Thermal Engineering Practical (N - Scheme)

THERMAL ENGINEERING
PRACTICAL MANUAL
(N – SCHEME)
N. IYANARAPPAN, M.E., M.I.S.T.E.
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THERMAL ENGINEERING PRACTICAL MANUAL
Copy right © : K A L P a t hi p pa ga m
No part of this publication may be stored in a retrieval system, transmitted or
reproduced in any way, including but not limited to photocopy, photograph, magnetic or
other record, without prior agreement and written permission of the publisher.
First Edition : June 2017

Revised Edition : August 2022
Price : 128.00 For Contact :

99446 50380
Publisher : 96266 26747
KAL PATHIPPAGAM
Vellore – 632 011
Type setting :
Students’ Media Computer Graphics
Vellore – 632 011.
THERMAL ENGINEERING PRACTICAL
DETAILED SYLLABUS
OBJECTIVES :
Determine the flash and fire point and viscosity of oil.
Draw the valve timing diagram of petrol and diesel engines.
Draw the port timing diagram of petrol and diesel engines.
Conduct performance test on petrol and diesel engines.
Prepare heat balance sheet for an IC engine.
Conduct of C.O.P of Refrigerators.
Determine the volumetric efficiency of the Air Compressor.
EXPERIMENTS :
PART-A
1) Determine flash and fire point of the given oil using open cup and closed cup
apparatus.
2) Determine the absolute viscosity of the given lubricating oil using Redwood
viscometer.
3) Determine the absolute viscosity of the given lubricating oil using Say bolt
viscometer.
4) Port timing diagram of two stroke petrol Engine
5) Valve time diagram for four stroke petrol Engine.
6) Valve time diagram for four stroke diesel engines.
PART-B
1) Load test (Performance test) on Four Stroke Petrol Engine.

2) Load test (Performance test) on Four Stroke diesel Engine.
3) Morse test on Multi-cylinder petrol engine.
4) Heat balance test on Four Stroke Diesel / Petrol Engine.
5) Volumetric efficiency of Air Compressor.
6) Determination of COP of Refrigeration System.
BOARD EXAMINATION
Note:
All the experiments in both sections should be completed. Two experiments
will be given for examination by selecting one exercise from PART A and one
exercise from PART B.
All the experiments should be given in the question paper and students are
allowed to select by a lot or Question paper issued from the DOTE should be
followed.
All regular students appearing for first attempt should submit record notebook
for the examination.
DETAILED ALLOCATION OF MARKS
Part – A : .................................................. 35 Marks

Observation and Tabular Column ….. 5
Calculations ……………………………........ 20
Result / Graph ………………………......... 10
Part – B : .................................................. 55 Marks

Observation and Tabular Column ….. 10
Formulae / Calculations ……………….… 30
Result / Graph ………………................ 15
Viva – voce ............................................... 10 Marks

Total = 100 Marks
Contents
Part – A Page No.
1. a) Determination of flash and fire point of oil using open cup apparatus ………….... 1
b) Determination of flash and fire point of oil using closed cup apparatus ………….. 5
2. Determination of absolute viscosity of oil using redwood viscometer ………………… 9
3. Determination of absolute viscosity of oil using Saybolt viscometer …………………… 15
4. Port timing diagram of two stroke petrol engine ………………………………………..….. 21
5. Valve timing diagram of four stroke petrol engine ……………………………………….... 25
6. Valve timing diagram of four stroke diesel engine ………………………………………..... 29
Part – B
1. Load test (performance test) on four stroke petrol engine ………………………………… 33
2. Load test (performance test) on four stroke diesel engine ………………………………… 41
3. Morse test on multi-cylinder petrol engine ……………………………………………………. 49
4. Heat balance test four stroke diesel / petrol ………………………………………………….. 55
5. Volumetric efficiency of air compressor …………………………………………………......... 63
6. Determination of C.O.P of refrigeration system …………………………………………….... 67
Viva – Voce Questions & Answers ……………………………………………........................ 72
Ex. No. : 1(a) DETERMINATION OF FLASH AND FIRE POINT
OF OIL USING OPEN CUP APPARATUS
Aim :
To determine the flash and fire point temperatures of the given sample of oil using
Cleveland open cup apparatus.
Apparatus required :
1) Cleveland open cup apparatus
2) Thermometer
3) Splinter sticks
4) Sample of oil
Theory :
The flash point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which vapours of that fuel will
ignite (flash), when given an ignition source under specified condition. At the flash point,
vapour might not be produced at a rate to sustain the fire. The fire point of a fuel is the lowest
temperature at which the vapour of that fuel will continue to burn for at least 5 seconds after
ignition by an open flame.
The fire points can be assumed to be about 10°C higher than the flash points. Flash
point is used to characterize the fire hazards of liquids. Liquids which have a flash point
between 37.8 and 60.5oC are called flammable, whereas liquids having a flash point above
that temperature are called combustible. The higher flash point temperature is always
desirable for any lubricating oil. If the oil has the lower value of flash point temperatures, it
will burn easily and forms the carbon deposits on the moving parts. Diesel fuel flash points
vary between 52 and 96°C.
Open cup and closed cup are two basic types of flash point measurement. Closed cup
testers normally give lower values for the flash point than open cup. The measured value will
vary with equipment, time allowed for the sample to become in equilibrium, sample volume
and whether the sample is stirred. The flash and fire point temperatures depends upon the
volatility of the oil.
1
Tabulation :
Name of sample oil :
Trial Temperature of oil

Observation
No. (º C)
Apparatus description :
The Cleveland open cup apparatus consists of test cup of standard size, heating plate,
test flame applicator and heater. The cup is held in position in a metallic holder. Heating is
provided by means of an electric heater fitted inside the metallic holder. A provision is made
on the top of the cup to hold the thermometer. A standard filling mark is provided on the
inner side of the cup and the sample of oil is filled up to the mark.
Procedure :
1) All parts of the apparatus are cleaned and dried with the help of suitable solvent.
2) The oil cup is filled with the sample oil exactly up to the filling mark.
3) The thermometer is inserted in the holder. The thermometer should not touch the
metallic cup.
4) The test flame is ignited, and it is adjusted to a diameter of about 4 mm.
5) The oil is heated by means of electric heater at the rate of 5 to 6°C per minute so that
the sample of oil gives out vapour. The oil is stirred continuously by the stirrer.
6) When the oil is at a temperature 10º C below the expected flash point, the test flame
is introduced over the oil vapour. This is done by operating the shutter. The test flame
should be introduced at every 1º C rise of temperature.
7) When the test flame causes a distinct flash, the temperature is noted. This gives the
flash point temperature of the given sample of oil.
8) The heating is continued such that the oil temperature increases at a rate of 5 to
6°C/min. The application of the test flame is continued at 2°C interval until the oil
ignites and continues to burn at least for 5 seconds.
9) The temperature at this moment is recorded. It gives fire point of the given sample of oil.
10) The test is repeated with fresh sample of oil and the results are observed to obtain
concordant values.
Result :
The flash and fire point temperatures of the given sample of oil are determined using
Cleveland open cup apparatus.
The flash point temperature of the given sample of oil is _______° C
The fire point temperature is of the given sample of oil is _______° C
3
Ex. No. : 1(b) DETERMINATION OF FLASH AND FIRE POINT
OF OIL USING CLOSED CUP APPARATUS
Aim :
To determine the flash and fire point temperatures of the given sample of oil using
Pensky-Martens closed cup apparatus.
1) Pensky-Martens closed cup apparatus
2) Thermometer
3) Splinter sticks
4) Sample of oil
Theory :
ignite (flash), when given an ignition source under specified condition. At the flash point,
vapour might not be produced at a rate to sustain the fire. The fire point of a fuel is the lowest
temperature at which the vapour of that fuel will continue to burn for at least 5 seconds after
ignition by an open flame.
The fire points can be assumed to be about 10°C higher than the flash points. Flash
point is used to characterize the fire hazards of liquids. Liquids which have a flash point
between 37.8 and 60.5oC are called flammable, whereas liquids having a flash point above
that temperature are called combustible. The higher flash point temperature is always
desirable for any lubricating oil. If the oil has the lower value of flash point temperatures, it
will burn easily and forms the carbon deposits on the moving parts. Diesel fuel flash points
vary between 52 and 96°C.
Open cup and closed cup are two basic types of flash point measurement. Closed cup
testers normally give lower values for the flash point than open cup. The measured value will
vary with equipment, time allowed for the sample to become in equilibrium, sample volume
and whether the sample is stirred. The flash and fire point temperatures depends upon the
volatility of the oil.
5
Tabulation :
Trial Temperature of oil

Observation
No. (º C)
6
Pensky-Martens closed cup apparatus is used to determine the flash point of the
lubricating oils, fuel oils, solvents, solvent containing material and suspension of solids. This
apparatus consists of the test cup, test cover and shutter, stirring device, heating source,
ignition source device, air bath, and top plate. The oil cup is made of brass with a height of
5.5 cm and diameter of 5 cm. Lid of the cup is provided with four openings of standard sizes,
for inserting stirrer, admission of air, inserting thermometer and introducing test flame
respectively. The cup is surrounded by a hot air jacket which is heated from bottom by an
electric heater. A shutter is provided at the top of the cup. By moving the shutter, opening in
the lid opens and flame is dipped in to this opening, bringing the flame over the oil surface.
Procedure :
3) The lid is fixed on the top after inserting a thermometer and a stirrer. The flame
exposure device is fixed on the top.
4) The test flame is ignited, and it is adjusted to a diameter of about 4 mm.
5) The oil is heated by means of electric heater at the rate of 5 to 6°C per minute so that
the sample of oil gives out vapour. The oil is stirred continuously by the stirrer.
6) When the oil is at a temperature 10º C below the expected flash point, the test flame
is introduced over the oil vapour. This is done by operating the shutter. The test flame
should be introduced at every 1º C rise of temperature.
7) When the test flame causes a distinct flash, the temperature is noted. This gives the
flash point temperature of the given sample of oil.
8) The heating is continued such that the oil temperature increases at a rate of 5 to
6°C/min. The application of the test flame is continued at 2°C interval until the oil
ignites and continues to burn at least for 5 seconds.
9) The temperature at this moment is recorded. It gives fire point of the given sample of oil.
10) The test is repeated with fresh sample of oil and the results are observed to obtain
concordant values.
Result :
The flash and fire point temperatures of the given sample of oil are determined using
Pensky-Martens closed cup apparatus.
The flash point temperature of the given sample of oil is _______° C
The fire point temperature is of the given sample of oil is _______° C
7
Ex. No. : 2 DETERMINATION OF ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY
OF OIL USING REDWOOD VISCOMETER
Aim :
To determine the absolute viscosity of given lubricating oil using redwood viscometer.
1) Redwood viscometer
2) Thermometer (0-100º C) – 2 Nos.
3) Stop watch
4) 50 ml standard flask
5) Sample of oil
Theory :
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by shear
stress or tensile stress. A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal or
inviscid fluid. Zero viscosity is observed only at very low temperatures in superfluids.
There are two related measures of fluid viscosity

1) Absolute or dynamic viscosity (µ )
2) Kinematic viscosity (ν )
Absolute or dynamic viscosity :

