ПОРІВНЯЛЬНА ЛЕКСИКОЛОГІЯ АНГЛІЙСЬКОЇ ТА УКРАЇНСЬКОЇ МОВ

1. Етимологічна характеристика словникового складу сучасної англійської та української мов.

(Etymological structure of English and Ukrainian vocabulary)

Etymology is the study of the history of words and how their form and meaning have changed over time. Ukr.voc. has
bigger native element than Engl. one. Engl.voc. has more than 80% borrowings.
Structure of Engl. voc.:
1) The native element: .Indo-European element, Germanic element, English Proper element (no earlier than 5th c.A.D.)
2) The borrowed element: Celtic (5th – 6th c.A.D.) (e.g. creg - rock, down - hill); Latin(legion, opinion create, congratulate);
Scandinavian (8th – 11th c.A.D.); French(Norman borrowings, Parisian borrowings); Greek; Italian; Spanish; German; Indian; Russian and
some other groups. By the Indo-European element are meant words of roots common to all (or most) languages of the Indo-European group.
The words of this group denote elementary concepts without which no human communication would be possible (mother, brother, son,
daughter, foot, nose, lip). The Germanic element represents words of roots common to all or most Germanic languages. Some of the main
groups of Germanic words are the same as in the Indo-European element. (e.g. head, hand, arm, bear, fox, calf, oak, fir, grass).
The English proper element is opposed to the first two groups. For not only it can be approximately dated, but these words have
another distinctive feature: they are specifically English have no cognates in other languages whereas for Indo-European and Germanic
words such cognates can always be found, as, for instance, for the following words of the Indo-European group (e.g. bird, boy, girl, lord,
lady, woman, daisy, always).
Structure of Ukr. voc.:
In the Ukrainian language there borrowings from the Polish language (в’язень, застава, ліжко, зичити), from the
Check language (брама, праця, вагатися). There also exist Turkic words (кабан, кайдани) in the Ukrainian language. Words
borrowed from the English language are partially assimilated (футбол, хокей). Some borrowings in the Ukrainian language
are restricted in word-formation. Such words as ноу-хау, от кутюр have no derivatives.
A loanword (or loan word) is a word borrowed from one language and incorporated into another. By translation-loans
we indicate borrowings of a special kind. They are not taken into the vocabulary of another language more or less in the same
phonemic shape in which they have been functioning in their own language, but undergo the process of translation. It is quite
obvious that it is only compound words (i. e. words of two or more stems). Each stem was translated separately: “masterpiece”
(from Germ. “Meisterstuck”), “wonder child” (from Germ. “Wunderkind”), ”first dancer” (from Ital. “prima-ballerina”).
Etymological Doublets - The words originating from the same etymological source, but differing in phonemic shape
and in meaning are called etymological doublets. They may enter the vocabulary by different routes. Some of these pairs
consist of a native word and a borrowed word: “shrew”, n. (E.) - “screw”, n. (Sc.). Others are represented by two borrowings
from different languages: “canal” (Lat.) - “channel” (Fr.), “captain” (Lat.) - “chieftain” (Fr.). Still others were borrowed from
the same language twice, but in different periods: “travel” (Norm. Fr.) - “travail" (Par. Fr.), “cavalry” (Norm. Fr.) - “chivalry”
(Par. Fr.), “gaol” (Norm. Fr.) - “jail” (Par. Fr.). A doublet may also consist of a shortened word and the one from which it was
derived: “history” - “story”, “fantasy” - “fancy”, “defence” - “fence”, “shadow” - “shade”.
Etymological triplets (i. e. groups of three words of common root) occur rarer, but here are at least two examples:
“hospital” (Lat.) - “hostel” (Norm. Fr.) - “hotel” (Par. Fr.), “to capture” (Lat.) - “to catch” (Norm. Fr.) - “to chase” (Par. Fr.).

2. Порівняльна фразеологія англійської та української мов. Види фразеологізмів та проблеми

