Eur J Psychol Educ (2013) 28:1289–1309

DOI 10.1007/s10212-012-0166-x

Preservice teachers’ work stress, self-efficacy,

and occupational commitment in four countries

Robert Klassen & Elaine Wilson & Angela F. Y. Siu & Wanwisa Hannok &
Marina W. Wong & Nongkran Wongsri & Panwadee Sonthisap &
Chaleosri Pibulchol & Yanisa Buranachaitavee & Anchalee Jansem

Received: 30 June 2012 / Revised: 2 November 2012 / Accepted: 15 November 2012 /

Published online: 21 December 2012
# Instituto Superior de Psicologia Aplicada, Lisboa, Portugal and Springer Science+Business Media
Dordrecht 2012

Abstract In this study, we examine the teaching-related stress, self-efficacy, and occupa-
tional commitment of preservice teachers from two culturally western and two culturally
eastern countries. The sample included 1,187 participants from Canada (n0379), England
(n0203), Hong Kong (n0211), and Thailand (n0394). Self-efficacy partially reduced
(mediated) the effect of stress from student behavior and from workload on commitment
in three of four contexts. Mediation tests with country as moderator revealed significant
differences in the strength of the mediating effect across the four contexts. The results
suggest that teachers’ self-efficacy changes the way in which work stress influences the

R. Klassen (*)
Psychology in Education Research Centre, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK
e-mail: robert.klassen@york.ac.uk
URL: http://www.york.ac.uk/education/our-staff/academic/rob-klassen/

E. Wilson
Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge, 184 Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 8PQ, UK
e-mail: ew208@cam.ac.uk
URL: http://www.educ.cam.ac.uk/

A. F. Y. Siu
Department of Educational Psychology, Room 208, Ho Tim Building, Chinese University of Hong Kong,
Ma Liu Shui, Hong Kong
e-mail: afysiu@cuhk.edu.hk

W. Hannok
Department of Educational Psychology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2G5
URL: http://www.edpsychology.ualberta.ca/

M. W. Wong
David Lam Building, Department of Education Studies, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong,
Hong Kong
e-mail: marina@hkbu.edu.hk

N. Wongsri : P. Sonthisap
Saint Louis College, Bangkok, Thailand
N. Wongsri
e-mail: nongkran@saintlouis.or.th
1290 R. Klassen et al.

commitment to continue teaching, although cultural milieu influences the nature of the
relationship according to context.

Keywords Teacher motivation . Self-efficacy . Job stress . Commitment

Introduction

Teaching is ranked among the most stressful occupations (Johnson et al. 2005), and the
stressful nature of teaching holds true for practicing teachers as well as for preservice
teachers1 training for the profession (e.g., Chaplain 2008; Kyriacou and Stephens 1999).
Work stress, defined as one’s physiological and emotional responses to a perceived imbal-
ance between job demands and capabilities, resources, or needs (Hakanen et al. 2006;
Montgomery and Rupp 2005), is associated with adverse health outcomes (e.g., Bellingrath
et al. 2009), as well as adverse work outcomes (e.g., Antoniou et al. 2006). For teachers,
work stress is multifaceted, with stress from student behavior and stress from workload
typically shown in research as the two strongest sources of overall work stress (e.g., Boyle et
al. 1995; Kyriacou 2001). Stress from work is characterized as a symptom of unpleasant
emotional responses in the workplace (Hakanen et al. 2006) and may lead to workplace and
social dysfunction. Commentators have noted with concern that most of the previous work
stress research and theorizing has taken place in culturally western contexts (Siu et al. 2005)
and in countries where the cultural value of individualism is emphasized (Bhagat et al.
2010).2 Investigating the links between preservice teachers’ work stress and occupational
commitment across western and nonwestern contexts may result in a better understanding of
the factors that influence teaching performance at the beginning of a career. In this study, we
examine teaching-related stress, self-efficacy, and occupational commitment in four cultural
settings. Figure 1 provides a visual representation of the interaction of cultural context and
the key variables in this study.

Teaching-related stress

For teachers, high levels of work stress may result in low morale, reduced effectiveness,
higher levels of absenteeism, and reduced commitment to the profession (Hakanen et al.
2006), potentially resulting in the decision to leave the profession (Jepson and Forrest 2006).
For preservice and beginning in-service teachers, high levels of teaching stress may dissuade

1
We use the term preservice teacher to refer to individuals who are enrolled in a teacher training program
with the intention of practicing as teachers. Other terms in the literature are student teachers, trainee teachers,
and novice teachers.
2
Note Chan (e.g., 2002) has conducted research on teacher stress and self-efficacy in Hong Kong.
C. Pibulchol : Y. Buranachaitavee : A. Jansem
Srinakharinwirot University, 114 Sukhumvit 23, Wattana District, Bangkok 10110, Thailand

C. Pibulchol
URL: http://www.swu.ac.th/en/

Y. Buranachaitavee
URL: http://www.swu.ac.th/en/

A. Jansem
URL: http://www.swu.ac.th/en/
Stress and commitment of preservice teachers 1291

Surrounding Cul tural Context

Self-efficacy

b
a

Job stress
(Student behavior; Commitment
workload) c

Fig. 1 Hypothetical model of the influence of cultural context on the effects of job stress on occupational
commitment through self-efficacy. Path a is the unstandardized coefficient of the effect of the job stressor on
self-efficacy. Path b is the unstandardized coefficient of the effect of self-efficacy on occupational commit-
ment. Path c is the unstandardized coefficient for the effect of job stressors on commitment with the presence
of the mediator, self-efficacy

entry into the profession, lower occupational commitment, or encourage abandoning the
profession soon after entry (e.g., Conley and You 2009; Rots et al. 2007). Early success in
managing teaching stress may be key to building confidence for preservice teachers: “A
strong sense of self-efficacy is developed through repeated successes, (whereas) occasional
failures are unlikely to have much effect on judgments of one’s capabilities” (Bandura 1997,
p. 399). The relationship between preservice teachers’ work stress and occupational com-
mitment is important: Initial level of teacher commitment has been linked to decisions to
leave the profession in the first 5 years of teaching (Rots et al. 2007) and to decisions to
decline initial entry into the profession (Chaplain 2008).