Absolute viscosity is a measure of internal resistance. It is defined as the shear stress
required to produce unit rate of angular deformation.
τ
Absolute viscosity, µ =
 du 
 
 dy 
du
where, τ = shear stress; = Angular deformation (Velocity gradient)
dy
Unit of absolute viscosity :
N-s
SI unit : = pa . s
m2
kgf - sec
MKS unit :
m2
dyne - sec  cm 
CGS unit : = poise  dyne = gm ×
cm 2
 sec 2 
N-s 1
Relationship : 1 2 = 10 poise; 1 centipoise = poise
m 100
9
Observation :
1) Room temperature, Tr = ___________ º C
2) Density of oil at room temperature, ρ r = __________ gm / cm3

(Generally ρr is taken between 0.84 and 0.85 gm / cm3)
Tabulation :
Temperature Time taken for

Sl. Kinematic viscosity Absolute viscosity
of oil 50 ml of oil
No. (Centistokes) (Centipoise)
(º C) collection (sec)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
10
Kinematic viscosity :
Kinematic viscosity of fluid is defined as the ratio of absolute viscosity to mass density
of the fluid.
μ
Kinematic viscosity, ν =
ρ
where, ρ = Mass density of fluid
Unit of kinematic viscosity :

m2
SI unit :
s
m2
MKS unit :
sec
cm 2
CGS unit : = stoke
sec
2
 1 
 m
cm 2  100  1
Relationship : 1 stoke = 1 = = 10− 4 m 2 / s; Centistoke = stoke
sec sec 100
The redwood viscometer consist of vertical cylindrical oil cup with an orifice in the
centre of its base . The orifice can be closed by a ball valve . A hook pointing upward serves
as a guide mark for filling the oil . The cylindrical cup is surrounded by the water bath . The
water bath is heated by means of an immersed electric water heater. The temperature of oil
in the cup is maintained at a constant temperature with the help of hot water bath. The
provision is made for stirring the water, to maintain the uniform temperature in the water
bath and to place thermometers for recording the temperature of oil and water bath. The
cylinder is 47.625mm in diameter and 88.90mm deep . The orifice is 1.70mm in diameter and
12mm in length. This viscometer is used to determine the kinematic viscosity of the oil. The
absolute viscosity can be determined from the kinematic viscosity.
Formula used :
1) Density of oil at temperature T, ρoil = ρ r − 0.00065(T − Tr )
Where, Tr = Room temperature (º C)
ρr = Density of oil at room temperature (gm/cm3)
B
2) Kinematic viscosity, ν = At − (Centistokes)
t
Where, t = Time for 50 ml of oil collection (sec.); A = 0.26; B = 172
3) Absolute viscosity, µ = ρ oil ×ν (centipoise)
11
Model Calculation :
12
Procedure :
2) The orifice is closed with ball valve.
3) The 50 ml measuring flask is placed exactly below the opening of the orifice.
5) The water bath is filled with sufficient water.
6) Thermometers are inserted at relevant places to measure the temperature of oil and
water bath.
7) The temperature of oil is increased by heating the water in water bath. The water
stirred well to maintain a uniform temperature.
8) At a particular temperature, the ball valve is lifted and the time taken for collection
of 50 ml of oil in the flask is measured. A stop watch is used to measure the time
taken. This time is known as Redwood seconds.
9) The above procedure is repeated by increasing the temperature of oil in steps of 10ºC
for 5 sets of readings.
Graphs :
The following graphs are plotted :
Temperature Vs. Redwood seconds
Temperature Vs. Kinematic viscosity
Temperature Vs. Absolute viscosity
Result :
The absolute viscosity of given sample of oil is determined using Redwood viscometer
and required graphs are drawn.
The absolute viscosity of given sample of oil is ____________ centipoise.
The dynamic viscosity of given sample of oil is ____________ centistoke.
13
Ex. No. : 3 DETERMINATION OF ABSOLUTE VISCOSITY
OF OIL USING SAYBOLT VISCOMETER
Aim :
To determine the absolute viscosity of given lubricating oil using Saybolt viscometer.
1) Saybolt viscometer
2) Thermometer (0-100º C) – 2 Nos.
3) Stop watch
4) 60 cc standard flask
5) Sample of oil
Theory :
stress or tensile stress. A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal or
inviscid fluid. Zero viscosity is observed only at very low temperatures in superfluids.
There are two related measures of fluid viscosity
1) Absolute or dynamic viscosity (µ )
2) Kinematic viscosity (ν )
Absolute or dynamic viscosity :

τ
 du 
 
 dy 
du
dy
Unit of absolute viscosity :
N-s
SI unit : = pa . s
m2
kgf - sec
MKS unit :
m2
cm 2
 sec 2 
N-s 1
m 100
15
Observation :
1) Room temperature, Tr = ___________ º C
2) Density of oil at room temperature, ρ r = __________ gm / cm3

(Generally ρr is taken between 0.84 and 0.85 gm / cm3)
Tabulation :
Temperature Time taken for

Trial Kinematic viscosity Absolute viscosity
of oil 60 cc of oil
No. (Centistokes) (Centipoise)
(º C) collection (sec)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
16
Kinematic viscosity :
of the fluid.
μ
ρ
Unit of kinematic viscosity :

m2
SI unit :
s
m2
MKS unit :
sec
cm 2
CGS unit : = stoke
sec
2
 1 
 m
cm 2  100  1
Relationship : 1 stoke = 1 = = 10− 4 m 2 / s; Centistoke = stoke
sec sec 100
The Saybolt viscometer consist of vertical cylindrical oil chamber. A short capillary
tube is attached vertically at the bottom of the oil chamber. The diameter of the tube varies
from 1.75 mm to 1.78 mm and its length varies from 12.15 mm to 12.35 mm. The oil chamber
is surrounded by the water bath . The water bath is heated by means of an immersed electric
water heater. The temperature of oil in the chamber is maintained at a constant temperature
with the help of hot water bath. Provisions are made for stirring the water, to maintain the
uniform temperature in the water bath and to place thermometers for recording the
temperature of oil and water bath. This viscometer is used to determine the kinematic
viscosity of the oil assuming the flow through the tube is laminar. The absolute viscosity can
be determined from the kinematic viscosity.
Formula used :
1) Density of oil at temperature T, ρoil = ρ r − 0.00065(T − Tr )
Where, Tr = Room temperature (º C)
ρr = Density of oil at room temperature (gm/cm3)
B
2) Kinematic viscosity, ν = At − (Centistokes)
t
Where, t = Time for 60 cc of oil collection (sec.); A = 0.22; B = 180
3) Absolute viscosity, µ = ρ oil ×ν (centipoise)
17
Model Calculation :
18
Procedure :
2) The capillary tube outlet is closed with plug.
3) The 60 cc measuring flask is placed exactly below the capillary outlet.
4) The oil chamber is filled with the sample oil exactly up to the filling mark.
5) The water bath is filled with sufficient water.
6) Thermometers are inserted at relevant places to measure the temperature of oil and
water bath.
7) The temperature of oil is increased by heating the water in water bath. Stir the water
and maintain a uniform temperature.
8) At a particular temperature, the plug is removed and the time taken for collection of
60 cc of oil in the flask is measured. A stop watch is used to measure the time taken.
This time is known as Saybolt seconds.
9) The above procedure is repeated by increasing the temperature of oil in steps of 10ºC
for 5 sets of readings.
Graphs :
Temperature Vs. Saybolt seconds
Temperature Vs. Kinematic viscosity
Temperature Vs. Absolute viscosity
Result :
The viscosity of given sample of oil is determined using Saybolt viscometer and
required graphs are drawn.
The absolute viscosity of given sample of oil is ____________ centipoise.
The dynamic viscosity of given sample of oil is ____________ centistoke.
19
Ex. No. : 4 PORT TIMING DIAGRAM OF TWO STROKE
PETROL ENGINE
Aim :
To draw the port timing diagram of two stroke petrol engine.
1) Two stroke petrol engine (cut model)
2) Measuring tape
3) Chalk
Theory :
The port timing diagram gives an idea about how various operations are taking place
in an engine cycle. The two stroke engines have the following ports :
1) Inlet port
2) Transfer port
3) Exhaust port
Inlet and transfer ports transfer the combustible air fuel mixture. Exhaust port
transfers exhaust gas after combustion. The sequence of events such as opening and closing
of ports are controlled by the movements of piston as it moves from Top Dead Centre (TDC)
to Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) and vice versa. As the cycle of operation is completed in two
strokes, one power stroke is obtained for every crankshaft revolution. Two operations are
performed for each stroke both above the piston (in the cylinder) and below the piston (crank
case).
When compression is going on top side of the piston, the charge enters to the crank
case through inlet port. During the downward motion, power stroke takes place in the
cylinder and at the same time, charge in the crank case is compressed and taken to the
cylinder through the transfer port. During this period exhaust port is also opened and the
fresh charge drives away the exhaust which is known as scavenging. As the timing plays
major role in exhaust and transfer of the charge, it is important to study the events in detail.
The pictorial representation of the timing enables us to know the duration and instants of
opening and closing of all the ports. Since one cycle is completed in one revolution i.e. 360
degrees of crank revolution, various positions are shown in a single circle of suitable diagram.
21
Observation :
Circumference of the flywheel, C = ___________ mm
Formula used :
360°
Angle, θ = × x (Degrees)
C
Where, C = Circumference of flywheel (mm)
x = Arc length (circumferential distance) from the nearest dead centre.
Tabulation :
Arc length from the

Sl. Angle, θ
Event Position of crank nearest dead centre,
No. (Degrees)
x (mm)
1. IPO Before TDC
2. IPC After TDC
3. EPO Before BDC
4. EPC After BDC
5. TPO Before BDC
6. TPC After BDC
22
Procedure :
1) The circumference of the flywheel is measured using measuring tape.
2) The direction of rotation of the flywheel is marked. It should be rotated in clockwise
direction when viewing in front of the flywheel.
3) The Bottom Dead Center (BDC) position is marked on the flywheel with the reference
point when the piston reaches the lowermost position during rotation of the flywheel.
4) The Top Dead Center (TDC) position is marked on the flywheel with the reference
point when the Piston reaches the top most position during the rotation of flywheel.
TDC lies exactly at a distance equal to half the circumference of the flywheel, from
BDC.
5) The IPO, IPC, EPO, EPC, TPO, and TPC are marked on the flywheel by observing
the following conditions.
Inlet port open (IPO) when the bottom edge of the piston skirt just opens the
lower most part of the inlet port during its upward movement.
Inlet port close (IPC) when the bottom edge of the piston fully reaches the lower
most part of the inlet port during its downward movement.
Transfer port open (TPO) when the top edge of the piston just open the top most
part of the Transfer port during its downward movement.
Transfer port close (TPC) when the top edge of the piston fully reaches the upper
most part of the transfer port during its upward movement
Exhaust port open (EPO) when the top edge of the piston just opens the top most
part of the exhaust port during its downward movement.
Exhaust port close (EPC) when the top edge of the piston fully reaches the upper
most part of the exhaust port during its upward movement
6) The circumferential distance of the above events are measured either from TDC or
from BDC whichever is nearer and their respective angles are calculated.
7) A circle is drawn and the angles are marked. It gives port timing diagram.
Result :
The port timing diagram of two stroke petrol engine is drawn.
23
Ex. No. : 5 VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM OF
FOUR STROKE PETROL ENGINE
Aim :
To draw the valve timing diagram of four stroke petrol engine.
1) Four stroke petrol engine (cut model)
2) Measuring tape
3) Chalk
4) Piece of papers
Theory :
The valve timing diagram gives an idea about how various operations are taking place
in an engine cycle. The four stroke petrol engines have inlet valve to supply air inside the
cylinder during suction stroke and an exhaust valve to transfer exhaust gas after combustion
to the atmosphere. The fuel and air is properly mixed with the help of a carburetor and
supplied inside the cylinder through inlet valve during suction stroke. The sequence of events
such as opening and closing of valves which are performed by cam- follower rocker arm
mechanism in relation to the movements of the piston as it moves from TDC to BDC and vice
versa. As the cycle of operation is completed in four strokes, one power stroke is obtained for
every two revolution of the crankshaft.
The suction, compression, power and exhaust processes are expected to complete in the
respective individual strokes. Valves do not open or close exactly at the two dead centers in
order to transfer the intake charge and the exhaust gas effectively. The timing is set in such
a way that the inlet valve opens before TDC and closes after BDC and the exhaust valve
opens before BDC and closes after TDC. Since one cycle is completed in two revolutions i.e.
720 degrees of crank rotations.
25
Observation :
Formula used :
360°
C
Tabulation :
Arc length from the

