 1 metre.
Single groove ground clamps are used to
clamp copper cable to a flat bar.
Single groove If the flat bar is thicker than the 1/4" shown,
ground clamp then add the thickness to the part number to
obtain longer bolts. Material : body -bronze
alloy.
Conductor that is designed to protect the
phase conductors from lightning strike. On
twin circuits, two sky wires exist. The sky
Sky-wire wire may contain optical fibres for
as ground wire, earth wire and shield wire.
The female connection end of a Ball-Socket

Socket coupling. Secured with either an “R” clip or
“W” clip.
A forged or cast ferrous metal fitting with

Socket clevis socket and clevis ends. Used to connect a
ball fitting to a tongue.
Socket clevis for As above for Socket Clevis with an

arcing horn attachment hole for an Arcing Horn.
Socket tongue Also socket eye.
Device which keeps apart the sub-

conductors of a bundle in a given
geometrical configuration and is able to
Spacer damper
reduce aeolian vibrations and sub-span
oscillations of the sub-conductors. [IEV 466-
11-02, modified] (IEC61284, 3.17).
129
Twin spacers are locked with a nut-cracker

style elastomer lined clamp and a forged
Spacer closing
aluminium toggle. The tool compresses the
tool
elastomer lining and closes the spacer to
enable the toggle to be turned.
Complex of spacers and the relevant in-

Spacer system
span distribution (IEC 61854, 3.3).
Maximum acceptable radio-interference

Specified
voltage at a specified test voltage or
maximum radio-
conductor voltage gradient. This is specified
interference
by the purchaser or declared by the supplier
voltage
(IEC61284, 3.18).
Minimum acceptable voltage or conductor

Specified
voltage gradient at which corona discharges
minimum corona
cease. This is specified by the purchaser or
extinction
declared by the supplier (IEC61284, 3.19).
Minimum load specified by the purchaser or

declared by the supplier at which
mechanical failure will not take place
(IEC61284, 3.20).
Specified NOTE – From the probabilistic point of view,

minimum failure the specified minimum failure load
load corresponds to the value having the
probability of e % in the distribution function
of the strength of the fitting. The exclusion
limit e % is usually taken within 2% to 5%
with 10% being the upper limit (see IEC
60826).
Specified Minimum load specified by the purchaser or

minimum declared by the supplier at which
mechanical unacceptable permanent deformation will
damage load not take place (IEC61284, 3.21).
130
Specified Minimum load specified by the purchaser or

minimum slip declared by the supplier at which slippage
load will not take place (IEC61284, 3.22).
Spiral vibration dampers are preformed

plastic rods that tightly grip the conductor at
one end and provide a loose wrap along
their length. They are designed to control
Spiral vibration
high frequency vibration on small diameter
damper
conductors and OHGW. Spiral Vibration
Dampers control vibration to disrupt
vibration build up by impacting on the
conductor.
A connector used to join two lengths of
Splice conductor, ensuring electrical continuity and
mechanical design strength.
A locking device for nut and bolt. The split
Split pin pin prevents the nut from winding off the
bolt.
Device which keeps apart the sub-
Spring spacer conductors of a bundle in a given
geometrical configuration.
Square washers are used primarily on poles
Square washer and crossarms to distribute the stress
evenly over the surface.
Straight dead Deadend clamps are used primarily for

end clamp distribution and light transmission work.
These connectors are used for connecting

copper conductor to copper flat. The
Straight terminal
reversible feature of this clamp offers the
connector
customer a wide range of conductor
combinations.
Stay wire (US) see Guy wire.
Static wire See earth wire.
Device comprising a messenger cable with
Stockbridge-type
a weight at each end and one bolted clamp,
aeolian vibration
attachable to a conductor for the purpose of
damper
damping aeolian vibration (IEC61897).
Reusable pulling stocking also called a
Kellems Grip. A temporary dead end made
Stocking of laced strand to suit the material being
pulled. Alternatively use a come-along
clamp.
131
During conductor stringing, the conductors

are placed in rollers so that horizontal-
longitudinal tensions are equalised. Special
rigging or maintenance holes are provided in
Stringing roller
string fittings to accommodate these
temporary rollers, come-alongs and
stockings. Care should be taken not to use
these maintenance holes for everyday use.
An electrical protection device used to