Occupational commitment

Occupational commitment is considered a psychological state defined as a worker’s attach-

ment to a career, separate but related to commitment to a particular employer or organization
(Meyer et al. 1993). Commitment at work can take various forms with a range of targets.
Employees can display organizational commitment, whereby the worker is committed to his
or her employers or administrative structure. Employees can also display occupational
commitment, whereby the worker is committed to the profession as a broad field, although
not necessarily to current employers or worksite (Meyer et al. 1993). Commitment to an
occupation is linked with many positive outcomes, including lower absenteeism, work
engagement, and higher job satisfaction (Freund 2005), and as a result, considerable research
attention has been given to understanding how commitment develops and is fostered in the
applied and vocational psychology research domains (Meyer et al. 1993). Three facets of
commitment have been proposed: affective, normative, and continuance, with each facet
having implications for an employee’s relationship with the profession as a whole, and with
the decision to stay in or leave the profession (Meyer et al.). Affective commitment refers to
an emotional link with an occupation, normative commitment refers to a sense of obligation
to remain in a profession, and continuance commitment refers to recognition of the high cost
of leaving an occupation.
1292 R. Klassen et al.

Occupational commitment has been inversely linked with intention to leave teaching
(Ware and Kitsantas 2007), and Rots et al. (2007) found that commitment was strongly
related to preservice teachers’ decision making about entering the profession. Teacher stress
may be a key factor influencing occupational commitment. Jepson and Forrest (2006)
examined the effects of teacher stress on teacher commitment and found a strong inverse
relationship between the two variables, concluding that teachers with high job stress
experience a decrease in occupational commitment, lower job satisfaction, and a stronger
desire to quit teaching. Investigating preservice teacher commitment will build understand-
ing about factors influencing prospective teachers’ decision making about entering the
profession.

Self-efficacy

According to Bandura’s (1997) social cognitive theory, self-efficacy beliefs refer to individuals’
beliefs about their capabilities to successfully carry out a particular course of action. In school
contexts, teachers’ sense of self-efficacy plays a key role in influencing important outcomes for
teachers and students (e.g., Caprara et al. 2006). Teachers’ self-efficacy is believed to influence
student achievement and motivation and has been shown to positively affect teaching behaviors
(Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy 2001). Bandura (1997) writes that when teachers with
high self-efficacy are faced with classroom stress, they direct their efforts at resolving problems,
whereas teachers with lower self-efficacy display avoidant behavior. Eventually, teachers with
low instructional self-efficacy show lower commitment to teaching (Bandura). Chan et al.
(2008) recently proposed a model of teacher commitment in which teachers’ self-efficacy
operates as a mediator between antecedent variables and occupational commitment. Ware
and Kitsantas (2007) also noted that teachers who were confident in their capabilities to manage
instruction reported higher levels of commitment to teaching. Research from western and
nonwestern contexts suggests that the link between teachers’ self-efficacy and teacher commit-
ment generalizes to more than western contexts.

Theoretical frameworks

Job demands-resources model The job demands—resources theoretical framework (JD-R;

Bakker et al. 2007; Hakanen et al. 2006) suggests that internal characteristics (such as self-
efficacy beliefs) mediate the impact of job demands (such as work-related stress) on job
outcomes (such as commitment). In the JD-R model, work stress occurs when job demands
are perceived to outstrip job resources. Job demands include aspects of work that require
physical or psychological effort or energy, and that result in stress (i.e., negative physiolog-
ical or emotional responses) when the demands are sustained over a period of time. Job
resources, on the other hand, are aspects of a job that reduce job demands, promote
achievement of desired goals and lead to personal development (Hakanen et al. 2006). Job
resources can be organizational (school structures), social (support from administrator or
other teachers), or psychological (resilience or self-efficacy), and act as buffers that mediate
the impact of demands on levels of engagement or commitment (Bakker et al. 2007). For
teachers, disruptive pupil behavior and work overload have been consistently identified as
key job demands that result in work stress (Geving 2007; Greenglass and Burke 2003;
Hakanen et al.). For preservice teachers, disruptive pupil behavior may be the single most
stressful element surrounding the practicum experience (Chaplain 2008), but overall work-
load during the practicum is also a serious job demand and one of the greatest sources of
perceived stress (Murray-Harvey et al. 1999).
Stress and commitment of preservice teachers 1293

Contextual influences Contextual factors—such as the location in which job training is

undertaken—may play a role in preservice teachers’ stress, commitment to occupational
pathways, and self-efficacy for teaching. The factors represented within the category country
might include demographic factors (family structure, per capita income level, educational
system, and teacher training model) and cultural factors (widely held cultural norms and
beliefs) that influence educational outcomes. The experience of teaching, and training for
teaching, follows different patterns across contexts (e.g., OECD 2005), and differences in
cultural values may influence preservice teachers’ experiences of stress, commitment, and
self-efficacy. For example, the level of collectivism and uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede
2001) varies among countries: In cultures high in uncertainty avoidance, people tend to
perceive unknown situations (an upcoming teaching practicum, for example) as threatening
and experience higher levels of stress (Shen 2009). Recent studies have pointed to differ-
ences in job stress according to cultural context and values (e.g., Glazer and Beehr 2005; Liu
et al. 2007), with cultural values such as individualism leading to higher valuing of
workplace autonomy and lower valuing of workplace harmony.
The structure and practices of education across countries may influence preservice teachers’
motivation and emotions. Levels of student performance vary across the four countries included
in this study. In the 1999 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study report (the most
recent report involving the four countries of interest in this study), Canadian and Hong Kong
grade 8 (i.e., roughly 13 years old) students performed at levels higher than the international
mean, students from England did not differ from the international mean, and student from
Thailand fell significantly below the international mean (Institute of Education Sciences, n.d.).
Funding available for education may influence the available resources for teachers. In Canada,
England, and Thailand, education spending as a function of GDP is at a similar rate of above 5 %,
with Hong Kong at 4.4 %, but GDP is significantly higher in Canada, England, and Hong Kong
than in Thailand (The World Bank, n.d.). Further details involving education system differences
of the four countries in this study are available at the World Bank website.