Sl. Angle, θ
No. (Degrees)
x (mm)
1. IVO Before TDC
2. IVC After BDC
3. EVO Before BDC
4. EVC After TDC
26
Procedure :
1) The circumference of the flywheel is measured using measuring tape.
2) The direction of rotation of the flywheel is marked. It should be rotated in clockwise
direction when viewing in front of the flywheel.
3) The Bottom Dead Center (BDC) position is marked on the flywheel with the reference
4) The Top Dead Center (TDC) position is marked on the flywheel with the reference
point when the Piston reaches the top most position during the rotation of flywheel.
TDC lies exactly at a distance equal to half the circumference of the flywheel, from
BDC.
5) A piece of paper is inserted in tappet clearance of both inlet and exhaust valves.
6) The crank is slowly rotated until the paper in the tappet clearance of inlet valve is
gripped. A mark is made on the flywheel. This position represents inlet valve open
(IVO).
7) The crank is rotated further, till the paper is just free to move. A mark is made on
the flywheel. This position represents inlet valve close (IVC).
8) The crank is rotated further until the paper in the tappet clearance of exhaust valve
is gripped. A mark is made on the flywheel. This position represents exhaust valve
open (EVO).
9) The crank is rotated further, till the paper is just free to move. A mark is made on
the flywheel. This position represents exhaust valve close (EVC).
10) The circumferential distance of the above events are measured either from TDC or
from BDC whichever is nearer, and their respective angles are calculated.
11) The valve timing diagram is drawn and the various events are indicated with
calculated angle.
Result :
The valve timing diagram of four stroke petrol engine is drawn.
27
Ex. No. : 6 VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM OF
FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE
Aim :
To draw the valve timing diagram of four stroke diesel engine.
1) Four stroke diesel engine (cut model)
2) Measuring tape
3) Chalk
4) Piece of papers
Theory :
The valve timing diagram gives an idea about how various operations are taking place
in an engine cycle. The four stroke diesel engines have inlet valve to supply air inside the
cylinder during suction stroke and an exhaust valve to transfer exhaust gas after combustion
to the atmosphere. The fuel is injected directly inside the cylinder with the help of a fuel
injector at the end of compression stroke. The sequence of events such as opening and closing
of valves which are performed by cam- follower rocker arm mechanism in relation to the
movements of the piston as it moves from TDC to BDC and vice versa. As the cycle of
operation is completed in four strokes, one power stroke is obtained for every two revolution
of the crankshaft.
The suction, compression, power and exhaust processes are expected to complete in the
respective individual strokes. Valves do not open or close exactly at the two dead centers in
order to transfer the intake charge and the exhaust gas effectively. The timing is set in such
a way that the inlet valve opens before TDC and closes after BDC and the exhaust valve
opens before BDC and closes after TDC. Since one cycle is completed in two revolutions i.e.
720 degrees of crank rotations.
29
Observation :
Formula used :
360°
C
Tabulation :
Arc length from the

Sl. Angle, θ
No. (Degrees)
x (mm)
1. IVO Before TDC
2. IVC After BDC
3. EVO Before BDC
4. EVC After TDC
30
Procedure :
1) Measure the circumference of the flywheel using measuring tape.
2) Mark the direction of rotation of the flywheel. Always rotate in clockwise direction
when viewing in front of the flywheel.
3) Mark the Bottom Dead Center (BDC) position on the flywheel with the reference
4) Mark the Top Dead Center (TDC) position on the flywheel with the reference point
when the piston reaches the top most position during the rotation of flywheel. TDC
lies exactly at a distance equal to half the circumference of the flywheel, from BDC.
5) Insert a piece of paper in tappet clearance of both inlet and exhaust valves.
6) Rotate the crank slowly until the paper in the tappet clearance of inlet valve is
gripped. Make a mark on the flywheel. This position represents inlet valve open
(IVO).
7) Before reaching TDC, fuel injection begins (FIB) and fuel injection ceases (FIC) after
sometimes. Mark these events on the flywheel.
8) Rotate the crank further, till the paper is just free to move. Make a mark on the
flywheel. This position represents inlet valve close (IVC).
9) Rotate the crank further until the paper in the tappet clearance of exhaust valve is
gripped. Make a mark on the flywheel. This position represents exhaust valve open
(EVO).
10) Rotate the crank further, till the paper is just free to move. Make a mark on the
flywheel. This position represents exhaust valve close (EVC).
11) Measure the circumferential distance of the above events either from TDC or from
BDC whichever is nearer and calculate their respective angles.
12) Draw the valve timing diagram and indicates the various events with calculated
angle.
Result :
The valve timing diagram of four stroke diesel engine is drawn.
31
Ex. No. : 1 LOAD TEST ON FOUR STROKE PETROL ENGINE
Aim :
To conduct a load test (performance test) on 4-stroke petrol engine in order to study
its performance under various load conditions.
1) 4 stroke petrol engine with loading arrangement
2) Stop watch
3) Tachometer (0-2000 rpm)
4) Measuring tape
Description of experimental setup :

The engine in the experimental setup is a four stroke petrol / diesel engine coupled
with a suitable loading arrangement. It can be any one of the following type :
Rope brake dynamometer
Prony brake dynamometer
Hydraulic dynamometer
Electrical dynamometer
The fuel is supplied to the engine from the main fuel tank through a graduated
measuring fuel gauge (Burette). The fuel consumption of the engine can be measured with
the help of a stop watch. Suitable cooling water lines are provided for the engine cooling. A
digital temperature indicator with selector switch is provided on the panel to read the
temperature in degree centigrade, directly sensed by respective thermocouples located at
different places on the test rig.
Theory :
1) Brake Power (BP)
The useful power available at the crank shaft of the engine is called brake power (BP ) .
The brake power of the engine is determined as follows :
a) For rope brake dynamometer

Torque = Net load × Effective radius
2π NT
T = (W1 − W2 ) Re (N-m) ; Brake power, BP = (kW)
60 × 1000
Where, N - Speed of the engine (rpm)
33
Observation (For rope brake dynamometer arrangement) :
1) Rated brake power, BP = ___________kW 5) Radius of brake drum, R = __________ m

2) Rated speed, N = _________________ rpm 6) Radius of rope, r = _____________ m
3) Fuel used : Petrol 7) Effective radius, Re = R + r = __________m
4) Calorific Value of fuel : 44,000 kJ/kg (for petrol) 8) Specific gravity of fuel : 0.74
Tabulation :
Load Time for

Speed
S. W= 10 cc fuel TFC BP FP IP SFC ηm η BT η IT
W1 W2 W N
No. W1 –W2 Consumption (kg/hr) (kW) (kW) (kW) (kg/kW-hr) (%) (%) (%)
(kg) (kg) (N) (rpm)
(kg) (sec)
68.67
10 3 7 1400 60 0.444 1.042 0.55 1.592 0.4261 65.45 19.20 29.34
(7 × 9.81)
1.
34
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
b) For Prony brake dynamometer
Torque = Load × Distance of load from centre of the crank
2π NT
T = W × L (N-m) ; Brake power, BP = (kW)
60 × 1000
c) Hydraulic dynamometer
Load × Speed WN
Brake Power, BP = = (kW)
Dynamometer constant C
d) Electrical dynamometer
VI cos φ
Brake Power, BP = (kW)
1000
Where, V - Voltmeter reading (V)
I - Ammeter reading (A)
φ - Phase angle (Degree)
2) Indicated Power (IP)

The power actually developed inside the cylinder due to the combustion of fuel are called indicated
power (IP)
IP = F.P + B.P (kW)
Where, F.P = Frictional Power (kW)
3) Friction Power (FP)

Friction power is the power lost mainly due to friction in the moving parts. It is calculated from BP
Vs. TFC graph or it may be assumed 10% to 20% of rated BP.
4) Total Fuel Consumption (TFC)

It is the mass of fuel consumed per hour at particular load.
5) Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)

It is defined as the mass of the fuel consumed per hour per brake power of the engine .
TFC
SFC = (Kg / kW-hr)
BP
Where, TFC = Total Fuel consumption (kg / hr. )
6) Mechanical efficiency ( ηm )
It is defined as the ratio of brake power to indicated power of an engine. Its value
varies from 70% to 90%. It depends upon the loading condition and design of the engine.
Brake power
Mechanicalefficiency =
Indicated power
BP
ηm = × 100
IP
35
Model calculation :
Observations :
Rated BP = 5 HP = 5 × 0.736 = 3.68 kW (Q 1 HP = 0.736 kW)
Rated speed N = 1500 rpm
The above values are taken from name plate details.
0.6
Circumference of the brake drum = 2 π R= 600 mm = 0.6 m  R= = 0.0955 m
2π
0.05
Circumference of rope = 2 π r = 50 mm = 0.05 m ;  r= = 0.008 m
2π
Effective radius, Re = R + r = 0.0955+ 0.008 = 0.1035 m
Fuel : Petrol; Calorific Value = 44,000 kJ/kg ; Specific Gravity = 0.74
Maximum load calculation :
2πNT 2πNWRe
BP = =
60 60
60 × BP 60 × 3680
Maximum load, W = = = 226.35 N
2 × π × N × Re 2π × 1500 × 0.1035
226.35
W= = 23.07 kg
9.81
Maximum load that can be applied = 75 % Max. Load = 0.75 × 23.07 = 17.3 kg ≅ 17 kg
∴ Apply the load in the increments of 3 kg for taking 6 readings.
1) Total fuel consumption (TFC)

Volume of fuel × Density of fuel
TFC =
Time
Volume of fuel × Sp. gravity of fuel × Density of water
TFC =
Time
  1 
3 
Q Volume of fuel = 10cc = 10cm = 10 × 
3
m  = 10 × 10 − 6 m 3 
  100  
10 × 10-6 × 0.74 × 1000
TFC = = 1.23333 × 10−4 kg/s
60
TFC = 1.84444 × 10−4 × 3600 = 0.444 kg/hr
2) Brake Power
2π N T 2 π N W Re
BP = = (For rope brake dynamometer)
60 × 1000 60 × 1000
2π × 1400 × 68.67 × 0.1035
= = 1.042 kW
60 × 1000
36
7) Brake thermal efficiency ( ηB.T )
It is defined as the ratio of heat converted into useful work (BP) to the heat energy
supplied to the engine. Brake thermal efficiency is called as overall efficiency. It varies from
25% to 30%.
Brake power
Brake thermal efficiency =
Heat supplied
BP BP × 3600
η B.T = × 100 or η B.T = × 100
 TFC  TFC × CV
 3600  × CV
 
where, BP = Brake power (kW)
FC = Fuel consumption (kg/hr.))
CV = Calorific value of the fuel (kJ/kg)
The calorific value of diesel ranges from 42,000 KJ / Kg to 45,000 KJ/Kg .