їх перекладу.
Phraseological units are stable, emotionally charged phrases that, unlike ordinary word combinations, are not created in
speech, but are reproduced in it as indivisible units with a solid figurative meaning. They are one of the most effective ways of
forming speech and are used for brevity or for a vivid emotional assessment of what is described. They are individual for each
language and reflect the unique mentality of the nation, it is history and customs, as they were formed in relation to the
surrounding realities and features of people's perception. Currently, phraseological units are a big problem for translators, as it
requires finding the most accurate equivalent depending on the context.
Phraseological units may have the same meaning in both Ukrainian and English languages and might be literally
translated. Such coincidences can be explained by the fact that many Ukrainian and English phraseological units have common
primary sources: The Bible, literary works of famous writers, quotes, and statements of historical figures. It is also worth
remembering that both analyzed languages belong to the Indo-European language family, that means they have common
origins.
In particular, we can reveal similarities in the structure, imagery, and stylistic coloring of the following units: бути на
сьомому небі – to be in seventh heaven; грати з вогнем – to play with fire; слухати своє серце – to listen to one's heart;
справа честі – аffair of honour. This and some more phraseological units are simply understood by native speakers of both
languages and do not cause difficulties in translation.
 However, there are also phraseological units that have a different structure in the Ukrainian and English languages,
despite the coincidence of semantic properties. We can divide them into two groups:
1.Those, which differ in images, but retain the same general structure.
2.Those, which use completely different images and means of expression, having almost nothing in common, but convey
the meaning of each other in translation.
The first group includes such phraseological units: вбити двох зайців одним ударом (to kill two hares with one hit) – to
kill two birds with one stone; купити кота в мішку (buy a cat in a poke) – buy a pig in a poke. Such cases are an interesting
phenomenon. They show the similarity of thinking of the two nations and at the same time emphasize the difference in their
mode of life.
The second group includes the following examples: битися як риба об лід (to bustle like a fish on the ice) – to pull the
devil by the tail; біля розбитого корита (near a broken trough) – back at the bottom of the ladder; бути не в своїй тарілці
(to be not in your plate) – a round peg in a square hole. It is worth being careful and choosing analogs depending on the
specific context while translating such kind of units. The translator should use dictionaries of phraseological units and
contextual translators, which are constantly updated enriching with more and more new units.
In addition, both in Ukrainian and in English there are phraseological units that have no analogues and, accordingly,
cause the greatest difficulty in translation. An example of this may be an English expression "great guns", which might be
used speaking about any rapid action. In Ukrainian "як у вічі не вскочить" (as won't jump in the eyes), "ходити у ярмі" (to
walk under the yoke), "муляти очі" (to press the eyes), and others. Such units should be translated in a descriptive way,
relying on context, not form.

According to Vinogradov’s classification all phraseological units are divided into phraseological fusions, phraseological
unities and phraseological combinations.

1. Phraseological fusions are units whose meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of their component parts. The
meaning of PFs is unmotivated at the present stage of language development. PFs are the most idiomatic of all the
kinds of phraseological units. F/example: red tape (бюрократизм), пекти раків (червоніти), бити байдики
(ледарювати) – the meaning of the components is completely absorbed by the meaning of the whole.
2. Phraseological unities are expressions the meaning of which can be deduced from the meanings of their components;
the meaning of the whole is based on the transferred meanings of the components. They are motivated expressions as
the meaning of the whole unit can be deduced from the meanings of the constituent components but it is transferred
(metaphorical or metonymical. Phraseological unities are characterized by the semantic duality. E.g.: to show one’s
teeth (to be unfriendly), ускочити в халепу.
3. Phraseological collocations are not only motivated but contain one component used in its direct meaning, while the
other is used metaphorically. Phraseological combinations are often called traditional because words are combined in
their original meaning but their combinations are different in different languages. E.g.: to meet requirements, to attain
success.

Accepted ways of translating phraseological units

It should be pointed out that translation correspondences in the target language are used for the translation of idioms:
1) translation with the help of absolute equivalents:
2) translation with the help of relative equivalents is processed in the case when there are some -and-
3) translation with the help of phraseological analogues is topical when the translator translates

Emotional expressiveness and brevity of though expression are the most distinctive features of phraseological units.
Phraseological units are functioning in the newspaper style, notably in the newspaper headlines due to the fact that newspaper
headlines are expressive and concise.

3.Роль запозичень у формуванні та розвитку словникового складу англійської та української

мов. Інтернаціоналізми та псевдоінтернаціоналізми.