Work stress across cultures A body of cross-national studies shows that (a) work stress is
common in many settings, and (b) levels of work stress are high in workers across contexts
when there is too much to do and when workers are faced with conflicting expectations in
conducting work tasks (Bhagat et al. 2010). Work-related stress is endemic in a diverse range of
western and nonwestern contexts, including the four countries from which data were collected
in this study: Canada (Statistics Canada 2003), England (Kerr et al. 2009), Hong Kong (Siu et
al. 2005), and Thailand (Thailand Department of Mental Health 2003). Cultural and national
context may influence commitment and self-efficacy. Felfe et al. (2008) found occupational
commitment to vary according to cultural value orientation, with individual valuing of collec-
tivism positively influencing workplace commitment, especially in culturally collectivist con-
texts. Modest attention has been paid to cross-national studies of teachers’ self-efficacy, with
recent studies pointing to more similarities than differences in the construct (e.g., Klassen et al.
2009). Cross-national studies of the effect of work stress on occupational commitment will
result in a more nuanced understanding of the ways in which preservice teachers’ stress can be
managed and the ways in which personal beliefs of self-efficacy influence the relationship.

Cultural norms across contexts Cultural norms and expectations influence how people
interact with each other and how they manage their motivations and emotions (Markus
and Kitayama 1991). Work-related motivations and emotions of preservice teachers may
emerge from common roots in classroom experiences that are similar across contexts, but
beliefs about autonomy, relationships, and expected behaviors at work are influenced by
1294 R. Klassen et al.

cultural beliefs inculcated early in life (Hofstede 2001). Hence, the way that motivations and
emotions interact with learning to teach across cultural contexts may be of interest to
researchers and policy makers. However, cultural dimensions are not monolithically asso-
ciated with conceptions of “western” and “eastern.” For example, Canada and England are
considered strongly individualistic settings where self is construed independently (Markus
and Kitayama 1991), but individuals range widely within each context. Hong Kong is more
individualistic than Thailand, but in both contexts, people rate their level of individualism
considerably lower than in Canada and England (Hofstede 2001). Our research knowledge
of teacher stress is better developed in western contexts than in nonwestern contexts.
In Canada, research on preservice and practicing teachers shows an inverse relationship
between work stress and commitment to the profession (e.g., Klassen and Chiu 2010; Klassen
and Chiu 2011). Evidence from England shows that preservice teachers experienced high levels
of stress from student behavior and workload, with overall work stress significantly correlated
with psychological distress (Chaplain 2008), and potentially with occupational commitment
and attrition (Kyriacou and Kunc 2007). In Hong Kong, the teaching stress of preservice
teachers is related to psychological distress and health concerns (Chan 2002). For practicing
teachers in Hong Kong, stress from students and workload are among the top sources of work
stress (Jin et al. 2008). To our knowledge, no research has been conducted on preservice
teachers’ stress in Thailand, but general workplace stress in Thailand is an increasing national
concern (Department of Mental Health 2003), as is teacher commitment and attrition (Office of
Civil Service Commission 2004). In spite of attention paid to preservice teacher stress and
commitment in single cultural contexts, there has been little attention paid to cross-cultural
investigations of work stress of in-service and preservice teachers.

Contributions of current study

In this study, we investigate how preservice teachers’ stress during the teaching practicum is
related to occupational commitment and also how beliefs in self-efficacy may mediate the
relationship between stress and commitment. The novel contributions of the study are
twofold: (a) samples of preservice teachers from four diverse contexts representing culturally
western and nonwestern societies are included, with 1,187 participants from Canada,
England, Hong Kong, and Thailand, and (b) a moderated mediation analysis approach using
path analysis and bootstrapping is used. The inclusion of diverse samples allows for
examination of similarities and differences across contexts and contributes new knowledge
about the universality and generalizability of preservice teachers’ stress, commitment, and
self-efficacy. Examining mediation using a bootstrapping approach is gaining traction in
educational psychology research, and its use is advocated by a growing number of method-
ologists (Preacher et al. 2007), especially for cases where indirect effects may vary across
groups (e.g., in cross-cultural research). The current study used bootstrapping mediation to
explore a series of hypotheses stemming from theory and previous research.

Research objectives and hypotheses The following hypotheses are informed by Bandura’s
(1997) self-efficacy theory and the job demands-resources model (Hakanen et al. 2006), and
by the extant research examining teachers’ stress, commitment, and self-efficacy beliefs:

H1a: Based on theory and previous research (e.g., Rots et al. 2007; Ware and Kitsantas
2007), teachers’ stress from student behavior is significantly related to occupational
commitment (negative relationship) across the four contexts.
Stress and commitment of preservice teachers 1295

H1b: Based on the assumption that the stress-commitment relationship is universal, we

predict that workload stress is significantly related to occupational commitment (neg-
ative relationship) across the four contexts.
H2: Based on theory and previous research (e.g., Bandura 1997; Chan et al. 2008), self-
efficacy is significantly related to occupational commitment (positive relationship)
across the four contexts
H3a: Based on theory and evidence of self-efficacy as a mediating factor (e.g., Bandura
1997; Chan et al. 2008; Ware and Kitsantas 2007), self-efficacy mediates the relation-
ship between student behavior stress and occupational commitment across the four
contexts. (Fig. 1 illustrates our proposed mediation model for the two forms of work
stress.)
H3b: Although no previous research has examined this relationship, based on self-
efficacy and job-demands resources theory (Bandura 1997; Hakanen et al. 2006), we
predict self-efficacy mediates the relationship between workload stress and occupation-
al commitment across the four contexts.
H3c: Based on Bandura’s claim that self-efficacy is a critical motivation factor across
cultural contexts (Bandura 1997), we predict the strength of the mediation effect is
similar across the four contexts.