The calorific value of petrol ranges from 41000 KJ/Kg to 44000 KJ/Kg
8) Indicated thermal efficiency ( ηI.T )

It is defined as the ratio of the actual power (indicated power) developed to the heat
energy supplied to the engine. It is also called as actual thermal efficiency or thermal
efficiency.
Indicated power
Indicated thermal efficiency =
Heat supplied
IP IP × 3600
η I .T = × 100 or η I .T = × 100
 3600  × CV
 
Graphs :
BP Vs. TFC
BP Vs. SFC
BP Vs. η m
BP Vs. ηBT
BP Vs. η IT
37
3) Frictional power (FP)
Plot the graph BP Vs. TFC. Extend the curve to meet the X-axis at the negative side.
Measure the value of intersecting point from the origin. It gives the value of FP.
From the graph, FP = 0.55 kW (or)
Assume, FP = 10 to 20 % of Rated BP (Say 15 %)
TFC (kg/s)
FP = 15% Rated BP = 0.15 × 3.68 = 0.552 kW
4) Indicated power (IP)

IP = FP + BP = 0.55 + 1.042 = 1.592 kW

TFC 0.444
SFC = = = 0.4261 kg / kW - hr 0.55 BP (kW)
BP 1.042
FP
6) Mechanical Efficiency
BP 1.042
ηm = × 100 = × 100 = 65.45%
IP 1.592
7) Brake thermal efficiency (or) Overall efficiency

BP × 3600 1.042 × 3600
η B.T = × 100 = × 100 = 19.20%
TFC × CV 0.444 × 44000
8) Indicated thermal efficiency

IP × 3600 1.592 × 3600
η I .T = × 100 = × 100 = 29.34%
TFC × CV 0.444 × 44000
Model graphs :
Mechanical efficiency
Efficiency (%)
SFC (kg/BP)
Indicated thermal
efficiency
Brake thermal
efficiency
BP (kW) BP (kW)
38
Procedure :
1) The maximum load that can be applied on the engine is calculated from the name
plate details.
2) The availability of fuel, lubricant and cooling water connection are checked.
3) The engine is started with no load condition after releasing the load. The engine is
allowed to run for few minutes to attain rated speed.
4) The speed of the engine and time taken for consumption of 10 cc of fuel are noted.
5) The load on the engine is increased. For this load, the speed of the engine and time
taken for 10cc of fuel consumption are noted.
6) The above procedure is repeated at different loads. The load may be increased up to
75% of the maximum load.
Result :
The load test is conducted on given petrol engine and various efficiencies are
calculated. The required graphs are also plotted.
39
Ex. No. : 2 LOAD TEST ON FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE
Aim :
To conduct a load test (performance test) on 4-stroke diesel engine in order to study
its performance under various load conditions.
1) 4 stroke diesel engine with loading arrangement
2) Stop watch
4) Measuring tape

The fuel is supplied to the engine from the main fuel tank through a graduated
measuring fuel gauge (Burette). The fuel consumption of the engine can be measured with
the help of a stop watch. Suitable cooling water lines are provided for the engine cooling. A
digital temperature indicator with selector switch is provided on the panel to read the
temperature in degree centigrade, directly sensed by respective thermocouples located at
different places on the test rig.
Theory :
1) Brake Power (BP)
The useful power available at the crank shaft of the engine is called brake power (BP ) .
The brake power of the engine is determined as follows :

2π NT
60 × 1000
41
1) Rated brake power, BP = ___________kW 5) Radius of brake drum, R = __________ m

2) Rated speed, N = _________________ rpm 6) Radius of rope, r = _____________ m
3) Fuel used : Diesel 7) Effective radius, Re = R + r = __________m
4) Calorific Value of fuel : 43000 kJ/kg 8) Specific gravity of fuel : 0.83

Tabulation :
Load Time for

Speed
S. W= 10 cc fuel TFC BP FP IP SFC ηm η BT η IT
W1 W2 W N
No. W1 –W2 Consumption (kg/hr) (kW) (kW) (kW) (kg/kW-hr) (%) (%) (%)
(kg) (kg) (N) (rpm)
(kg) (sec)
68.67
10 3 7 1400 45 0.664 1.042 0.55 1.592 0.6372 65.45 13.14 20.07
(7 × 9.81)
1.
42
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
2π NT
60 × 1000
Load × Speed WN
VI cos φ
1000
Where, V - Voltmeter reading (V)
I - Ammeter reading (A)
φ - Phase angle (Degree)

The power actually developed inside the cylinder due to the combustion of fuel are called indicated
power (IP)
IP = F.P + B.P (kW)
Where, F.P = Frictional Power (kW)
3) Friction Power (FP)

Friction power is the power lost mainly due to friction in the moving parts. It is calculated from BP
Vs. TFC graph or it may be assumed 10% to 20% of rated BP.
4) Total Fuel Consumption (TFC)

It is the mass of fuel consumed per hour at particular load.

It is defined as the mass of the fuel consumed per hour per brake power of the engine .
TFC
SFC = (Kg / kW-hr)
BP
Where, TFC = Total Fuel consumption (kg / hr. )
6) Mechanical efficiency ( ηm )
Brake power
Indicated power
BP
ηm = × 100
IP
43
Model calculation :
Observations :
Rated speed N = 1500 rpm
0.6
2π
0.05
Circumference of rope = 2 π r = 50 mm = 0.05 m ;  r= = 0.008 m
2π
Effective radius, Re = R + r = 0.0955+ 0.008 = 0.1035 m
Fuel : Diesel; Calorific Value = 43,000 kJ/kg ; Specific Gravity = 0.83
2πNT 2πNWRe
BP = =
60 60
60 × BP 60 × 3680
2 × π × N × Re 2π × 1500 × 0.1035
226.35
W= = 23.07 kg
9.81
1) Total fuel consumption (TFC)

TFC =
Time
TFC =
Time
  1 
3 
Q Volume of fuel = 10cc = 10cm = 10 × 
3
m  = 10 × 10 − 6 m 3 
  100  
10 × 10-6 × 0.83 × 1000
TFC = = 1.84444 × 10− 4 kg/s
45
TFC = 1.84444 × 10−4 × 3600 = 0.664 kg/hr
2) Brake Power
2π N T 2 π N W Re
BP = = (For rope brake dynamometer)
60 × 1000 60 × 1000
2π × 1400 × 68.67 × 0.1035
= = 1.042 kW
60 × 1000
44
7) Brake thermal efficiency ( ηB.T )
It is defined as the ratio of heat converted into useful work (BP) to the heat energy
supplied to the engine. Brake thermal efficiency is called as overall efficiency. It varies from
25% to 30%.
Brake power
Heat supplied
BP BP × 3600
η B.T = × 100 or η B.T = × 100
 3600  × CV
 
where, BP = Brake power (kW)
FC = Fuel consumption (kg/hr.))
CV = Calorific value of the fuel (kJ/kg)
The calorific value of diesel ranges from 42,000 KJ / Kg to 45,000 KJ/Kg .

The calorific value of petrol ranges from 41000 KJ/Kg to 44000 KJ/Kg
8) Indicated thermal efficiency ( ηI.T )

It is defined as the ratio of the actual power (indicated power) developed to the heat
energy supplied to the engine. It is also called as actual thermal efficiency or thermal
efficiency.
Indicated power
Heat supplied
IP IP × 3600
η I .T = × 100 or η I .T = × 100
 3600  × CV
 
Graphs :
BP Vs. TFC
BP Vs. SFC
BP Vs. η m
BP Vs. ηBT
BP Vs. η IT
45
3) Frictional power (FP)
Plot the graph BP Vs. TFC. Extend the curve to meet the X-axis at the negative side.
Measure the value of intersecting point from the origin. It gives the value of FP.
From the graph, FP = 0.55 kW (or)
Assume, FP = 10 to 20 % of Rated BP (Say 15 %)
TFC (kg/s)
FP = 15% Rated BP = 0.15 × 3.68 = 0.552 kW
4) Indicated power (IP)

IP = FP + BP = 0.55 + 1.042 = 1.592 kW

TFC 0.664
SFC = = = 0.6372 kg / kW - hr 0.55 BP (kW)
BP 1.042 FP
6) Mechanical Efficiency
BP 1.042
ηm = × 100 = × 100 = 65.45%
IP 1.592
7) Brake thermal efficiency (or) Overall efficiency

BP × 3600 1.042 × 3600
ηB.T = × 100 = × 100 = 13.14%
TFC × CV 0.664 × 43000
8) Indicated thermal efficiency

IP × 3600 1.592 × 3600
ηI.T = × 100 = × 100 = 20.07%
TFC × CV 0.664 × 43000
Model graphs :
Mechanical efficiency
Efficiency (%)
SFC (kg/BP)
Indicated thermal
efficiency
Brake thermal
efficiency
BP (kW) BP (kW)
46
Procedure :
plate details.
allowed to run for few minutes to attain rated speed.
5) The load on the engine is increased. For this load, the speed of the engine and time
taken for 10cc of fuel consumption are noted.
Result :
The load test is conducted on given diesel / petrol engine and various efficiencies are
calculated. The required graphs are also plotted.
47
Ex. No. : 3 MORSE TEST ON MULTI-CYLINDER PETROL ENGINE
Aim :
To conduct Morse test on multi-cylinder petrol engine in order to determine the
indicated power developed in each cylinder and mechanical efficiency.
1) Multi cylinder petrol / diesel engine with Morse test arrangement
2) Loading arrangement
3) Stop watch
5) Measuring tape

An arrangement for shorting out the spark plug in the case of petrol engine, and
stopping the fuel supply in the case of diesel engine is provided individually for each cylinder.
The fuel is supplied to the engine from the main fuel tank through a graduated measuring
fuel gauge.
Theory :
The indicated power is directly calculated from the indicator diagram for slow speed
engines. But in modern high speed engines, it is difficult to obtain accurate indicator diagram
due to inertia forces. In such cases Morse test can be used to measure the indicated power and
mechanical efficiency of multi cylinder engines .
The engine is run at maximum load at certain speed . The B.P is measured when all
cylinders are working . Then one cylinder is made in-operative by cutting off the ignition / fuel
to that cylinder . The speed of the engine decreases . The load on the engine is reduced so that
the engine speed is restored to its initial value. Now the BP is measured. The difference
between both the BPs gives the vale of IP of particular cylinder.
49
1) Rated brake power, BP = ___________kW
2) Rated speed, N = _________________ rpm
3) Fuel used : Diesel / Petrol
4) Calorific Value of fuel : 42000 kJ/kg (for petrol)

43000 kJ/kg (for diesel
5) Radius of brake drum, R = __________ m
6) Radius of rope, r = _____________ m
7) Effective radius, Re = R + r = __________m
8) Specific gravity of fuel : 0.78 (for petrol)

0.83 (for diesel)
Tabulation :
Load
Speed
S. W= BP IP
Condition W1 W2 W N
No. W1 –W2 (kW) (kW)
(kg) (kg) (N) (rpm)
(kg)
1. All cylinders working
2. 1st cylinder cut-off
3. 2nd cylinder cut-off
4. 3rd cylinder cut-off
5. 4th cylinder cut-off
50
1) Brake Power (BP)
2π NT
60 × 1000

2π NT
60 × 1000
Load × Speed WN
VI cos φ
1000
Where, V - Voltmeter reading (V); I - Ammeter reading (A); φ - Phase angle (Degree)