Loanwords are words adopted by the speakers of one language from a different language (the source language). A
loanword can also be called a borrowing. The abstract noun borrowing refers to the process of speakers adopting words from a
source language into their native language. "Loan" and "borrowing" are of course metaphors, because there is no literal lending
process. There is no transfer from one language to another, and no "returning" words to the source language. They simply
come to be used by a speech community that speaks a different language from the one they originated in. Borrowing is a
consequence of cultural contact between two language communities.
 Contemporary English is a unique mixture of Germanic and Romanic elements. This mixing has resulted in the
international character of the vocabulary. Through cultural contacts with Romans on the continent and through the influence of
Christianity a very early layer of Latin-Greek words entered the language. Their origin is no longer noticed by the ordinary
speaker nowaday in such words: pound, mustard, school, dish, chin, cleric, cheese, devil, street, and bishop. A more radical
change and profound influence upon the English vocabulary took place during the Norman Conquest. Until the XV century a
great number of French words enterred the language. They belong to different areas as: court, church, law and state. For
example: virtue, religion, parliament, justice, noble, beauty, preach, honour. Many French borrowings retained their original
pronunciation and stress. For example: champagne, ballet, machine, garage, separate, attitude, constitute, introduce.
XVII – XVIII centuries, due to the establishing of cultural, trade relations many words were borrowed from Italian
(libretto, violin, opera), Spanish (hurricane, tomato, tobacco), Dutch (yacht, dog, landscape).
Nowadays many Americanisms become familiar due to the increase of transatlantic travel and the influence of media.
Even in London (Heathrow airport) “baggage” instead of “luggage”.
The expression “international lexis” is called very often in lexicology and linguistics as an “internationalism” - words
of identical origin that occur in several languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from one ultimate
source. Their pronunciation and orthography are similar and easy, so that the speakers and learners of the language can quickly
understand and distinguish between certain languages. By the international words we understand those, that are connected with
different fields of social life as:
• politics: democracy, electorate, empire, fanaticism, immigration, jurisdiction.
• sport: arena, athletics, fan, fitness, goal, league, medal, penalty, tactics, trophy.
• communication: virtual, signal, modem, telegram, video camera, fax, microphone.
• physics: atom, proton, focus, ampere, pascal, pico-, kilo-, mega-, kinetic energy, vector.
• chemistry : anion, atmosphere, disperse, toxin, symbol, synthetic, organic, hydrolysis.
• mathematics: plus, integral, theorem, diagonal, yard, sphere, cylinder, median.
• medecine: influenza, virus, syndrome, anaemia, antibiotics, bacteria, biopsy, diabetes.
The international words can be also less or more similar in pronunciation, orthography and in lexical meaning in several
languages and they are easily and instantly memorized by learners of the languages, because they do not require any effort and
attention in learning them or even swoting up. A large number of English words applied to the vocabulary which pertains to
clothes: jersey – джерсі, pullover – пуловер, pulover, nylon – нейлон. Cinema and different forms of entertainment are also
source of many international words of English origin: film - фільм, club – клуб, cocktail – коктейль, jazz – джаз, jaz. The
frequence of the usage of the English vocabulary is different in various situations and texts.

General Idea of Pseudo-International Words: The term “international word” is sometimes indiscriminately applied to
cases of similarity in the general outlook of certain words expressing different concepts, like the English decoration (a thing
that makes sth look more attractive on special occasions) and the Ukrainian декорація (встановлене на сцені, знімальному
майданчику мальовниче, об'ємне або архітектурне зображення місця та обстановки сценічної дії). And here we deal
with Pseudo-International words, which are called “translator`s false friends” or “faux amis” which are an obstacle on the way
to correct translation. In some cases these deviations that are produced as a result of interfering influence of “translator`s false
friends” are insignificant. In others they can seriously affect the meaning of the utterance.
The appearance of misleading words is conditioned by differences in lexical systems of English and Ukrainian. These
differences depend on different ways, in which the development of words` semantics goes. Historically misleading words are
the result of interinfluence of languages. Words, borrowed from common source into different languages undergo various
semantic changes and are assimilated by the lexical system of the language. The assimilation of the borrowings is a unique and
peculiar process for every language. That is why the semantics of words of two languages, which were derived from one
common stock, is different. The differences in lexical systems of both languages cause interference to appear. Students are
liable to transfer the rules and phenomena of the mother tongue to the language studied.
In English and Ukrainian “translator`s false friends” can be met within the limits of four parts of speech: nouns,
adjectives, adverbs and verbs. False identifications take place within the limits of one and the same part of speech. From the
point of view of semantics, misleading are the words belonging to analogous or closely related semantic spheres, or at least
occuring in similar contexts.
Divergences in pairs of false friends may appear in content, realia, stylistic characteristics and lexical combinality; in
reality all these types of deviations are very often interwoven. These divergences multiply in the sphere of figurative meanings.
The degree of semantic divergences turn to be different with different parts of speech: adjectives and moreover adverbs have
the most specific meanings.

4. Семантичні групи фразеологізмів в англійській мови та українській мовах. Відкриваєш

2 питання і читаєш до класифікації Виноградова, а це я дописала ну прям ще детальніше

2 criteria:

 The degree of semantic isolation

 The degree of disinformation
1. Opaque in meaning (важкий для сприйняття)
the meaning of the individual words can’t be summed together to produce the meaning of the whole.