Method

Participants and procedures

Participants were 1,187 preservice teachers from Canada,3 England, Hong Kong, and Thai-
land. Participants were asked to report gender, age, ethnicity, and teaching level (e.g.,
elementary or secondary school). Please see Table 1 for demographic details with regard
to sample sizes, gender, age, reported ethnicity, and teaching level.
All participants had participated in initial practice teaching experiences and were prepar-
ing for a final high-stakes practicum experience in their respective teacher education
programs. In each setting, one of the authors contacted instructors in teacher education
programs and requested the opportunity to present the study to classes of teacher education
students. Data were collected using self-report surveys in preservice education classes and
seminars preceding the final teaching practicum. Participants were given a brief introduction
to the project and were given time to complete the survey during the class or seminar.
Surveys were distributed to preservice teachers by the researchers or by research assistants.
Participants were volunteers who did not receive compensation for participating in the study;
participation rates were above 75 % in each context. Surveys were completed in English in
Canada, England, and Hong Kong. In Thailand, a three-step back translation process was
used in order to avoid item bias related to faulty translation (van de Vijver and Leung 1997).
First, the survey was translated from English to Thai by a bilingual translator who was fluent
in English and Thai. Second, the Thai language version was sent to another Thai bilingual
translator, who was also fluent in English and Thai, for back-translation from the Thai
language back into the English language. In the third step, the original and back-translation

3
The Canadian data were included in a previous study comparing preservice and practicing teacher motiva-
tion (Klassen and Chiu 2011).
1296 R. Klassen et al.

Table 1 Demographic information across four countries: gender, age, reported ethnicity, and teaching level

Country N Gender Mean age Self-reported ethnicities Teaching level

(female) (%) in years (SD)

Canada 379 76.5 24.3 (3.75) European Canadian 80.2 %; Secondary schools 38 %;
Asian Canadian 7.4 %; middle schools 3 %;
Other or not reported 12.4 % elementary schools 58 %
England 203 76 25.3 (4.79) White British 84 %; Secondary schools 72 %;
Asian 5 %; Other or primary schools 28 %
not reported 11 %
Hong Kong 211 62 24.5 (2.76) Chinese 100 % Secondary schools 79 %;
Elementary schools 21 %
Thailand 394 76 23.1 (.62) Thai 100 % Secondary schools 35 %; m%;
elementary schools 45 %

versions were compared by a committee of five university lecturers whose objective was to
validate the accuracy of the translation and avoid mistranslations, missing text, and other
translation errors. The process was completed before the Thai version of the survey was used
for the data collection.

Measures

Job stress Job stress was measured using items from the Teacher Stress Inventory (Boyle et
al. 1995), which showed that stress from student behavior and from workload were the two
major contributors to overall level of stress for teachers. Validity evidence for the measure
was shown by recent studies through exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis (Klassen
2010). Following the stem, What do you predict will be the greatest sources of teaching
stress for you?, participants completed a 9-point scale (10no stress to 90extreme stress)
with three items representing stress from student behavior (e.g., maintaining class disci-
pline) and four items representing workload stress (e.g., too much work to do).

Occupational commitment We used a recently validated measure of occupational commitment

that conceptualizes commitment as the level of motivation to work in a particular career role
(Hackett et al. 2001). According to Hackett et al. (2001), individuals who are high in occupa-
tional commitment should be more likely to devote greater energy to their careers, and be less
likely to leave the profession. Evidence of reliability and validity has been found in recent
studies using the measure (e.g., Klassen and Chiu 2011). Occupational commitment was
measured with six items measured on a 9-point scale: 10disagree strongly to 90agree strongly
(e.g., “This is the ideal profession for me”).

Self-efficacy The Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Scale (TSES) was created and validated by
Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001) and has been labeled “superior to previous
measures of teacher efficacy” because it is closely aligned with self-efficacy theory
(Woolfolk Hoy and Burke Spero 2005, p. 354). Researchers have investigated the TSES
measure in a variety of contexts and have found adequate reliability and validity (e.g.,
Klassen et al. 2009; Wolters and Daugherty 2007). The TSES short form includes 12
items assessing a range of self-efficacy beliefs about using effective instructional
strategies, maintaining class discipline, and engaging all students in learning (e.g.,
How much can you do to craft good questions for students? and How much can you
Stress and commitment of preservice teachers 1297

do to motivate students who show low interest in schoolwork?). Items in the measure
show fidelity to self-efficacy theory by assessing teachers’ beliefs in their capabilities to
carry out a course of desired action. Participants responded using a 9-point response
scale, anchored by “10nothing” to “90a great deal.”

Analyses

Our primary research question reflected a combined mediation and moderation model, by
asking, Does self-efficacy mediate the effect of stress on commitment across groups of
preservice teachers from different contexts? Moderated mediation occurs if a mediation
effect varies according to the value of a moderating variable; in other words, we wondered if
the mediating effect of self-efficacy varied as a function of the geo-cultural context of
preservice teachers.
We conducted nonparametric bootstrapping analyses with bias-corrected confidence
intervals (Cheung and Lau 2008; Preacher and Hayes 2008) using AMOS 16 (Arbuckle
2007) to conduct our tests of moderated mediation. The bootstrapping approach to analyzing
indirect effects is recommended by a growing number of researchers due to biased variance
and standard error estimates using conventional mediation approaches (e.g., Preacher et al.
2007; Shrout and Bolger 2002). In particular, conventional mediation approaches using
regression (e.g., Sobel’s test) frequently leads to misestimates of the confidence limits,
resulting in higher rates of type I errors (MacKinnon et al. 2004). Although the use of the
bootstrapping approach is recommended by measurement experts and is increasing (e.g.,
Preacher et al. 2007), it remains relatively less common than conventional mediation
techniques.
In bootstrapping analysis, the data are resampled multiple times (in our case, 10,000
resamples) in order to derive a pseudo-population that is assumed to be representative of the
broad populations from which the samples are drawn (Mallinckrodt et al. 2006). For
bootstrap mediation, mediation is significant if the 95 % confidence intervals (CI) for the
indirect effect do not include 0 (Preacher and Hayes 2008). Furthermore, with moderated
mediation bootstrapping, the path models in each context are tested for evidence of medi-
ation, the pairwise parameter comparisons test the significance of the path coefficients across
groups, and the indirect effects (i.e., mediation effects) are tested for statistical significance
across groups. Thus, this approach provides evidence of mediation within groups and
examines the relative strength of the mediation effect across groups. In light of some readers’
unfamiliarity with bootstrapping approaches to mediation, we also provide results from
conventional regression (Sobel’s test using z-statistics) mediation analyses for comparative
purposes.