Let, IP1 , IP2 , IP3 ,and IP4 are the indicated power of the cylinders 1, 2, 3, and 4
respectively.
BP = Total brake power of all 4 cylinders
BP1 = Total brake power of cylinders with cylinder 1 cut−off.
FP1 , FP2 , FP3 and FP4 are the frictional power of each cylinder.
If all cylinders are working,

BP = ( IP1 − FP1 ) + ( IP2 − FP2 ) + ( IP3 − FP3 ) + ( IP4 − FP4 )
BP = ( IP1 + IP2 + IP3 + IP4 ) − ( FP1 + FP2 + FP3 + FP4 ) ………..(1)
When the first cylinder is cut−off, the IP of the cylinder is cut off. But BP of the cylinder
exists. Therefore brake power of the other 3 cylinders is given by,
BP1 = ( IP2 + IP3 + IP4 ) − ( FP1 + FP2 + FP3 + FP4 ) ………... (2)
Subtracting equation(2) from (1), we get

BP − BP1 = IP1 (Indicated power of first cylinder)
51
Model calculation :
Load
Speed
S. W= BP IP
Condition W1 W2 W N
No. W1 –W2 (kW) (kW)
(kg) (kg) (N) (rpm)
(kg)
1. All cylinders working 15 5 10 98.1 1800 8.321 --
2. 1st cylinder cut-off 12 4 8 78.48 1800 6.657 1.664
Brake power with all cylinders working,

2 π N T 2πNWRe 2π × 1800 × 98.1 × 0.45
BP = = = = 8.321 kW (Q Re = R + r = 0.45 m)
60 60 60 × 1000
Brake power with 1st cylinder cut-off,
2 π N T 2πNWR e 2π × 1800 × 78.48 × 0.45
BP1 = = = = 6.657 kW
60 60 60 × 1000
Indicated power of 1st cylinder, IP1 = BP − BP1 = 8.321− 6.657 = 1.664 kW
Similarly,
IP2 = BP − BP2 ; IP3 = BP − BP3 ; IP4 = BP − BP4
Total indicated power, IP = IP1 + IP2 + IP3 + IP4
BP
Mechanical efficiency, η m = × 100
IP
52
Similarly,
BP − BP2 = IP2 (Indicated power of second cylinder)
BP − BP3 = IP3 (Indicated power of third cylinder)
BP − BP4 = IP4 (Indicated power of fourth cylinder)
The indicated power of the engine is given by,

IP = IP1 + IP2 + IP3 + IP4
Mechanical efficiency ( ηm )
Brake power
Indicated power
BP
ηm = × 100
IP
Procedure :
plate details.
allowed to run for few minutes t to attain rated speed.
4) The maximum load is applied on the engine and the brake power is determined (BP)
5) The first cylinder is now cut−off. This is done by shorting out the spark plug of the
first cylinder in the case of petrol engine, and stopping the fuel supply to the first
cylinder in the case of diesel engine. The speed of the engine reduces considerably.
6) Load is reduced until the engine attains normal speed.
7) Under this condition, the brake power is determined ( BP1 )
8) Then the first cylinder is operated. The second cylinder is cut−off.
9) The engine speed is restored to the normal speed and the brake power is determined
( BP2 )
10) The same procedure is repeated for each cylinder in sequence. In each case, the brake
power is determined
Result :
Morse test is conducted on multi-cylinder petrol / diesel engine. The indicated power
developed in each cylinder and mechanical efficiency of the engine are determined.
53
Ex. No. : 4 HEAT BALANCE TEST ON PETROL / DIESEL ENGINE
Aim :
To conduct a test on four stroke petrol / diesel engine and to prepare the heat balance sheet.
1) 4 stroke diesel / petrol engine with loading arrangement
2) Stop watch
4) Measuring tape
5) Graduated vessel
6) Thermometers (3 Nos.)

with a suitable loading arrangement. The fuel is supplied to the engine from the main fuel
tank through a graduated measuring fuel gauge (Burette). The fuel consumption of the
engine can be measured with the help of a stop watch. Suitable cooling water lines are
provided for the engine cooling. A digital temperature indicator with selector switch is
provided on the panel to read the temperature in degree centigrade, directly sensed by
respective thermocouples located at different places on the test rig. Provisions are also made
to measure the amount of air intake, amount of cooling water circulated, etc.
Theory :
Heat energy is supplied in an internal combustion engine by burning the fuel. A part
of the heat supplied is converted into useful mechanical work. It is available in the engine
crankshaft. The remaining heat energy is lost. The main sources of heat losses are as follows:
1) Heat carried away by the cooling water ( Q w )
2) Heat carried away by exhaust gases ( Qg )
3) Heat lost due to radiation ( Qrad )
4) Heat lost due to incomplete combustion ( Q ic )
Accounted heat loses : The heat losses which can be determined from the observed
values during the test are known as accounted heat losses.
Unaccounted heat losses : The heat losses which cannot be determined accurately
are known as unaccounted heat losses. The unaccounted heat losses can be determined by
subtracting the accounted heat losses and heat converted into useful work from the heat
supplied to the engine.
55
5) Radius of brake drum, R = __________ m
1) Rated brake power, BP = ___________kW
6) Radius of rope, r = _____________ m
2) Rated speed, N = _________________ rpm
7) Effective radius, Re = R + r = __________m
3) Fuel used : Diesel / Petrol
8) Diamter of orifice, d = ___________ m
4) Calorific Value of fuel : 44000 kJ/kg (for petrol)
43000 kJ/kg (for diesel) 8) Specific gravity of fuel : 0.74 (for petrol)
0.83 (for diesel)
Tabulation – I :
Load Manometer Reading Time for Time for Cooling water temp. Room Exhaust gas
Speed
S. W= hw = 10 cc fuel 5 litres water Inlet Outlet Temp Temp
W1 W2 W N h1 h2
No. W1 –W2 h1 –h2 Consumption Collection T1 T2 Tr Tg
(kg) (kg) (N) (rpm) (cm) (cm)
(kg) (cm) (sec) (sec) (ºC) (ºC) (ºC) (ºC)
68.67
56
10 3 7 1400 30 22 8 45 150 27 50 27 300
(7 × 9.81)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Formula used :
The heat balance sheet can be prepared on hour basis, or minute basis or second basis.
1) Heat supplied by the fuel, Q s = FC × CV

where, FC = Fuel consumption (kg/hr. or m 3 /hr.)
CV = Calorific value of fuel (kJ/kg.K)
2) Heat equivalent of useful work (Brake power), QBP = BP

QBP
Percentage of heat used for brake power, QBP % = × 100
Qs
3) Heat lost due to cooling water, Qw = mw .C pw .(T2 − T1 )

where, m w = Mass of cooling water
C pw = Specific heat capacity of cooling water (4.19 kJ/kg.K)
T1 = Inlet temperature of cooling water
T2 = Outlet temperature of cooling water
Qw
Percentage of heat lose due to cooling water, Qw % = × 100
Qs
4) Heat lost due to exhaust gases, Qg = mg .C pg .(Tg − Ta )

where, mg = Mass of exhaust gases
Cpg = Specific heat capacity of exhaust gases (1.005 kJ/kg.K)
Tg = Temperature of exhaust gases
Tr = Room temperature or ambient air temperature
The mass of the exhaust gases is the sum of the fuel consumption and air consumption.
mg = FC + ma
Qg
Percentage of heat lose due to cooling water, Qg % = × 100
Qs
5) Unaccounted heat loss ( Qua )

The unaccounted heat losses may be calculated as follows:
Qua = Qs − [QBP + Qw + Qg + .......]
Qua
Percentage of unaccounted heat losses, Qua % = × 100
Qs
57
Tabulation – II :
Credit Debit
S. ma FC
No. (kg/min) Qs QBP Qw Qg Qua
(kg/min)
(kJ/min) (kJ/min) (kJ/min) (kJ/min) (kJ/min)
0.4859 0.01107 476 62.52 192.74 136.35 84.39
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Model calculation :
Observations :
Rated speed, N = 1500 rpm

0.6
2π
0.05
Circumference of rope = 2π r = 50 mm = 0.05 m ;  r= = 0.008 m
2π
Effective radius, Re = R + r = 0.0955+ 0.008 = 0.1035m
Co-efficient of discharge of orifice, Cd = 0.6; Diameter of orifice, d = 0.02 m
Fuel : Diesel ; Calorific Value = 43,000 kJ/kg ; Specific Gravity = 0.83

2πNT 2πNWRe
BP = =
60 60
60 × BP 60 × 3680
2 × π × N × Re 2π × 1500 × 0.1035
226.35
W= = 23.07 kg
9.81
58
Fuel consumption (FC) :
FC =
Time
FC =
Time
  1 
3
−6

 Q Volume of fuel = 10cc = 10cm 3
= 10 ×  m  = 10 × 10 m 
3
  100  
10 × 10-6 × 0.83 × 1000
FC = = 1.84444 × 10− 4 kg/s
45
FC = 1.84444× 10−4 × 60 = 0.01107 kg/min
Mass of air ( ma ) :
Density of air at room temperature,
Patm 1.01325 × 10 5
ρr = = = 1.177 kg/m 3 (Q Tr = 27°C = 27 + 273 = 300 K )
R × Tr 287 × 300
ρw 1000
Equivalent air column, ha = × hw = × 0.08 = 67.97 m
ρr 1.177
π
Volume of air consumed, Va = Cd . A 2 g ha = 0.6 × × (0.02) 2 × 2 × 9.82 × 67.97
4
= 0.00688m3 /s = 0.00688× 60 = 0.4128m3 / min.
Mass of air consumed, ma = ρ a × Va = 1.177 × 0.4128 = 0.4859 kg/min.
2π N T 2 π N W Re
Brake Power, BP = = (For rope brake dynamometer)
60 × 1000 60 × 1000
2π × 1400 × 68.67 × 0.1035
= = 1.042 kW
60 × 1000
1) Heat supplied by the fuel, Qs = FC × CV = 0.01107 × 43000 = 476 kJ/min.
2) Heat equivalent of useful work (Brake power), QBP = BP

BP = 1 .042 kW = 1 .042 × 60 = 62 .52 kJ/min.
QBP 62.52
Percentage of heat used for brake power, QBP % = × 100 = × 100 = 13.13%
Qs 476
59
3) Heat lost due to cooling water, Qw = mw.C pw.(T2 − T1 )
ρ w × Vw 1000 × 5 × 10−3
mw = = = 2 kg/min
t  150 
 
 60 
Qw = 2 × 4.19 × (50 − 27) = 192.74 kJ/min
Qw 192.74
Percentage of heat lose due to cooling water, Qw % = × 100 = × 100 = 40.49%
Qs 476
4) Heat lost due to exhaust gases, Qg = mg .C pg .(Tg − Tr )

mg = ma + FC = 0.4859 + 0.01107 = 0.49697 kg/min.
Qg = 0.49697× 1.005 × (300 − 27) = 136.35 kJ/min
Qg 136 .35
Percentage of heat lose due to cooling water, Q g % = × 100 = × 100 = 28.65%
Qs 476
5) Unaccounted heat loss ( Qua )
The unaccounted heat losses may be calculated as follows:
Qua = Qs − [QBP + Qw + Qg ] = 476 − [62.52 + 192.74 + 136.35] = 84.39 kJ/min
Qua 84.39
Percentage of unaccounted heat losses, Qua % = × 100 = × 100 = 17.73%
Qs 476
HEAT BALANCE SHEET [Minute BASIS]
Sl.
Heat supplied kJ/min. % Heat spent kJ/min. %
No
Heat supplied
1. 476 100 − − −
in fuel
Heat equivalent of
2. − − − brake power ( Q BP )
62.52 13.13
Heat carried by
3. − − − cooling water ( Q w )
192.74 40.49
Heat lost due to