 Ex.: to kick the bucket = to die

It contains no clue to the idiomatic meaning of this expression

The degree of semantic isolation is the highest. => phraseological fusions
2. Semi-opaque
one component preserves its direct meaning

 Ex.: to pass the buck = to pass responsibility – свалить ответственность

=> phraseological unities

3. Transparent
both components in their direct meaning but the combination acquires figurative sense

 Ex.: to see the light = to understand

=> phraseological combinations

There are lots of idioms (proverbs, saying).

 Ex.: Curiosity killed the cat, but satisfaction brought it back

Idioms institutionalized formulas of politeness:

 · How do you do?

 · Good-bye (God be with you)
 · How about a drink?

Lots of clichés, quotations.

Clichés form a notable part of he public speaking style. They use clichés because of the intellectual laziness or in the hope of
appealing to emotions of smb.
A talk based on clichés is easier to produce.

 Ex.: to see the light

 It’s high time to do smth

( these expressions are store in our mind, ready-made )

Quotations:
To support our arguments, to add some prominence

 Ex.: “I have a dream” M.L.King

 “To be or not to be” Shakespeare

They may be clipped or shortened.

 Ex.: To beer or not to beer (creates humorist effect)

 To bomb or not to bomb
 It was the last straw that broke the camels back.

5. Семасіологія. Порівняльний аналіз семантичних груп: синоніми, антоніми, омоніми та

пароніми.
In linguistics the branch of the study concerned with the meaning of words is called semasiology or semantics.
Synonyms are traditionally defined as words different in their sound-form but similar or identical in meaning. The definition is
problematic. Now they are defined as words different in their soundform but similar in their denotational component and
different in their connotational component and interchangeable at least in some contexts.
Synonyms are grouped according to their common features (e.g. part of speech, meaning, etc.). Each group possesses the
synonymic dominant. The synonymic dominant is the most general word of a group of synonyms that possesses the specific
features characteristic of a given group of synonyms.
Characteristic features of synonymic dominant:
1) high frequency of usage;
2) broad combinability; ability to be used in combination with other words;
3) broad general meaning;
4) lack of connotation. e.g. to look, to stare, to glare, to gaze, to glance, to peer, to peep.
The division of synonyms into groups is debatable. But it is generally accepted the classification by V.Vinogradov according
to which main groups of synonyms are: ideographic (are those which differ in their shades of meaning), stylistic (are used in
different styles, they differ in connotational component of the meaning) and absolute (which coincide in all shades of meaning)
are rare).

Antonyms – are words which are different in sound form and characterized by semantic polarity of their denotative meanings.
Antonymy shares many features typical of synonymy. Like synonyms, perfect and complete antonyms are rare;
interchangeability is typical to antonyms as well. In contrast with synonymy antonymy is a binary relationship between 2
words. In most cases antonyms go in pairs: day – night; present – absent; early – late.
According to morphological classification antonyms may be absolute (root) and derivational.
Absolute antonyms are diametrically opposite in meaning and remain antonyms in many word combinations: love – hate; light
– dark; white – black.
Derivational antonyms are formed with the help of the negative affixes:
a) prefixes: un- (the most productive): known – unknown.
b) suffixes: -less (often instead of -ful): careful – careless;

Homonyms are words which are identical in sound and spelling or in one of these aspects, but different in their meaning,
distribution and in many case origin.
The subdivision of homonyms into: a) homonyms proper (complete, perfect, absolute) – pronounced and spelt alike (ball-ball);
b) homophones – pronounced alike, spelt differently (site – sight; son – sun; see – sea); c) homographs – identical in spelling
but different both in sound form and meaning: bow – a piece of wood, curved by a string and used for shooting arrows;

Paronyms are words that are pronounced or written in a similar way but which have different lexical meanings.
We may distinguish three groups of paronyms.(1) Words having the same root but different derivational prefixes.
e.g. precede - proceed, preposition - proposition, abnormal - subnormal
(2) Words having the same root but different derivational suffixes'.
e.g. popular -populous, carefree - careless, elementary - elemental, contemptible - contemptuous
(3)-Word which originated from different sources and the likeness may be accidental. e.g. absolute - obsolete', adopt-adapt,
grisly — grizzly, affect-effect
In Ukrainian language examples!!!
Однокореневі — відрізняються лише суфіксами чи префіксами: ( have the same radix but different affixation)
зв’язаний — пов’язаний, вникати — уникати,
Різнокореневі — відрізняються одним-двома звуками: ( have different one or two sounds)
компанія — кампанія, талан — талант,
Синонімічні — мають подібні значення: (have similar meanings)повідь — повінь,привабливий - принадливий,
плоский — плаский,
Антонімічні — протилежні за значенням: ( are opposite in meaning)прогрес — регрес,експорт — імпорт, густо —
пусто.
Також пароніми можуть відрізнятися і за семантикою слова.
Семантично близькі:(semantically similar)крикливий — кричущий,ніготь — кіготь,м’язи — в’язи, Семантично різні:
(semantically different)газ — гас,глуз — глузд,орден — ордер,дипломат — дипломант, ефект — афект.