Results

Reliabilities and mean differences across contexts

In Table 2, we present descriptive data, e.g., reliabilities, means, standard deviations, and
bivariate correlations, for study variables for the combined samples, plus for samples from
each of the four contexts. Reliability coefficients were moderate-to-acceptable in all con-
texts, with strong reliabilities for commitment, self-efficacy, and student behavior stress
(Cronbach α0.79 and above), and moderate reliability coefficients for workload stress in
1298 R. Klassen et al.

each of the four contexts (Cronbach α’s from .65 to .73). George and Mallery (2003) suggest
alpha coefficients above .9 are “excellent,” between .8 and .9 are “good,” between .7 and .8
“acceptable,” and from .6 to .7 “questionable” (p. 231). Although most of the reliability
coefficients in this study were deemed “good” (9 of 16), 3 of the coefficients—all workload
stress—fell in the upper half of the “questionable” range.

Correlations

The bivariate correlations among the variables (see Table 2) generally showed similar
directions and magnitudes among participants from the four contexts, thus adding evidence
of validity of the measures.4 Stress from student behavior was significantly and negatively
correlated with commitment in all four contexts, thus supporting H1a. Workload stress was
significantly and negatively correlated with commitment in all four contexts, thus providing
support for H1b. Self-efficacy was significantly and positively associated with occupational
commitment in all four contexts, thus supporting H2. The relationship between workload
stress and self-efficacy was negative and weak in Canadian and Thai contexts, but positive
and weak in English and Hong Kong contexts. The difference between the correlations (i.e.,
Canada and Thailand compared to England and Hong Kong) was significant using Fisher Z-
transformations, p<.05. Overall, the bivariate correlations showed similar patterns (direction
and strength) among the four contexts, suggesting that the variables show similar bivariate
relationships in each context. We also tested the bivariate correlations among the key
variables as a function of teaching level (elementary, middle, and secondary schools) using
Fisher’s Z-transformation tests, with no significant differences found in any of the contexts.

Mediation analysis

We hypothesized that self-efficacy would mediate the relationship between job stress and
occupational commitment across the four contexts (H3a, H3b, and H3c). In Tables 3 and 4
(and in Fig. 1), path a represents the direct effect (unstandardized coefficient) of student
behavior/workload stress on self-efficacy, path b represents the effect of self-efficacy on
commitment, and path c represents the effect of stress on commitment. In general, the path
coefficients were similar in direction and magnitude across contexts. Note that participants
in England displayed a (nonsignificant) positive relationship between workload stress and
self-efficacy (path a), whereas participants from the other three contexts reported the
expected inverse relationship. The total effects (not reported, but computed by adding the
path c direct effects from Tables 3 and 4 and the indirect effects from Tables 5 and 6) were
significant in each context.
Tests of the indirect or mediation effects are presented in Tables 5 and 6. Table 5 shows
the indirect (mediation) effects of student behavior job stress on commitment, using boot-
strapping mediation, with conventional regression mediation results using Sobel’s test
provided for comparison. In our bootstrap analyses, the mediation effect is significant if
the 95 % bias corrected confidence intervals (CIs) for the indirect effect do not include 0
(Preacher and Hayes 2004). The bootstrapping mediation results show partial support for
H4a (self-efficacy mediates the effect of student behavior stress on commitment) and H4b
(self-efficacy mediates the effect of workload stress on commitment).

4
Note that due to the large overall sample size, even modest correlation coefficients may be marked as
statistically significant.
Stress and commitment of preservice teachers 1299

Table 2 Reliabilities, means, standard deviations, and correlations for commitment, self-efficacy, and two
sources of stress in Canada, England, Hong Kong, and Thailand

Measure α M SD 1 2 3

All contexts (country partialled out) (n01,187)

Commitment .85 4.71 .96 –
Self-efficacy .93 8.11 1.29 .36** –
Student behavior stress .82 1.74 .54 −.25** −.18** –
Workload stress .73 2.42 .66 −.32** −.10** .54**
Canada (n0379)
Commitment .88 4.92 .94 –
Self-efficacy .89 8.80 .92 .35** -
Student behavior stress .80 1.63 .48 −.21** −.22** –
Workload stress .68 2.59 .57 −.32** −.10* .41**
England (n0203)
Commitment .86 5.01 .85 –
Self-efficacy .87 8.80 .90 .30** –
Student behavior stress .83 1.89 .50 −.20* −.27** –
Workload stress .65 2.55 .56 −.18** .10 .42**
Hong Kong (n0211)
Commitment .83 4.00 .85 –
Self-efficacy .92 7.19 1.20 .16* –
Student behavior stress .85 1.99 .47 −.23** −.10
Workload stress .71 2.71 .54 −.17* .17* .35**
Thailand (n0394)
Commitment .79 4.74 .89 –
Self-efficacy .92 7.59 1.27 .31** –
Student behavior stress .83 1.62 .58 −.19** −.10* –
Workload stress .68 2.03 .67 −.27** −.11* .65**

**p<.01; *p<.05

In three out of four contexts, participants’ level of stress from student behavior was
significantly mediated through self-efficacy beliefs, with no mediation effect observable in
the Hong Kong sample. An examination of the conventional regression-based mediation
analyses (using Sobel’s test) shows similar findings, with significant results in three out of
four contexts, but no significant mediation effect in the Hong Kong sample. Testing of the
mediation hypothesis across groups (pairwise parameter comparisons) revealed significant
differences (i.e., moderated mediation) between Canada and Hong Kong (z0−3.23, p<.001).
Table 6 presents the mediation effects of workload stress on commitment with brief
results from conventional regression approaches provided for comparison. Compared to the
mediating effect of self-efficacy on the student behavior stress–commitment relationship, the
mediating effect of self-efficacy on workload stress–commitment relationship was less
pronounced, with marginally significant mediating effects in three of four contexts, and no
significant effect for participants from England. Results from the regression (Sobel) medi-
ation analyses revealed only one marginally significant mediating effect (Thailand, p0.04).
Testing of the bootstrapped mediation model across groups using pairwise parameter
comparisons (moderated mediation) revealed significant differences for the mediation model
1300 R. Klassen et al.