4. − − − 136.35 28.65
exhaust gases ( Qg )
Heat loss
5. − − − unaccounted ( Qua )
84.39 17.73
Total 476 100 Total 476 100.00
60
Procedure :
plate details.
allowed to run for few minutes t to attain rated speed.
5) The load on the engine is increased. For this load, the following reading are taken:
i) Load on the engine
ii) Speed of the engine
iii) Time taken for 10 cc of fuel consumption
iv) Manometer reading
v) Temperature of cooling water at engine inlet and outlet
vi) Time take for collection of 5 litres of cooling water
vii) Room temperature and temperature of exhaust gas
Result :
The load test is conducted on given diesel / petrol engine and the heat balance sheet is
prepared on minute basis.
61
Tabulation :
Compressor Manometer Water Actual Theoretical Volumetric

Delivery Reading head Volume Volume Efficiency
S. speed
Pressure hw Va Vt ηvol
No. N h1 h2
(kgf/cm2)
(rpm) (cm) (cm) (m) × 10 −3 (m3/s) × 10 −3 (m3/s) (%)
2 880 10.3 8.3 0.02 3.3932 4.7977 70.73

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Ex. No. : 5 VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY OF AIR COMPRESSOR
Aim :
To determine the volumetric efficiency of air compressor by conducting performance
test.
1) Two stage reciprocating air compressor
2) Stop watch

The compressor in the experimental setup is a two stage reciprocating type air
compressor. The air is sucked from atmosphere and compressed in the first cylinder. The
compressed air then passes through an inlet cooler into the second stage cylinder, the
compressed air then goes to reservoir through safety valve. This valve operates an electrical
switch that shuts off the motor when pressure exceeds the set limit.
The test rig consists of comprssor, air chamber containing an orifice plate, U-tube
manometer, and induction motor. Pressure gauges are provided to measure the pressure at
various points. Energy meter and digitial temperature indicators are provided on the panel.
Theory :
Volumetric efficiency
Volumetric efficiency of air compressor is defined as the ratio of actual volume of air
compressed to theoretical volume of air compressed.
Actual volume of air compressed V
ηvol = = a
Theoretical volume of air compressed Vt
Actual volume of air compressed, Va = Cd × a × 2 × g × ha

Where, Cd = Coefficient of discharge
π
a = Area of orifice = d 2 ; d = Diameter of orifice
4
ρ
ha = Air head causing flow = hw × w
ρa
hw = Water head ; ρ w = Density of water; ρ a = Density of air
63
Model calculation :
Observations :
Coefficient of discharge of orifice, Cd = 0.62
Diameter of orifice, d = 20 mm = 0.02 m

Density of water, ρw = 1000 kg/m 3
Density of air (at NTP), ρa = 1.293 kg/m 3
Diameter of cylinder, D = 70 mm = 0.07 m

Stroke length, L = 85 mm = 0.085 m
h1 − h2 10.3 − 8.3
Water head, hw = = = 0.02 m
100 100
ρ 1000
Air head causing flow ha = hw × w = 0.02 × = 15.4679 m
ρa 1.293
π π
Area of orifice, a = × d 2 = × 0.02 2 = 3.1416 × 10 −4 m2
4 4
Actual volume of air compressed, Va = Cd × a × 2 × g × ha
= 0.62 × 3.1416 × 10 −4 2 × 9.81 × 15.4679 = 3.3932 × 10 −3 m3/s
π N
Theoretical volume of air compressed, Vt = × D2 × L ×
4 60
π 880
= × 0.07 2 × 0.085 × = 4.7977 × 10 −3 m3/s
4 60
Va 3.3932 × 10 −3
Volumetric efficiency, ηvol = × 100 = × 100 = 70.73%
Vt 4.7977 × 10 −3
Model graph :
Efficiency (%)
Volumetric
Delivery pressure (kgf/cm²)
64
π N
Theoretical volume of air compressed, Vt = × D2 × L ×
4 60
Where, D = Diamter of cylinder
L = Stroke length
N = Speed of compressor (rpm)
Graph :
The following graph is plotted :
Pressure Vs. Volumetric efficiency
Procedure :
1) Necessary electrical connections, the direction of the motor and the lubricating oil
level in the compressor are checked.
2) The compressor is started by switching ON the motor.
3) The slow increase of the pressure inside the air reservoir is observed.
4) The required pressure is maintained constant by slowly operating the discharge
valve.
5) Now, the following readings are noted :
i) Delivery pressure.
ii) Speed of the compressor.
iii) Manometer readings.
6) The delivery pressure is adjusted to another value and maintained constant by
operating the discharge valve.
7) The experiment is repeated for different delivery pressures.
8) The compressor is switched off after taking a set of readings.
Result :
The performance test is conducted on the given air compressor and the volumetric
efficiencies are calculated. The required graphs are also plotted.
65
Saturated
liquid
3 2
Condenser
Receiver
Super heated
vapour
3
Expansion
4 valve Evaporator
4 1 Dry vapour
Wet vapour 1 2
Compressor
Vapour compression refrigeration system
66
Ex. No. : 6 DETERMINATION OF COP OF
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
Aim :
To determine the Coefficient of Performance (COP) of refrigeration system by
conducting performance test.
1) Refrigeration test rig
2) Stop watch
3) Measuring jar

The test rig consists of all the components of a vapour compression refrigeration
system. It includes hermetically sealed compressor, evaporator, condenser and capillary tube.
A temperature indicator with six point selection switch has been provided to get the
temperature of refrigerant at various points. Pressure gauges are fitted at required points to
measure the pressure. An energy meter is provided to indicate the power consumption of
compressor.
Theory :
 The low pressure dry refrigerant vapour coming from the evaporator flows into the
compressor. During compression, the pressure and temperature of refrigerant vapour
increases.
 The superheated refrigerant vapour from the compressor enters into the condenser.
Vapour refrigerant condenses into high pressure saturated liquid. This liquid
refrigerant is collected in a receiver.
 The high pressure liquid refrigerant then enters the expansion valve. During expansion,
the liquid refrigerant partially evaporates and leaves the expansion valve as wet vapour.
 In the evaporator, the liquid refrigerant absorbs heat from the space to be cooled. Thus
the refrigeration effect is obtained.
 The refrigerant leaves the evaporator as low pressure dry vapour. This vapour flows into
the compressor and the cycle is repeated.
67
Observations :
Refrigerant : Freon - 12
Mass of water in evaporator tank, m = _________ kg
Specific heat capacity of water, C p = 4.184 kJ/kg.K
Initial temperature of water, Ti = ________ o C
Final temperature of water, Tf = _________ o C
Time taken for experiment, t = __________ hours

Initial energy meter reading, Ei = __________(KW-h)
Final energy meter reading, Ef = ___________(KW-h)
Atmospheric pressure, Patm = 1.013 bar
Tabulation :
S. Readings Temperature Gauge pressure Absolute pressure

No. at ( C)o (bar) Pg + Patm (bar)
1. Evaporator outlet T1 = Pg1 = P1 =
2. Condensor inlet T2 = Pg2 = P2 =
3. Condensor outlet T3 = Pg3 = P3 =
4. Evaporator inlet T4 = Pg4 = P4 =
Note : If the pressure readings are in psi, 1 psi = 0.0689476 bar
If the pressure readings are in kg/cm 2 , 1 kg/cm 2 = 0.980665 bar
68
Coefficient of performance (C.O.P)
Coefficient of performance of refrigerator is defined as the ratio of heat extracted
(refrigerating effect) to the work input.
Heat extracted in the evaporator
C.O. P of refrigerator =
Work input to compressor
Refrigerat ing effect N
C.O. Pref = =
Work input W
a) Theoretical C.O.P
The C.O.P calculated using the values obtained by applying laws of thermodynamics
is known as theoretical C.O.P. The C.O.P is always greater than 1.
b) Actual C.O.P
The C.O.P calculated using actual values of N and W is known as actual C.O.P. In
this case, the actual values of N and W are calculated by conducting test.
b) Relative C.O.P
Relative C.O.P is defined as the ratio of actual C.O.P to theoretical C.O.P.
Actual C.O. P
Rlative C.O. P =
Theoretical C.O. P
Formulae :
Refrigerating effect
1) Actual C.O. P =
Energy input
m × C p × (Ti − Tf )
Refrigerating effect =
t
Where, m = mass of water in evaporator tank (kg)
C p = Specific heat capacity of water (kJ/kg.K)
Ti = Initial temperature of water ( o C)
Tf = Final temperature of water ( o C)
t = Time taken for experiment (hours)
Ef − Ei
Eergy input =
t
Where, Ei = Initial energy meter reading (KW-h)
Ef = Final energy meter reading (KW-h)
69
Model calculation
Observations :
Mass of water in evaporator tank, m = 10 kg
Specific heat capacity of water, C p = 4.184 kJ/kg.K
Initial temperature of water, Ti = 30 o C
Final temperature of water, Tf = 15 o C
Time taken for experiment, t = 30 min. = 0.5 hours.

Initial energy meter reading, Ei = 368.81 KW-h
Final energy meter reading, Ef = 368.94 KW-h
Atmospheric pressure, Patm = 1.013 bar
m × C p × (Ti − Tf ) 10 × 4.184 × (30 − 15)

Refrigerating effect = = = 0.3487 KW
t 30 × 60
E f − Ei 368.94 − 368.81
Eergy input = = = 0.26 KW
t 0.5
Refrigerating effect 0.3487
1) Actual C.O. P = = = 1.341
Energy input 0.26
Sample reading :
S. Readings Temperature Gauge pressure Absolute pressure

No. at o
( C) (bar) Pg + Patm (bar)
1. Evaporator outlet T1 = 20 Pg1 = 1.7 P1 = 2.713
2. Condensor inlet T2 = 52 Pg2 = 13.4 P2 = 14.413
3. Condensor outlet T3 = 22 Pg3 = 10.3 P3 = 11.313
4. Evaporator inlet T4 = -12 Pg4 = 1.4 P4 = 2.413
From P-h diagram for R-12

At P1 = 2.713 and T1 = 20 o C, h1 = 370 KJ/kg
At P2 = 14.413 and T2 = 52o C, h2 = 382 KJ/kg
At P3 = 11.313 and T3 = 22o C, h3 = 350 KJ/kg
(h1 − h4 ) (h1 − h3 ) (370 − 350)
2) Theoretical C.O. P = = = = 1.667
(h2 − h1 ) (h2 − h1 ) (382 − 370)
Actual C.O. P 1.341

3) Rlative C.O. P = = = 0.804
Theoretical C.O. P 1.667
70
( h1 − h4 ) ( h1 − h3 )
2) Theoretical C.O. P = =
( h2 − h1 ) ( h2 − h1 )
Where, h1 = Enthalpy of refrigerant at evaporator outlet (before compression)
h2 = Enthalpy of refrigerant at condenser inlet (after compression)
h3 = Enthalpy of refrigerant at condenser outlet (before throttling)
h4 = Enthalpy of refrigerant at evaporator inlet (after throttling)
Actual C.O. P
3) Rlative C.O. P =
Theoretica l C.O. P
Procedure :
1) The evaporator tank is filled with a known quantity of water (say 10 -15 litres).
2) Switch on the compressor.
3) After 5 minutes (after steady state is reached), the initial energy meter reading and
water temperature in the evaporator are noted.
4) After a known period of time (say 30 minutes) the energy meter reading and water
temperature are noted.
5) The Refrigerant pressures at compressor inlet (evaporator outlet), condenser inlet
(compressor outlet), condenser outlet (before throttling) and evaporator inlet (after
throttling) are noted from the pressure gauges.
6) The corresponding temperatures are also noted using the thermocouples provided.
7) The compressor is switched off after taking a set of readings. The power is switched
off after few minutes.
Result :
The performance test is conducted on the given refrigeration system and C.O.P are
determined.
1) Actual C.O.P = _________
2) Theoretical C.O.P = ________
3) Relative C.O.P = ________
71
1. Define flash point.
ignite (flash), when given an ignition source under specified condition.
2. Difine fire point.
The fire point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the vapour of that fuel will
continue to burn for at least 5 seconds after ignition by an open flame.
3. What is flammable and combustible fuels?
Liquids which have a flash point between 37.8 and 60.5oC are called flammable.
Liquids having a flash point above that temperature are called combustible.
4. What are the two types of flash point measurement?
Open cup and closed cup are two basic types of flash point measurement.
5. Give the difference between open cup and close cup flash point.
Open cup flash point is a value obtained using a vessel that is exposed to the
outside air. The vapour above the liquid is in equilibrium with the liquid.
Closed cup flash point is a value obtained from a closed vessel. The vapour above
the liquid is in not in equilibrium with the liquid.
Open cup method gives higher values for the flash point than closed cup method.
6. What are the desirable properties of lubricating oil?