6. Слово як основна одиниця словникового складу. Денотативне та конотативне значення.

Words are the central elements of language system. The definition of a word is one of the most difficult in linguistics
because the simplest word has many different aspects. It has a sound form and morphological structure; when used in actual
speech, it may occur in different word-forms, different syntactic functions and signal various meanings. Being the central
element of any language system, the word is a sort of focus for the problems of Phonology, Lexicology, Syntax, Morphology
and also for some other sciences that have to deal with language and speech, such as philosophy and psychology. All attempts
to characterize the word are necessarily specific for each domain of science and are therefore considered one-sided by the
representatives of all the other domains. The word has been defined semantically, syntactically, phonologically and by
combining various approaches.
The word is the smallest unit of a given language capable of functioning alone and characterized by positional mobility
within a sentence, morphological uninterruptability and semantic integrity. All these criteria are necessary because they create
a basis for the oppositions between the word and the phrase, the word and the phoneme and the morpheme; their common
feature is that they are all units of the language, their difference lies in the fact that the phoneme is not significant, and a
morpheme cannot be used as a complete utterance.

The denotation of a word or expression is its explicit or direct meaning, as distinguished from the ideas or meanings
associated with it or suggested by it. Simply put, a word’s denotation is what that word means or directly represents.
The meaning of denotation becomes more clear when it’s contrasted with connotation. When someone refers to a
word’s connotation, they’re referring to what it implies or suggests—or to the secondary meanings or implications that are
associated with it. The word connotation is commonly used in the phrases positive connotation and negative connotation.
That’s because people associate good or bad things with a lot of words.
Let’s illustrate the difference with a simple example.
For example, the word home refers to the place where you live—it could be a house, an apartment, etc. This is the
word’s denotation. For many people, the word home has a positive connotation—it’s associated with safety, comfort, and a
sense of belonging. These associations and implications make up the word’s connotation.

7. Продуктивні способи словотвору: афіксація, словоскладання, конверсія.

Word formation is a branch of lexicology which studies patterns on which a language forms lexical units.
Productivity is the ability to form new words after existing patterns which are readily understood by the speakers of a
language. The most important and the most productive ways of word-formation are affixation, conversion, word-
composition and abbreviation (contraction). In the course of time the productivity of this or that way of word-formation may
change. Sound interchange or gradation (blood − to bleed, to abide − abode, to strike − stroke) was a productive way of
word building in old English and is important for a diachronic study of the English language. It has lost its productivity in
Modern English and no new word can be coined by means of sound gradation. Affixation on the contrary was productive in
Old English and is still one of the most productive ways of word building in Modern English.
The process of affixation consists in coining a new word by adding an affix or several affixes to some root morpheme.

+Suffixation is more productive than prefixation. In Modern English suffixation is characteristic of noun and adjective
formation, while prefixation is typical of verb formation (incoming, trainee, principal, promotion).

A suffix is a derivational morpheme following the stem and forming a new derivative in a different part of speech or a
different word class, сf. -en, -y, -less in hearten, hearty, heartless. When both the underlying and the resultant forms belong to
the same part of speech, the suffix serves to differentiate between lexico-grammatical classes by rendering some very general
lexico-grammatical meaning. For instance, both -ify and -er are verb suffixes, but the first characterises causative verbs, such
as horrify, purify, rarefy, simplify, whereas the second is mostly typical of frequentative verbs: flicker, shimmer, twitter and the
like.
A prefix is a derivational morpheme standing before the root and modifying meaning, cf. hearten — dishearten. It is
only with verbs and statives that a prefix may serve to distinguish one part of speech from another, like in earth n
— unearth v, sleep n — asleep (stative).
Composition is the way of word building when a word is formed by joining two or more stems to form one word. The
structural unity of a compound word depends upon: a) the unity of stress, b) solid or hyphеnated spelling, c) semantic unity, d)
unity of morphological and syntactical functioning. These are characteristic features of compound words in all languages. For
English compounds some of these factors are not very reliable. As a rule English compounds have one uniting stress (usually
on the first component), e.g. hard-cover, best-seller. We can also have a double stress in an English compound, with the main
stress on the first component and with a secondary stress on the second component, e.g. blood-vessel. The third pattern of
stresses is two level stresses, e.g. snow-white, sky-blue. The third pattern is easily mixed up with word-groups unless they have
solid or hyphеnated spelling.
Conversion is a characteristic feature of the English word-building system. It is also called affixless derivation or zero-
suffixation. Conversion is the main way of forming verbs in Modern English. Verbs can be formed from nouns of different
semantic groups and have different meanings because of that, e.g.:
a) verbs have instrumental meaning if they are formed from nouns denoting parts of a human body e.g. to eye, to finger,
to elbow, to shoulder etc. They have instrumental meaning if they are formed from nouns denoting tools, machines,
instruments, weapons, e.g. to hammer, to machine-gun, to rifle, to nail.