Table 3 Estimates of unstandardized coefficients for mediation model for the effect of job stress from student
behavior on commitment through self-efficacy in four contexts

Country Path

SB stress⇒self-efficacy Self-efficacy⇒commitment SB stress⇒commitment

(path a) (path b) (path c)

B SE B SE B SE

Canada −.41** .10 .32** .05 −.28** .09

England −.48** .12 .25** .06 −.22 .12
Hong Kong −.25 .18 .10* .05 −.40** .12
Thailand −.22* .11 .21** .03 −.24** .07

Unstandardized regression weights: e.g., for Canadian participants, when stress goes up by 1, self-efficacy
declines by .41
SB student behavior
*p<.05; **p<.01

between participants from Canada and Hong Kong (z0−2.76, p<.01), and between Canada and
Thailand (z0−2.10, p<.05), as well as between England and Hong Kong (z0−2.1, p<.05).
Thus, H4c (the mediation model with self-efficacy mediating the effect of work stress on
commitment is the same across contexts) was not supported.

Discussion

The results from our study show that in some contexts, self-efficacy beliefs lower the
adverse impact of stress on occupational commitment. We based our study on the premise
that developing an understanding of the work-related stress of preservice teachers is impor-
tant because high levels of work stress are related to negative professional outcomes,
including quitting intentions, for workers in many settings (e.g., Hakanen et al. 2006; Conley
and You 2009). Based on theory and previous research, we proposed a series of hypotheses

Table 4 Estimates of unstandardized coefficients for mediation model for the effect of job stress from
workload on commitment through self-efficacy in four contexts

Country Path

WL stress⇒self-efficacy Self-efficacy⇒commitment WL stress⇒commitment

(path a) (path b) (path c)

b SE b SE b SE

Canada −.17* .08 .32** .05 −.47** .08

England .16 .11 .30** .06 −.32** .10
Hong Kong .38** .15 .14** .05 −.32** .11
Thailand −.21* .10 .20** .03 −.32** .06

Unstandardized regression weights

WL workload
*p<.05; **p<.01
Stress and commitment of preservice teachers 1301

Table 5 Results of bootstrap mediation analysis of the effect of job stress from student behavior on
occupational commitment through pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy

Country Bootstrapping mediation Sobel mediation

Indirect effect SE p value BC 95 % CI Sobel’s Z SE p value

Lower Upper
Canada −.13 .04 <.001 −.21 −.08 −3.64** .04 < .001
England −.12 .05 <.001 −.21 −.06 −2.77** .04 .004
Hong Kong −.03 .02 .11 −.08 .00 −1.14 .02 .25
Thailand −.05 .02 .04 −.09 −.01 −1.92** .02 .05

Indirect effect is unstandardized coefficient; 10,000 bootstrap samples

BC bias corrected

about the relationships among study variables and about a mediation model where self-
efficacy mediates the effects of stress from student behavior and workload on occupational
commitment. Results supported some, but not all, hypotheses. Although there were similar-
ities in the patterns of the descriptive and mediation results across contexts, the differences
were notable enough to raise questions about the universality of the linkages between stress
in teaching and occupational commitment.

Support for JD-R theory

The results from the study provide partial support for the theories used to frame the research.
In support of JD-R theory, preservice teachers’ self-efficacy served as a resource that
mediated the effect of work demands (stress) on occupational commitment. In congruence
with self-efficacy theory (Bandura 1997), preservice teachers’ self-efficacy was inversely
related (weakly) to stress from student behavior, but not as clearly related to workload stress.
Cultural context was associated with differences in the relationships among variables: The
JD-R model was not clearly supported in the Hong Kong sample, and moderated mediation
tests showed cross-cultural variations in the operationalized model. One possible interpre-
tation of the lack of support for the JD-R model across cultural contexts is our choice of job
resource—teachers’ self-efficacy—in cultural contexts where collectivist-oriented

Table 6 Results of bootstrap mediation analysis of the effect of job stress from workload on occupational
commitment through pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy

Country Bootstrapping mediation Sobel mediation

Indirect effect SE p value BC 95 % CI Sobel’s Z SE p value

Lower Upper
Canada −.05 .03 .05 −.11 −.01 −1.91 .03 .06
England .05 .04 .19 −.01 .12 1.39 .03 .16
Hong Kong .05 .03 .01 .02 .11 1.88 .03 .06
Thailand −.04 .02 .02 −.08 −.01 −2.10 .02 .04

Indirect effect is unstandardized coefficient; 10,000 bootstrap samples

BC bias corrected
1302 R. Klassen et al.

motivations may be more salient. Indeed, previous research has shown that teachers’ collective
efficacy beliefs play a mediating role on stress and satisfaction in the workplace across cultural
contexts (Klassen 2010; Klassen et al. 2010). Future studies investigating the JD-R in school
contexts would do well to include individual and collective beliefs as mediators.

Support for self-efficacy theory

The bivariate relationships between study variables were similar across contexts (supporting
hypotheses 2a, 2b, and 3). However, differences were seen in the relationships between
workload stress and self-efficacy across contexts, with positive relationships in two contexts
—England and Hong Kong—and negative relationships in Canada and Thailand. The bivariate
relationship was modest in all contexts (strongest in Hong Kong: r0.17, p<.05). In a study
conducted in Hong Kong, Chan (2002) found preservice teachers’ self-efficacy and stress to be
uncorrelated (r0.01), and suggested that teaching self-efficacy and stress are independent.
Previous research (e.g., Glazer and Beehr 2005; Liu et al. 2007) have pointed out that job
stress varies according to cultural setting and values and that, in some contexts, stress is
conceptualized as a desirable aspect of work life. Bong (2003) notes that in a Korean context,
teachers may feel high levels of work stress that are complemented by high levels of self-
efficacy; that is, for high performing teachers, efficacy beliefs can operate in tandem with high
levels of stress when professional goals and expectations are very high. Our results suggest that
the relationship between self-efficacy and stress from workload is more ambiguous than the
relationship between self-efficacy and stress from student behavior. More work is needed to
parse the relationship between diverse stressors in the workplace and individual teacher’s self-
efficacy and to understand how the relationship is influenced by teaching context.