High flash point and fire point
Low freezing point
High viscosity index
Thermal stability
Hydraulic stability
Demulsibility
Corrosion prevention
High resistance to oxidation
72
7. Define demulsibility.
It is the ability of a lubricant to separate from water.
8. What is viscosity of fluid?
stress or tensile stress.
9. What is ideal fluid?
A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal or inviscid fluid.
Zero viscosity is observed only at very low temperatures in superfluids.
10. Define absolute viscosity or dynamic viscosity.
11. Give the expression for absolute viscosity.
τ
 du 
 
 dy 
du
dy
12. Mention the unit of absolute viscosity.
N-s
SI unit : = pa . s
m2
kgf - sec
MKS unit :
m2
cm 2
 sec 2 
N-s 1
m 100
13. Define kinematic viscosity.

of the fluid.
μ
ρ
73
14. Mention the unit of kinematic viscosity.
m2
SI unit :
s
m2
MKS unit :
sec
cm 2
CGS unit : = stoke
sec
Relationship :
2
 1 
 m
cm 2  100  1
1 stoke = 1 = = 10− 4 m 2 / s; Centistoke = stoke
sec sec 100
15. Name the instruments used for measuring viscosity.
Redwood viscometer
Saybolt viscometer
16. State the difference between Redwood and Saybolt viscometers.
Redwood viscometer Saybolt viscometer
Time taken for collection of 50 cc of oil is Time taken for collection of 60 cc of oil is
measured. measured.
A ball valve and orifice is provided at the A plug is provided at the bottom.
bottom.
17. What is internal combustion engine? Give examples.
Internal combustion (I.C) engine is a heat engine in which combustion of fuel takes
place inside the engine cylinder.
Example: Petrol engine, diesel engine, gas engine, gas turbine, etc.
18. Classify I.C engines by method of ignition.
a) Spark Ignition (S.I) engines
b) Compression Ignition (C.I) engines
19. Classify I.C engines by arrangement of cylinders.
a) Vertical engines b) Horizontal engines c) V-type engines
d) In-line engines e) Radial engines
20. What are the two types of liners in I.C engines.
(a) Dry liners : Dry liners have metal−to−metal contact with the cylinder block.
(b) Wet liners : These liners are surrounded or wetted by cooling water.
21. What is the function of piston in I.C engine.
The main function of the piston is to transmit the force exerted to the burning of fuel
in the cylinder to crank shaft through connecting rod.
74
22. What are the two types of piston rings?
(a) Compression rings provide an effective seal for the high pressure gases inside the
cylinder.
(b) Oil rings wipe off the excess oil from the cylinder walls.
23. What is the function of connecting rod in I.C engines?
It connects the piston and crank shaft. It transmits the force exerted due to the
burning of fuel during power stroke to the crank shaft.
24. What is the use of crank shaft in I.C engines?
The main function of crank shaft is to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston
into rotary motion with the help of connecting rod.
25. State the different valve actuating mechanism.
(1) Side valve mechanism (2) Overhead valve mechanism
(3) Overhead inlet and side exhaust valve mechanism
26. What are the four strokes in four stroke petrol engines.
(a) Suction stroke (b) Compression stroke
(c) Expansion stroke (d) Exhaust stroke
27. What is the basic difference between two stroke and four stroke I.C engines.
In two stroke engine, one power stroke is obtained in one revolution of the crank shaft.
In four stroke engine, one power stroke is obtained in two revolution of the crank shaft.
28. What is valve timing and port timing diagram.
It is the graphical representation showing the timings of the sequence of events in terms of
crank angle from dead centre position.
29. Name the ports available in two stroke engines.
1) Inlet port
2) Transfer port
3) Exhaust port
30. State the functions of ports.
Inlet and transfer ports transfer the combustible air fuel mixture. Exhaust port
transfers exhaust gas after combustion.
31. What is the use of port timing diagram?
The port timing diagram gives an idea about how various operations are taking place
in an engine cycle.
32. Mention the fuel supply systems in petrol engines.
a) Gravity feed system
b) Pressure feed system or pump feed system
75
33. Name the important components in fuel supply system in petrol engines.
1) Storage tank 2) Fuel pump 3) Fuel filter 4) Carburetor.
34. What is carburetor?
The process of atomizing and vaporizing the fuel and mixing it with air is called
carburetion. The device used for carburetion is known as carburetor.
35. State the functions of a carburetor.
1) It atomizes and vaporizes the fuel.
2) It prepares a mixture of petrol and air in correct proportion.
3) It supplies the proper quantity of air–fuel mixture.
4) It maintains a small reserve of fuel at a constant head.
5) It provides easy starting of the engine in cold condition.
36. Name the main elements in the fuel supply system of diesel engine.
1) Fuel tank 2) Fuel feed pump 3) Fuel filter
4) Fuel injection pump 5) Injectors.
37. What is the function of fuel injector?
The function of a fuel injector is to spray the fuel into the engine cylinder in the form
of fine particles at the end of compression stroke.
38. What are types of injection nozzles used in diesel engine.
a) Single hole nozzles b) Multiple hole nozzles
c) Pintle nozzles d) Delay type nozzles
39. What are primary filter and secondary filter.
The primary filter is fitted in between fuel tank and the suction side of the fuel feed
pump.
The secondary filter is fitted in between the fuel feed pump and fuel injection pump.
40. Name the different ignition system.
a) Compression ignition (for diesel engines)
b) Spark ignition (for petrol engines)
41. Mention the ignition methods used in S.I engines.
1) Coil ignition system
2) Magneto ignition system
3) Electronic ignition system
42. What is MPFI?
The Multi-Point Fuel Injection (MPFI) system is an advanced version of carburettor
engine. MPFI engine is having a fuel injector for each cylinder. A computer is used to
control each and every fuel injector individually.
76
43. What is CRDI?
CRDI stands for Common Rail Direct Injection. It is a system used in diesel engines
for direct injection of the fuel into the cylinders of a diesel engine through a common
rail which is connected to all the fuel injectors.
44. List out the methods of governing of I.C engines.
a) Quantity governing
b) Quality governing
c) Hit and miss governing
45. What is quantity governing?
In this method, the quantity of air−fuel mixture entering into the engine cylinder is
varied. The composition of the air−fuel mixture remains constant when the load
varies.
46. What is quality governing?
In this type of governing, the composition of air−fuel mixture is changed according to
the variation in load. The air flow rate remains constant.
47. What is hit and miss governing?
In this method, an explosion is omitted when the speed of the engine increases above
the normal speed i.e. one power stroke is missed. The strength of the air−fuel mixture
is not varied.
48. What are the methods of cooling I.C engines?
1) Air cooling or direct cooling
2) Water cooling or indirect cooling
49. Give the applications of air cooling system.
Air cooling is used in small engines like, air craft engines, engines used in scooters,
motor cycles, etc.
50. List out the components in water cooling system.
It consists of radiator, fan, water pump, water jacket, thermostat valve, radiator
shutters, etc.
51. What are the purposes of lubrication?
1) To reduce friction between moving parts
2) To reduce wear and tear of the moving parts
3) To reduce the power loss due to friction
4) To dissipate the heat generated from the moving parts
52. List out the properties of lubricant.
1) Viscosity 2) Oiliness 3) Flash and fire point
4) Delegency 5) Demulsibility 6) Corrosiveness
77
53. List out the methods of lubrication in I.C engines.
1. Petroil lubrication system or mist lubrication system.
2. Wet sump lubrication system
a) Gravity lubrication system
b) Splash lubrication system
c) Pressure lubrication system
d) Semi–pressure lubrication system
3. Dry sump lubrication system
54. What is the function of oil pumps in I.C engines?
The function of an oil pump is to supply lubricating oil under pressure to the bearings
and the various parts of the engine to be lubricated.
55. Name the commonly used oil pumps in I.C engines.
1) Gear pump 2) Rotor pump.
56. Differentiate by-pass system and full system of oil filters used in I.C engines.
In by−pass system, a small amount (10%) of oil alone is filtered and goes to the pump.
In full flow system, the entire oil passes through the filter before it is supplied to the
engine part.
57. Give the reasons for testing of I.C engines.
To determine the power developed by the engine
To determine the various efficiencies of the engine
To determine the fuel consumption
To prepare the heat balance sheet
58. Define indicated power.
Indicated power is the actual power developed inside an engine cylinder. It is
measured with the help of indicated mean effective pressure.
59. Define indicated mean effective pressure.
It is the algebraic sum of the mean pressures acting on the piston during each stroke
in one complete working cycle. It is measured from the actual indicator diagram.
60. Write an expression for indicated power.
Indicated power, IP = pmi .l.a. n. k
where, pmi = Indicated mean effective pressure
l = Length of stroke of the piston
a = Area of cross−section of piston or cylinder
n = No. of explosions or working strokes per second
k = No. of cylinder.
78
61. Define brake power.
Brake power is the useful power available at the crankshaft. It is less than the
indicated power.
62. What is dynamometer? Give its types.
Dynamometers are used to measure torque.
Types :
1) Prony brake dynamometers 2) Rope brake dynamometers
3) Electrical dynamometers 4) Hydraulic dynamometers
63. Define friction power.
Friction power is the power lost mainly due to the friction in the moving parts.
Frictional power is the difference between indicated power and brake power.
FP = IP − BP
64. Define indicated thermal efficiency.
Indicated power
Heat supplied
IP × 3600
ηI .T = × 100
FC × CV
Where, IP = Indicated power ; FC = Fuel consumption
CV = Calorific value of the fuel
65. Define brake thermal efficiency.
Brake power
Heat supplied
BP × 3600
η B. T = × 100 ; BP = Indicated power (kW)
FC × CV
66. Define mechanical efficiency
Brake power BP
Mechanical efficiency = ; ηm =
Indicated power IP
67. Define relative efficiency or efficiency ratio.
Relative efficiency or efficiency ratio,
Indicated (actual) thermal efficiency
=
Ideal thermal efficiency (Air standard efficiency)
η
ηrel = B .T
ηideal
68. Define volumetric efficiency.
Volumetric efficiency,
Volume of the charge admitted during suction
ηvol =
Stroke volume of the piston
79
69. Define specific fuel consumption.
Specific fuel consumption is defined as the amount of fuel consumption to obtain one
brake power−hour of work. It is also called as brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC)
FC
BSFC =
BP
70. What is the use of Morse test?
Morse test is used to find out the indicated power of a multicylinder I.C. engine.
71. What is accounted and unaccounted heat losses?
The heat losses which can be determined from the observed values during the test
are known as accounted heat losses.
The heat losses which cannot be determined accurately are known as unaccounted
heat losses.
72. List out the uses of compressed air.
To operate pneumatic drills, riveters, road drills, etc.
Spray painting works
Starting and supercharging of I.C. engines
In gas turbine plants, jet engines and air motors
Operation of lifts, rams, pumps, etc.
To produce blast of air in blast furnaces
Air operated brakes
Sand blasting operation for cleaning of castings
73. Classify the compressors based on the design.
1. Reciprocating compressors
(a) Single acting compressors
(b) Double acting compressors
2. Rotary compressors
(a) Steady flow compressors
(b) Displacement compressors
74. Give examples for rotary compressors.
Centrifugal compressor, axial flow compressors, roots blower, vane blower, screw
compressors, etc.
75. Mention the methods of compressing air.
(a) Isentropic or adiabatic compression
(b) Polytropic compression
(c) Isothermal compression
80
76. Write down the expression for work done by a compressor in polytropic
compression.
 n−1 
W = n p1 .V1 . 2  −1
p n
n −1  p1  
 