Surge arrester prevent over-voltage caused by lightning
strikes.
A conductor support fitting typically made

Suspension from cast aluminium or cast iron. The
clamp clamps are fastened to the conductor via a
keeper and U-bolts.
Suspension unit, A suspension clamp attached to the

factory formed conductor using helical rods, an EPDM
helical rods cushion and Aluminium clamp body.
Swan diverter See bird diverter
Clamps that accommodate twisted / paired

T2 clamps
(VR or T2) conductors.
A tension fitting is one installed in series

with the conductor or OHGW and capable of
holding, without failure or slippage,
Tension & non- established high percentage (generally 90%
tension or 95%) of the RTS of the conductor or
conductor fitting OHGW. A non-tension fitting is not required
to meet the same tension criteria. Such
fittings are not designed to hold the
conductor.
132
Provides a smooth bend radius for wire rope

Thimble and galvanised steel. Can be an open
thimble or a closed thimble.
An insulator fitting designed to accept the

Thimble clevis loop end of a helical dead end with a clevis
attachment.
Thimble eye bolts are used as a method of

attaching guys and dead ends to poles and
Thimble eye bolt crossarms. They can eliminate the need of
thimbles, strain plates, guy hooks, and extra
strand.
Single, double or triple thimble screwed onto

Thimble eye nut
an anchor rod of rolled or cut threads.
Annealed aluminium or copper wire which is

strong and flexible. Used as a lashing to
hold conductors in the neck of post
Tie wire
insulators. Maybe 3 or 4 mm diameter.
Alternatively use an engineered side tie or
top tie to suit the conductor diameter.
A single plate or forged bar with a hole for a

bolt or rivet. The other end of the tongue can
be a clevis, ball, thimble, socket or another
Tongue: eye
tongue. The bolt holes in a clevis tongue
(EU)
may be parallel or twisted 90 degrees. A
socket tongue may also be twisted such that
the security clip faces the support structure.
A distribution tie used to attach a conductor

Top tie to the top groove of a tie-top insulator (pin or
post type).
A pin or pivot forming one of a pair on which

Trunnion
something is supported.
Straps that form a clevis at the top and

Trunnion straps
support a trunnion clamp at the bottom.
An insulator fitting typically made from

forged steel that encompasses a
mechanical screw to act as a tensioning
Turnbuckle
device. The end fittings can be custom to a
particular purpose but are typically eye-eye,
clevis-eye or clevis-clevis.
133
Device which maintains separation of the

Twin Spacer sub-conductors of a bundle in a given
geometrical configuration.
Y clevis to clevis are primarily used to attach
associated hardware to clevis tongue
insulators. The Y clevis to socket fittings are
Twisted Y Clevis
primarily used to attach associated
hardware or yoke plates to ball and socket
insulators.
An insulator fitting with clevis and tongue

Twisted clevis
ends rotated 90 degrees from each other’s
tongue
orientation axes.
An insulator fitting with two clevis ends

Twisted clevis
rotated 90 degrees from each other’s
clevis
orientation axes.
Twisted socket Y Insulators. Y clevis to socket fittings are
clevis primarily used to attach associated
hardware or yoke plates to ball and socket
insulators.
The socket clevises are used to connect ball

Twisted socket
and socket insulators. The twist enables the
clevis
easy application of the security key.
Transformer ground connectors are cast of

high conductivity bronze. These connectors
Transformer
are furnished with a stud which will fit all
ground
standard transformers. Some have flat sides
connector
on the body allowing the use of an open end
wrench for tightening.
The above delta style yoke plates along with
a single string of insulators can be used to
bundle two conductors in suspension. They
Triangular yoke
may also be used in dead ending in
plate
conjunction with two strings of insulators
and one dead end clamp. This product can
be supplied in a variety of configurations.
A sub-conductor spacer and aeolian