Mediating effect of self-efficacy We predicted (H3a, 3b, and 3c) that self-efficacy would
mediate the relationship between stress and commitment across contexts. The mediating
effect of self-efficacy on the stress–commitment relationship was more pronounced for
student behavior stress than workload stress. Preservice teachers may be more familiar with
workload stress from their studies in university or from work in other contexts, but the stress
from managing entire classes of students is a challenging and novel experience for most
beginning teachers. As Chaplain (2008) points out, stress from managing student behavior is
hardly a new phenomenon, and considerable efforts have been made in most teacher
preparation programs to provide preservice teachers with tools to understand how to manage
the classroom environment. However, our mediation model provides additional directions
for understanding the mechanisms underlying the stress–commitment relationship, with
participants with higher self-efficacy beliefs less likely to connect the inevitable stress from
student behavior to lowered commitment to the teaching profession. Self-efficacy is a
powerful influence on behavior (Bandura 1997) and plays a critical role as a job resource
that reduces job demands (Hakanen et al. 2006). Early success for preservice teachers in
learning to manage challenging students’ behaviors is crucial, since successes raise self-
efficacy appraisals and failures lower them. Once established, self-efficacy beliefs are
difficult to change (Bandura 1997).

Contextual differences

Self-efficacy did not significantly mediate stress from student behavior for Hong Kong
participants, and there was no significant mediation effect for self-efficacy on the workplace
Stress and commitment of preservice teachers 1303

stress–commitment relationship for preservice teachers from England. Although we did not
measure cultural dimensions of participants, we propose that the mediating effect of self-
efficacy may operate differently according to contextual factors including, but not limited to,
country or cultural background, characteristics of teacher preparation programs, education
systems in each context, characteristics of schools hosting preservice teachers in each
context, gender of participants, and school level (i.e., primary or secondary). Previous
researchers have noted that cultural factors may influence how workers cope with workplace
stress (Muhonen and Torkelson 2008) and that the cultural dimensions of uncertainty
avoidance and individualism/collectivism indirectly influence teachers’ commitment to the
profession (Razak et al. 2010). Our results provide evidence that models examining the
influence of work stress on occupational commitment are influenced by contextual factors
that will require additional investigation to tease apart.

Implications for teacher education

Results from this study and from previous research (e.g., Ware and Kitsantas 2007) suggest
that self-efficacy beliefs provide a protective shield against low commitment and teacher
attrition. If that is the case, how then can these beliefs be fostered in novice teachers?
Bandura (1997) proposes four sources of self-efficacy—mastery experiences, vicarious
experiences, verbal persuasion, and affective states—with mastery experiences providing
the strongest influence on efficacy beliefs. The first step to build self-efficacy in preservice
teachers is to provide opportunities for successful teaching experiences early on in a teacher
education program. In our anecdotal experience, initial practicum placements are often
guided by expedience rather than by a careful matching of the strengths and weaknesses
of the preservice teacher and characteristics of the practicum placement. In particular, careful
attention paid by teacher educators and teacher mentors to develop preservice teachers’
capabilities in managing overall workload and student behavior will build self-efficacy
beliefs, and thereby reduce the impact of stress on occupational commitment. A gradual
entry into full-time teaching duties during teaching practice may increase the opportunities
for successful experiences and subsequent enhanced self-efficacy, and reduce the impact of
teaching stress on occupational commitment. However, it should be noted that the influence
of self-efficacy on work stress may vary according to context and any intervention attempts
must be based in local contexts and expectations. Chan (2003) calls for teacher education
programs (in Hong Kong and elsewhere) to explicitly address stress management techniques
in preservice teachers: We extend Chan’s call by suggesting that teacher education programs
must (a) explicitly discuss the key types of stress (from student behavior and workload) and
(b) focus on developing strategies to manage student behavior and the subsequent stress.
Feelings of stress from workload may be inevitable for preservice teachers and generally
immune from the mediating effects of self-efficacy. However, preservice teachers’ stress
from student behavior—the most stressful element of the most stressful component of the
teacher training program (Chaplain 2008)—may be reduced by building the skills that will
develop the sources of strong self-efficacy beliefs.

Limitations of the study

Our findings are limited by our use of self-report data collected at one time point. It would be
interesting and useful, for example, to use longitudinal methodologies to tease out the causal
direction of the relationships among variables. In addition, the use of physiological measures
of stress would provide strong evidence of objective levels of work stress (e.g., Bellingrath
1304 R. Klassen et al.

et al. 2009), although how a person cognitively processes, interprets, and self-reports
physiological stimuli (such as those associated with anxiety) is an important indicator of
motivation and behavior (e.g., Bandura 1997). Although the model tested in this article was
based on theory postulating that self-efficacy serves as a job resource that mediates how
stress influences work commitment, other models may also serve to explain the relationship
among the variables of interest, and other variables, such as beliefs in school-wide collective
efficacy (e.g., Klassen 2010), personality (Kokkinos 2007), and organizational support
(Kyriacou 2001) have been postulated as mediators of teachers’ work stress.
Our samples from four contexts were samples of convenience, and although the samples
were homogeneous with regards to career (i.e., teaching), career stage (i.e., preservice
teachers anticipating the practicum), and age, they differed in important ways. For example,
we made assumptions about cultural differences based on previous theory and research (e.g.,
Hofstede 2001), but did not measure cultural beliefs, which vary within countries as well as
across countries. The broad category of country represents many possible variations of
demographics, culture, and experiences. For example, teacher education programs vary
within countries, as well as between countries, and our discussion of country-based differ-
ences may reflect differences of regions or programs within countries. The samples from the
four countries were enrolled in a range of teacher education programs and varied in the
proportions of preservice teachers working in elementary, middle, and secondary schools,
and although we tested for differences among key variables for teaching level, the results
from the study need to be cautiously interpreted. Finally, the reliability of the workplace
stress measure was not optimal, ranging from .65 to .71, with a mean alpha of .68. A more
reliable measure of teachers’ workplace stress would benefit future research.