8. Скорочення-абревіатури та акроніми як збагачення мови.

 In the process of communication words and word-groups can be shortened. The causes of shortening can be linguistic and
extra-linguistic. By extra-linguistic causes changes in the life of people are meant. In Modern English many new abbreviations,
acronyms, initials, blends are formed because the tempo of life is increasing and it becomes necessary to give more and more
information in the shortest possible time. There are also linguistic causes of abbreviating words and word-groups, such as the
demand of rhythm, which is satisfied in English by monosyllabic words. When borrowings from other languages are
assimilated in English they are shortened. There are two main types of shortenings: graphical and lexical.
Graphical abbreviations
Graphical abbreviations are the result of shortening of words and word-groups only in written speech while orally the
corresponding full forms are used. They are used for the economy of space and effort in writing. The oldest group of graphical
abbreviations in English is of Latin origin. In Russian this type of abbreviation is not typical. In these abbreviations in the
spelling Latin words are shortened, while orally the corresponding English equivalents are pronounced in the full form, e.g. for
example (Latin exampli gratia), a.m. – in the morning (ante meridiem), No – number (numero), p.a. – a year (per annum), i.
e. – that is (id est) etc.
Some graphical abbreviations of Latin origin have different English equivalents in different contexts, e.g. p.m. can be
pronounced «in the afternoon» (post meridiem) and «after death» (post mortem). There are also graphical abbreviations of
native origin, where in the spelling we have abbreviations of words and word-groups of the corresponding English equivalents
in the full form. We have several semantic groups of them:
a) days of the week, e.g. Mon – Monday, Tue – Tuesday etc
b) names of months, e.g. Apr – April, Aug – August etc.
c) names of counties in UK, e.g. Yorks – Yorkshire, Berks – Berkshire etc
d) names of states in USA, e.g. Ala – Alabama, Alas – Alaska etc.
e) names of address, e.g. Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr. etc.
f) military ranks, e.g. capt. – captain, col. – colonel, sgt – sergeant etc.
g) scientific degrees, e.g. B.A. – Bachelor of Arts, D.M. – Doctor of Medicine. (Sometimes in scientific degrees we have
abbreviations of Latin origin, e.g., M.B. – Medicinae Baccalaurus).
h) units of time, length, weight, e.g. f./ft – foot/feet, sec. – second, in. – inch, mg. – milligram etc.
The reading of some graphical abbreviations depends on the context, e.g. «m» can be read as: male, married, masculine,
metre, mile, million, minute, «l.p.» can be read as long-playing, low pressure.
Initialisms are the bordering case between graphical and lexical abbreviations. When they appear in the language, as a
rule, to denote some new offices they are closer to graphical abbreviations because orally full forms are used, e.g. J.V. – joint
venture. When they are used for some duration of time they acquire the shortened form of pronouncing and become closer to
lexical abbreviations, e.g. BBC is as a rule pronounced in the shortened form. In some cases the translation of initialisms is
next to impossible without using special dictionaries.
An acronym (pronounced AK-ruh-nihm, from Greek acro- in the sense of extreme or tip and onyma or name) is an
abbreviation of several words in such a way that the abbreviation itself forms a pronounceable word. The word may already
exist or it can be a new word.
According to the strictest definition of an acronym, only abbreviations that are pronounced as words qualify. So by these
standards, for example, COBOL is an acronym because it's pronounced as a word but WHO (World Health Organization) is
not an acronym because the letters in the abbreviation are pronounced individually. Різниця між ініціалізмами та
акронімами в тому, що ініціалізми – перші букви слів, які не вимовляються як окреме слово; акронім – перші букви
слів, які читаються наче окреме слово.

9. Непродуктивні засоби словотвору.