Triple spacer
vibration control device for triplex conductor
damper
arrangements.
Connecting links are primarily used for

making guy and insulator attachments with
Trunnion straps
heavy pole bands. These links are supplied
in pairs.
Orientation of axes is changed, e.g. Twisted

shackle, twisted clevis tongue, twisted
Twisted
socket tongue (axes of security clip), twisted
plate link etc also rotated.
134
U-Bolts are used to retain keepers in

U-bolt
suspension clamps.
Upgrading of a line means improvement of

Upgrading its structural reliability (See CIGRE TB 294
[2006]).
Spool bolts provide added clearance

Upset spool bolt, between insulator and pole.
double These bolts come complete with two square
nuts, mf type locknut and a locking pin.
Universal dead A large range taking dead ending method

end using a sheave loop and wire rope grip.
Un-lined Without lining in the stringing roller.
Uprating of a line is the increase in its

Uprating transmission capacity (see CIGRE TB 294
[2006]).
A wider mouth of the shackle may be

V-shackle
required to go over bosses or gantry plates.
A suspension arrangement where two string

insulators are brought together to create a
“V” shape. Typically used for bundle phase
V String
where extra support is needed. The
insulators are attached to the line and each
other via a suitable yoke plate.
To prevent twin conductors clashing the

arrangement can be vertical instead of
Vertical bundle
horizontal. Also used as an upgrade for
single conductor lines.
Device attached to a conductor or an earth

Vibration damper wire in order to reduce aeolian vibrations.
[IEV 466-11-16, modified] (IEC61284, 3.23).
A locking device used in ball and socket

W-clip
couplings.
135
A clamp used for telephone wires and more

Wedge clamp
recently for main conductors.
Weight span is the distance from belly

Weight span and bottom to belly bottom. Wind span for a
wind span particular structure is the average of its two
adjacent span lengths.
Steel wire rope may be wrapped around a

Wire rope grip pole and a few wire rope grips attach the
end back on to the span to hold it.

Y clevis
insulators. For attachment to yoke plates the
holes should be chamfered or radiused.
The Y clevis to socket fittings are primarily

Y clevis socket used to attach associated hardware or yoke
plates to ball and socket insulators.
Also Y clevis eye.
Y clevis tongue Clevis eyes are primarily used to connect

yoke plates or other tower hardware to
conductor clamps.
An insulator fitting manufactured from steel

plate. Used for stringing multiple insulators
to a single dead end fitting or suspending a
conductor bundle from either single or
Yoke Plate
multiple string insulators (see V-string).
Yoke plates can be designed to suit a
number of different tension and suspension
arrangements.
Sacrificial anode for protection from DC

Zinc sleeve
currents in rail applications.
136
APPENDIX B. References
CIGRE Green book 1 (2017) Overhead lines, www.e-cigre.org, 1318 pages.
CIGRE Technical Brochure 184 (2001) Composite insulator handling guide, WG 22.03, www.e-
cigre.org, 29 pages.
CIGRE Technical Brochure 216 (2002) Joints on transmission line conductors: Field testing and
replacement criteria, WG B2.12, www.e-cigre.org, 10 pages.
CIGRE Technical Brochure 273 (2005) Overhead conductor safe design tension with respect to
aeolian vibrations, Task Force B2.11.04, www.e-cigre.org, 43 pages.
CIGRE Technical Brochure 277 (2005) State of the art survey on spacers and spacer dampers,
WG B2.11, www.e-cigre.org, 53 pages.
CIGRE Technical Brochure 294 (2006) How OH lines are re-designed for uprating / upgrading,
Analysis of the answers to the questionnaire, WG B2.06, www.e-cigre.org, 102 pages.
CIGRE Technical Brochure 306 (2006) Guide for the assessment of old cap & pin and long-rod
transmission line insulators made of porcelain or glass; What to check and when to replace?,
CIGRE Technical Brochure 322 (2007) State of the art of conductor galloping, Task Force B2.11.06,
www.e-cigre.org, 142 pages.
CIGRE Technical Brochure 471 (2011) Working safely while supported on aged overhead conductors,
CIGRE Technical Brochure 477 (2011) Technical Brochure on Evaluation of Aged Fittings, WG B2.32
www.e-cigre.org, 28 pages.
CIGRE Technical Brochure 653 (2016) Safe design tensions for single conductors fitted with
elastomer cushioned suspension units, WG B2.49, www.e-cigre.org, 31 pages.
CIGRE Technical Brochure 695 (2017) Experience with the mechanical performance of non-
conventional conductors, WG B2.48, www.e-cigre.org, 81 pages.
CIGRE Technical Brochure 708 (2017) Guide on repair of conductors and conductor-fitting systems,
IEC 61284, Ed. 2.0 (1997) Overhead lines – Requirements and tests for fittings, 131 pages.
Victorian Bushfire Royal Commission (2009) Exhibit 525 – HRL Technology Report – Kilmore East
Fire.
137
ISBN : 978-2-85873-621-8
TECHNICAL BROCHURES
©2023 - CIGRE
Reference 916 - September 2023