Future research

Although feelings of stress may be common in teaching, our study shows that self-efficacy
beliefs influence the stress–commitment relationship. We included two stress factors—
student behavior and workload—but preservice teachers also experience stress from other
sources, including students’ lack of effort in class, coping with changing policies, percep-
tions of lack of support, and relationships with colleagues and parents (e.g., Chaplain 2008;
Geving 2007; Kyriacou 2001). Further studies of mediators of preservice teacher stress
should include additional sources of work stress. For preservice teachers, the novelty and
excitement of teaching is accompanied by feelings of stress, and the ways in which novice
teachers learn to cope with teaching stress may differ from the ways in which veteran
teachers learn to cope with stress. Kyriacou (2001) suggests that school administration and
staff can assist in building a healthy school climate by focusing on building communication
among staff, building collegiality, and providing timely feedback and praise. Intervention
studies that focus on reducing preservice teachers’ stress using theory-based approaches
(e.g., using the sources of self-efficacy to build teaching self-efficacy) would be welcomed.
Bandura (1997) provides some direction for intervention approaches: “treatments that
eliminate emotional arousal (i.e., stress reactions) to subjective threats heighten perceived
self-efficacy with corresponding improvements in performance” (p. 401). Finally, admin-
istrators and university staff who supervise preservice teachers should be aware of the ways
in which the job of teaching is dynamic and that teachers’ jobs are changing: Klassen and
Anderson (2009) used a historical comparative approach to show how the sources of
teachers’ satisfaction and dissatisfaction changed dramatically from 1962 to 2007. Twenge
and Campbell (2008) suggest that the newest generation of workers are psychologically
more vulnerable than previous generations and are more prone to workplace stress, anxiety,
Stress and commitment of preservice teachers 1305

and burnout than previous generations of workers. Studies that investigate how the sources
of job stress are changing for recent generations of preservice teachers would be beneficial
for researchers and for those who educate new teachers.

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Robert Klassen. Department of Educational Psychology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
T6G 2G5. E-mail: robert.klassen@york.ac.uk; Web site: http://www.edpsychology.ualberta.ca/

Current themes of research:

Robert Klassen is currently researching behavioral indicators of teachers’ motivation, engagement, and
interactions with students. Motivation of teachers and students. Adolescents.

Most relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education:

Klassen, R. M., Perry, N. E., & Frenzel, A. (2012). Teachers’ relatedness with students: An underemphasized
aspect of teachers’ basic psychological needs. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104, 150–165.
Klassen, R. M., & Chiu, M. M. (2011). The occupational commitment and intention to quit of practicing and pre-
service teachers: Influence of self-efficacy, job stress, and teaching context. Contemporary Educational
Psychology, 36, 114–129.

Elaine Wilson. Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge, 184 Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 8PQ, UK.
E-mail: ew208@cam.ac.uk; Web site: http://www.educ.cam.ac.uk/

Current themes of research:

Teacher identity and agency.

Most relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education:

Wilson, E., & Deaney, R. (2010). Changing career and changing identity: How do teachercareer changers
exercise agency in identity construction? Social Psychology of Education,13, 169–183.
1308 R. Klassen et al.

Angela F. Y. Siu. Department of Educational Psychology, Room 208, Ho Tim Building, Chinese University
of Hong Kong, Ma Liu Shui, Hong Kong. E-mail: afysiu@cuhk.edu.hk

Current themes of research:

Emotional development of children.

Most relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education:

Siu, A. F. Y., & Tse, C. S. (2012). Effect of ability grouping on coping strategies and selfesteem of Hong Kong
primary school students. Asia Pacific Education Researcher.

Wanwisa Hannok. Department of Educational Psychology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta,

Canada T6G 2G5. Web site: http://www.edpsychology.ualberta.ca/

Current themes of research:

Adolescent motivation and cultural comparisons.

Most relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education:

Klassen, R. M., Al-Dhafri, S., Hannok, W., & Betts, S. M. (2011). Investigating pre-service teacher motivation
across cultures using the Teachers’ Ten Statements Test. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27, 579–588.

Marina W. Wong. David Lam Building, Department of Education Studies, Hong Kong Baptist University,
Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong. E-mail: marina@hkbu.edu.hk

Current themes of research:

Teacher education.

Most relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education:

Wong, M. W. (2011). Adapted action research as an instructional strategy in a music teacher education
program in Hong Kong. Music Education Research, 13(2), 107–120.

Nongkran Wongsri. Saint Louis College, Bangkok, Thailand. E-mail: nongkran@saintlouis.or.th

Current themes of research:

Motivation of students.

Most relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education:

Wongsri, N. (2011). Psychology and lifelong learning. Center for Research and Academic Innovation of Saint
Louis College, Bangkok, Thailand.

Panwadee Sonthisap. Saint Louis College, Bangkok, Thailand

Current themes of research:

Student personality.
Stress and commitment of preservice teachers 1309

Chaleosri Pibulchol. Srinakharinwirot University, 114 Sukhumvit 23, Wattana District, Bangkok 10110,
Thailand. Web site: http://www.swu.ac.th/en/

Current themes of research:

Teaching and learning strategies.

Yanisa Buranachaitavee. Srinakharinwirot University, 114 Sukhumvit 23, Wattana District, Bangkok 10110,
Thailand. Web site: http://www.swu.ac.th/en/

Current themes of research:

Teachers’ motivation.

Anchalee Jansem. Srinakharinwirot University, 114 Sukhumvit 23, Wattana District, Bangkok 10110,
Thailand. Web site: http://www.swu.ac.th/en/

Current themes of research:

Reflective teaching.