77. Write down the expression for work done by a compressor in isothermal
compression.
p  p 
W = p1 .V1 .ln 2  = m.R.T1 .ln 2 
 p1   p1 
78. Define isothermal efficiency of compressor.
Isothermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of isothermal work input to the actual
work input.
ln 2 
p
Isothermal work input  p1 
ηiso = = n−1
Actual work input  
n . p2  n −1
n −1  p1  
 
79. Define adiabatic efficiency.
Adiabatic efficiency is defined as the ratio of adiabatic work input to actual work
input.
 γ −1 
γ  p2  γ
.   −1
γ −1  p1  
ηadi =
Adiabatic work input
=  
Actual work input  n−1 
n . p2  n −1
 
n −1  p1  
 
80. Define mechanical efficiency and overall efficiency.
Indicated power of compressor
Mechanical efficiency, ηm =
Power input (BP of prime mover)
Air power supplied
Overall efficiency ηo =
Power supplied by the prime mover
81. Define mean effective pressure.
Mean effective pressure,
Area of indicator diagram
pm = × Spring scale
Length of indicator diagram
81
82. Write the expression for indicated power.
Indicated power, IP = pm .l.a. N .k
where, pm = Mean effective pressure; l = Stroke of piston
a = Area of cross section of cylinder;
N = Speed of crank; k = No. of cylinders
83. Define clearance volume.
When the piston reaches top dead centre (TDC) in the cylinder, there is a space between
the piston top and the cylinder head. This space is known as clearance space and the
volume occupied by this space is known as clearance volume.
84. What are the effects of clearance volume?
The suction volume is reduced
Mass of air is reduced
Heavy compression is required, if clearance volume is increased.
The mechanical losses increase
85. Define volumetric efficiency. Give its expression.
ηvol = Effective suction volume
Stroke (Swept) volume
1
ηvol =1 + C − C( R p ) n =1 + C − C
1 p2  n

 p1 
86. What is clearance ratio and pressure ratio?
Clearance volume
Clearance ratio, C =
Swept volume
Delivery pressure
Pressure ratio, Rp =
Suction pressure
87. What are the advantages of multi-stage air compressors.
The work done per kg of air is reduced.
It improves the volumetric efficiency.
The leakage loss is considerably reduced.
It gives more uniform torque.
Smaller size flywheel is required.
It provides effective lubrication.
It reduces the cost of compressor.
88. Define perfect intercooling.
When the temperature of the air leaving the intercooler is equal to the original
atmospheric air temperature, then the intercooling is known as complete or perfect
intercooling.
82
89. Write down the condition for maximum efficiency in multistage compressor
with perfect intercooling
Intermediate pressure, p2 = p1 . p3
90. Write down the ratio of cylinder diameters for minimum work input and
same stroke for a multistage compressor.
d1 p2
Ratio of cylinder diameters, =
d2 p1
91. Differentiate between positive displacement and dynamic compressors.
In positive displacement compressors, the air is trapped in between two sets of
engaging surfaces. The pressure rise is obtained by the back flow of air or by
squeezing action.
In dynamic compressors, there is a continuous steady flow of air. The energy is
transferred from the rotor of the compressor to the air. The pressure rise is
primarily due to dynamic effects.
92. Define refrigeration.
Refrigeration is the process of cooling a space and maintaining its temperature below
that of surrounding.
93. Differentiate between refrigerator and heat pump.
Refrigerator is a machine, which is used to maintain a space at low temperature
than the surrounding by continuously extracting heat from the space to be cooled
Heat pump is a machine, which is used to maintain a space at high temperature than
the surrounding by continuously pumping heat into the space to be heated.
94. What are the types of refrigerators?
1) Ice refrigerator 2) Air refrigerator
3) Vapour refrigerator
i) Vapour compression refrigerator
ii) Vapour absorption refrigerator
95. List out the applications of refrigerators.
1) To produce ice
2) To liquify the gases
3) To cool the water
4) To preserve blood
5) To preserve food items and medicines
6) To provide comfort air-conditioning
83
96. Define refrigerating effect.
Refrigerating effect is defined as the quantity of heat extracted from a space to be
cooled in a given time.
97. Define tonne (ton) of refrigeration.
One ton of refrigeration is defined as the quantity of heat to be extracted from water at
0OC to form 1 ton (1000 kg) of ice in 24 hours.
98. What is the value of one ton of refrigeration?
1 ton of refrigeration = 210 KJ/min = 3.5 KJ/s.
99. Define C.O.P of refrigerator.
Coefficient of performance of refrigerator is defined as the ratio of heat extracted
(refrigerating effect) to the work input.
100. Define C.O.P of heat pump.
Coefficient of performance of heat pump is defined as the ratio of heat rejected at higher
temperature to the work input.
C.O. Php = 1 + C.O. Pref
101. What is actual C.O.P and relative C.O.P?
The C.O.P calculated using actual values of N and W is known as actual C.O.P.
Relative C.O.P is defined as the ratio of actual C.O.P to theoretical C.O.P.
102. List out the air cycles used in refrigeration systems.

1) Reversed Carnot cycle or
2) Bell – Coleman cycle ( Reversed Joule cycle)
103. Write the expression for C.O.P of reversed Carnot cycle.
T1 Tmin
∴ COPref = =
T2 − T1 Tmax − Tmin
T2 Tmax
∴ COPhp = =
T2 − T1 Tmax − Tmin
104. Write the expression for C.O.P of Bell -Coleman cycle.
Temperature of air leaving expander
C.O. Pref =
Temperature of air  − Temperature of air 
 entering expander   leaving expander 
105. List out the processes in Bell-Coleman cycle.
1) Isentropic compression in a compressor
2) Constant pressure heat rejection to a hot body
3) Isentropic expansion in expansion valve
4) Constant pressure heat extraction from a cold body
84
106. List out the main components in vapour compression refrigeration system.
1) Compressor 2) Condenser
3) Expansion valve 4) Evaporator
107. List out the main components in vapour absorption refrigeration system.
1) Absorber 2) Pump 3) Heat exchanger
4) Heating coil 5) Generator 6) Analyser
7) Rectifier 8) Condenser 9) Expansion valve
10) Evaporator
108. What is the use of analyser and rectifier?
Analyser is used to separate water from ammonia vapour.
Rectifier condenses the water vapour present in ammonia vapour.
109. Define refrigerant.
Refrigerant is a substance in vapour state which is used as a working fluid in
refrigerators. The heat is transform the cold body to the hot body through the
refrigerant.
110. List out the desirable properties of a good refrigerant.
1) Non-toxic 2) Non-flammable 3) Non-explosive
4) Non-corrosive 5) Low specific heat 6) Low specific volume 7) Low boiling point
8) High thermal conductivity
111. List out the common refrigerant.
1) Ammonia 2) Sulphur Di-oxide
3) Carbon Di-oxide 4) Freon – 12
112. List out the properties and uses of Freon – 12.
Properties
 Non-toxic
 Non-inflammable and non-explosive
 Non-irritant to human body
 Non-corrosive to metals
 No objectionable odour is produced.
Uses : Air-conditioning plants, refrigerators, frozen food and ice cream cabinets,
water coolers, window air-conditioner, automobile air-conditioners, etc.
85
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Thermal Engineering Practical (N - Scheme)

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Thermal Engineering Practical (N - Scheme)

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THERMAL ENGINEERING

N. IYANARAPPAN, M.E., M.I.S.T.E.

First Edition : June 2017

Price : 128.00 For Contact :

1) Load test (Performance test) on Four Stroke Petrol Engine.

DETAILED ALLOCATION OF MARKS

Part – A : .................................................. 35 Marks

Part – B : .................................................. 55 Marks

Viva – voce ............................................... 10 Marks

Trial Temperature of oil

Trial Temperature of oil

There are two related measures of fluid viscosity

Absolute or dynamic viscosity :

2) Density of oil at room temperature, ρ r = __________ gm / cm3

Temperature Time taken for

Unit of kinematic viscosity :

3) Absolute viscosity, µ = ρ oil ×ν (centipoise)

Absolute or dynamic viscosity :

2) Density of oil at room temperature, ρ r = __________ gm / cm3

Temperature Time taken for

Unit of kinematic viscosity :

3) Absolute viscosity, µ = ρ oil ×ν (centipoise)

Arc length from the

1. IPO Before TDC

2. IPC After TDC

3. EPO Before BDC

4. EPC After BDC

5. TPO Before BDC

6. TPC After BDC

Arc length from the

1. IVO Before TDC

2. IVC After BDC

3. EVO Before BDC

4. EVC After TDC

Arc length from the

1. IVO Before TDC

2. IVC After BDC

3. EVO Before BDC

4. EVC After TDC

Description of experimental setup :

a) For rope brake dynamometer

1) Rated brake power, BP = ___________kW 5) Radius of brake drum, R = __________ m

Load Time for

2) Indicated Power (IP)

3) Friction Power (FP)

4) Total Fuel Consumption (TFC)

5) Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)

1) Total fuel consumption (TFC)

The calorific value of diesel ranges from 42,000 KJ / Kg to 45,000 KJ/Kg .

8) Indicated thermal efficiency ( ηI.T )

Assume, FP = 10 to 20 % of Rated BP (Say 15 %)

4) Indicated power (IP)

5) Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)

7) Brake thermal efficiency (or) Overall efficiency

8) Indicated thermal efficiency

Description of experimental setup :

a) For rope brake dynamometer

1) Rated brake power, BP = ___________kW 5) Radius of brake drum, R = __________ m

4) Calorific Value of fuel : 43000 kJ/kg 8) Specific gravity of fuel : 0.83

Load Time for

2) Indicated Power (IP)

3) Friction Power (FP)

4) Total Fuel Consumption (TFC)

1) Rated brake power, BP = _kW 5) Radius of brake drum, R = m

1) Rated brake power, BP = _kW 5) Radius of brake drum, R = m