CIGRE TB 916 - Year 2023 - Handling of Fittings and Conductors For Overhead Lines

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B2 Overhead Lines

Correct handling of fittings and

Correct handling of fittings

P. DULHUNTY, Convenor AU S. KOLOSOV, Secretary RU

H. LUGSCHITZ AT J.F. GOFFINET BE

• WG B2.33, TB471, Working safely while supported on aged overhead conductors.

• WG B2.32, TB477, Technical Brochure on Evaluation of Aged Fittings

• WG B2.47, TB708 Guide on repair of conductors and conductor-fitting systems.

Figure 0.2 Comealong assembled in reverse

Figures and Illustrations ..................................................................................................... 7

2. Questionnaire results .............................................................................................. 11

3. Experiences of the members .................................................................................. 62

3.3 Helical fittings .......................................................................................................................................... 80

4. Guidance for Decisions on Safe Practice ............................................................ 107

5. General conclusions.............................................................................................. 108

6. Future work ............................................................................................................ 109

APPENDIX B. References ............................................................................................... 137

Figures and Illustrations

Figure 2.58 Yoke passed through non chamfered hole ..................................................................... 53

Figure 3.41 Circumscribing plate or I-beam on metal reels ............................................................... 93

Answers from ……………………………………………………………………………

• Have you ever had wrongly installed fittings, conductors or insulators?

Tell us about it.

2.3 Questionnaire summary

Figure 2.2 Line issues

Figure 2.3 Construction issues

2.4 Detailed questionnaire results

2.4.1.1 Compression strain clamp compressor swelled and cracked

Summary Compression strain clamp compressor swelled and cracked

Cause • Insufficient filler injection

Figure 2.4 Swollen and cracked part of the clamp

Figure 2.5 Cross section of the clamp

2.4.1.2 Electric wire slipped off from a straight sleeve

Summary Electric wire slipped off from a straight sleeve

Cause Insufficient wire insertion into the straight sleeve

Solution • Strictly control compression insertion length etc. during installation

Figure 2.6 Cross-section photo of a sleeve

2.4.1.3 Birdcaging of conductor

Summary Birdcaging of conductor

Cause Conductor slipped inside midspan joint

Solution Cut out and re-do

Figure 2.7 Birdcaging of conductor

2.4.1.4 Marks on conductor causing Corona and RIV issues

Summary Marks on conductor causing Corona and RIV issues

Cause Excess grease left in compression

Solution Wipe clean

Figure 2.8 Excess grease left in compression

Cause ACSR went into compression

Solution Replace damaged portion

Figure 2.9 Birdcaging

2.4.1.6 Faulty jumper lug

Summary Jumper lug failed

Cause Insufficient compression

Solution Replace lug

Figure 2.10 Failed jumper lug

2.4.1.7 Improperly installed conductor joint

Summary Conductor joints wrongly installed

Figure 2.11 Conductor joint wrongly installed