Word formation is a branch of lexicology which studies patterns on which a language forms lexical units.
The unproductive ways of word formation include:
Back-formation (regressive derivation) is the way of word-building when a word is formed by dropping the final
morpheme to form a new word e.g. an editor > to edit, enthusiasm > to enthuse etc. It is opposite to suffixation, that is why it
is called back formation.
The earliest attested examples of back-formation are a beggar > to beg; a burglar > to burgle; a cobbler > to cobble.
Sound-interchange is the way of word-building when some sounds are changed to form a new word. It is non-productive
in Modern English, it was productive in Old English and can be met in other Indo-European languages. It can be also the result
of Ancient Umlaut or vowel mutation which is the result of palatalizing the root vowel because of the front vowel in the
syllable coming after the root (regressive assimilation), e.g. hot - to heat (hotian), blood - to bleed (blodian) etc. In many cases
we have vowel and consonant interchange. In nouns we have voiceless consonants and in verbs we have corresponding voiced
consonants because in Old English these consonants in nouns were at the end of the word and in verbs in the intervocalic
position, e.g. bath – to bathe, life – to live, breath – to breathe etc.
Stress interchange can be mostly met in verbs and nouns of Romanic origin: nouns have the stress on the first syllable
and verbs on the last syllable, e.g. `accent - to ac`cent. This phenomenon is explained in the following way: French verbs and
nouns had different structure when they were borrowed into English, verbs had one syllable more than the corresponding
nouns. When these borrowings were assimilated in English the stress in them was shifted to the previous syllable (the second
from the end). Later on the last unstressed syllable in verbs borrowed from French was dropped (the same as in native verbs)
and after that the stress in verbs was on the last syllable while in nouns it was on the first syllable. As a result of it we have
such pairs in English as: to af``fix -`affix, to con`flict- `conflict, to ex`port -`export, to ex`tract - `extract etc. As a result of
stress interchange we have also vowel interchange in such words because vowels are pronounced differently in stressed and
unstressed positions.
Sound imitation (onomatopeia)
It is the way of word-building when a word is formed by imitating different sounds. There are some semantic groups of
words formed by means of sound imitation:
a) sounds produced by human beings, such as : to whisper, to giggle, to mumble, to sneeze, to whistle etc.
b) sounds produced by animals, birds, insects, such as: to hiss, to buzz, to bark, to moo, to twitter etc.
c) sounds produced by nature and objects, such as: to splash, to rustle, to clatter, to bubble, to ding-dong, to tinkle etc.
The corresponding nouns are formed by means of conversion, e.g. clang (of a bell), chatter (of children) etc.

10. Мотивація як мовна універсалія. Види мотивацій: фонетична, морфологічна,

семантична.

Motivation – is the relationship between the form of the word (its sound form, morphemic composition and structural pattern)
and its meaning. Words can be motivated or non-motivated. There are three main types of motivation: phonetic, morphological
and semantic motivation.
Phonetic motivation is a direct connection between the sound form of a word and its meaning. There are two types of
phonetic motivation: sound imitation and sound symbolism. Phonetically-motivated words have their sounding structure
somewhat similar to the sounds they convey and sound symbolism suggests that some sounds themselves are emotionally
expressive which accounts for the phonetic motivation of some words. It is argued that speech sounds may suggest spatial and
visual dimensions, shape, size, etc. Experiments carried out by a group of linguists showed that back open vowels are
suggestive of big size, heavy weight, dark color, etc. Words as swish, sizzle, boom, splash, etc. may be defined as phonetically
motivated because the sound clusters [swi∫, sizl, bum, splæ∫] are a direct imitation of the sounds these words denote.
Morphological motivation – is a direct connection between the lexical meaning of the component morphemes, the pattern of
their arrangement and the meaning of the word. Morphologically motivated words are those, whose meaning is determined by
the meaning of their components, e.g. re-write "write again", ex-wife "former wife".Безнадія, дисбаланс.
Semantic motivation is based on the co-existence of direct and figurative meanings of the same word,
e.g. butterfly – 1) insect; 2) showy and frivolous person. (=metaphorical extension of the direct meaning). Many similar
examples of semantic motivation of words are also observed in Ukrainian: легка/важка рука (легко/ дошкульно б'є), легкий/
важкий на руку, липкі руки/липкий на руку (злодій); купатися в розкошах, купатися в славі/купатися в промінні
південного сонця, братися за справу (діло), etc. Their meanings are very transparent and mostly need no further explanation.
Semanticallу motivated lexical units constitute in English about 10 % and in Ukrainian about 7.4 % of their total motivated
lexicons.

11. Семантична структура англійської та української мови.

Semasiology (semantics) is a branch of linguistics dealing with the meaning of the word. There are 3 types of the
meaning of the word: the lexical meaning and the grammatical meaning, lexico - grammatical meaning.
The grammatical meaning is the component of meaning in identical sets of individual forms of different words, as e.g.,
the tense meaning in the word-forms of verbs (asked, thought walked, etc. or in Ukrainian - їхав, йшов, говорив) or the
meaning of plurality (books, intentions, phenomena, столи, вікна, etc.).
The lexico - grammatical meaning (part-of-speech meaning) is the common meaning of words belonging to a lexico-
grammatical class of words, it is the feature according to which they are grouped together. The interrelation of the lexical and
the grammatical meaning varies in different word-classes. In some parts of speech the prevailing component is the grammatical
type of meaning (e.g., in prepositions), in others - the lexical (e.g., in nouns, verbs, etc.).
The lexical meaning is the component of meaning proper to the given linguistic unit in all its forms and distributions.
E.g., in the forms go, goes, went, gone (читає, читав, читатиме) we find one and the same semantic component denoting the
process of movement.
Both the lexical and the grammatical meanings make up the word-meaning as neither can exist without the other.
Lexical meaning is not homogeneous either; it includes denotative and connotative components.
The denotative component of lexical meaning expresses the conceptual content of a word. Fulfilling the nominative and
the communicative functions of the word, it is present in every word and may be regarded as the central factor in the
functioning of the language.
 The connotative component of lexical meaning expresses the pragmatic communicative value the word receives
depending on where, when, how, by whom, for what purpose and in what contexts it is used. Unlike the denotative component,
the connotative component is optional. There are four main types of connotation. They are stylistic, emotive, evaluative and
expressive, or intensifying.
When associations concern the situation in which the word is uttered (formal, familiar, etc.), the social relationships
between the interlocutors (polite, rough), the purpose of communication (poetic, official), the connotation is stylistic. E.g.,
parent (bookish) - father (neutral) - dad (colloquial); чоло (poetical) - лоб (neutral) - макітра (low colloquial)
An emotive connotation is acquired by the word because the referent named in the denotative meaning is associated with
emotions. In the synonyms, e.g., large, big, tremendous and like, love, worship (подобатися, любити, обожнювати) the
emotive charge of the words tremendous and worship is heavier than that of the other words. Cf. голівонька, серденько,
матуся.
An evaluative connotation expresses approval or disapproval, e.g., clique - group, magic - witchcraft (вітер - вітрюга;
козак - козаченько).
A fourth type of connotation is the intensifying connotation (also expressive, emphatic). Thus, magnificent, splendid,
superb (вітер - вітерець - вітрище - вітрюга) are all used colloquially as terms of exaggeration.
Words may be monosemantic or polysemantic. Monosemantic words are sometimes represented by a whole lexico-
grammatical class, as it is in case of all pronouns, numerals, conjunctions and various nomenclature words (terms). E.g.: we,
she, nobody, ten, thirty, and, or, atom, oxygen, sugar, today; він, вони, десять, перший, і/та, чи, кисень, цукор, сьогодні,
торік, etc.
The semantic structure of the bulk of English polysemantic nouns, e.g., is richer than that of the Ukrainian nouns. Thus,
the English noun boat can mean човен, судно/корабель, шлюпка; the noun coat in English can mean верхній одяг, пальто,
піджак, кітель, хутро (тварин), захисний шар фарби на предметі. Ukrainian words may sometimes have a complicated
semantic structure as well. E.g., the noun подорож may mean cruise, journey, travel, trip, tour, voyage; or the word ще may
mean still, yet, as yet, more, any more, again, else, but.

12. Лексико-семантичне поле. Гіпонімія та гіперонімія.

Hypero-hyponymy is a gender-species relationship in the lexical-semantic system. For example: birch, oak, maple,
sycamore, pine - tree; rose, rose, nasturtium, tulip, narcissus - flower; cow, horse, goat, wolf, fox, hare - an animal.
Hyperonym - a word with a broader meaning, which expresses a general, generic concept, the name of a class (set) of
objects (properties, features).
Hyperonym (in linguistics) - a concept in relation to other concepts expresses a more general essence. With respect to
some set of objects, the concept that reflects supersets to the original hyperonyms.
Hyperonym is the result of a logical operation of generalization or in the mathematical sense - belonging to the set.
Hyponym is a word with a narrower meaning, which names an object (property, sign) as an element of a class (set). The
same rule can be formulated in other words: "Species word of genus-species relations, characterized by private opposition and
included distribution."
Hypero-hyponymy is close to synonymy. It is even called quasi-synonymy (from the Latin quasi - "as if, almost, as if"),
but unlike synonymy, which allows two-way replacement in the text (the first synonym to the second and vice versa), in
hypero-hyponymy only one-way replacement is possible - replacement hyponym for hyperonym. For example: He found roses.
→ He found flowers. The opposite replacement is not possible here, because flowers can be not only roses. The meaning of a
hyponym is more complex than the meaning of a hyperonym, and the class of objects it represents is narrower. Hyponyms
include the meaning of the hyperonym and are opposed to each other by certain semes. Yes, the words rose, daisy, tulip in their
meaning have a common meaning "flower", but each of them is opposed to all the others on certain grounds.