RASĀ’IL IKHWĀN AL-ṢAFĀ: A DISSECTION OF MEDIEVAL MUSLIMS’

CONTRIBUTION TO PHILOSOPHY

Sulaiman Adewale Alagunfon1* and Razaq Adeoye Ajibade2

1
Department of Religious Studies, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
2
Department of Arabic and Islamic Studies, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
Correspondence: sulaimanalagunfon191@yahoo.com / +2348026788438

Abstract

Seeing through reason has been the characteristic of Muslims over the years. This indeed
contributed immensely to their philosophical thinking even before the medieval ages. Rasā’il
Ikhwān al-Ṣafā (Epistles of the Brethren of Purity) provide a further testimony to this fact.
Despite the overbearing influence of the society and the environment, Ikhwān al-Ṣafā
philosophically designed the right values to lead their lives in line with their unique inclinations
and aspirations. Therefore, in attempt to dissect medieval Islamic contribution to philosophy,
this paper examines the historical background of Ikhwān al-Ṣafā, their real identity and their
philosophical thoughts as contained in their epistles. Using descriptive method of research, the
paper also studies their modus operandi and the influence of their philosophical thoughts
enshrined in the Rasa‟il on the later generations.

Keywords: Ikhwān al-Ṣafā, Islam, Muslim Philosophers, Philosophy, Rasā’il.

Introduction aspect of the group are meagre and the little

In the first half of the 4th century of Islam,
corresponding to the last quarter of the 10th
century CE, some anonymous people
organised themselves and formed a group.
This group tried to liberate themselves from
the traditional beliefs of Islamic religion
and introduced their own version of what
they believed to have been the authentic
belief. Their nomenclature was Ikhwān al-
Ṣafā (The Brethren of Purity or the Sincere
Brothers). This group later had numerous
influences on the Islamic doctrines of later
generations in both medieval and modern
times (cf. Ozkan 2016; Ebstein 2015; Fierro
1996).
There have been commendable scholastic
efforts diligently expended to ascertain the
real identity and objectives of this group.
However, things said about this identity
information we have got only mention them
en passen and/or run a deductive critique
on their work called Rasā’il Ikhwān al-Ṣafā
during which some of their views may or
may not be discussed and which is,
normally, done in a way suitable for such
researcher to attribute or put it face-to-face
with common issues. By this, the Rasā’il
Ikhwān al-Ṣafā is even more popular than
the writer(s) themselves, and if not for the
name of the group that is embedded in the
title of the book, no one would have,
probably, engaged in effortful search about
their identity. This, however, puts a limit,
not only to the amount of knowledge we
may gain from the lives and activities of
this important group, but also to how we
can understand their influence on the later
generation of medieval and modern people.

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY, GASHUA, YOBE STATE – NIGERIA

Gashua Journal of Sciences and Humanities
Vol. 2, Issue 2: pp. 165 – 173
Alagunfoni and Ajibade, Rasá’il Ikhwán…, GJSH (2016). Vol. 2(2): pp. 165 - 173 ISSN: 2489-0049
It is therefore the aim of this work to
extensively examine this „identity‟ issue
and see to what extent the Ikhwān al-Ṣafā
was able to contribute to Philosophie
Islamicus vis-à-vis the influence they
wielded on the later generation. These are
done by tracing the history of their
emergence and activities in the medieval
period of Islam and by critically analysing
their prominent work, Rasā’il Ikhwān al-
Ṣafā (Epistles of the Brethren of Purity,
henceforth Rasā’il). The endeavour, which
will make it possible to comprehend some
of their views and the inspiration they put
in the minds of the later generations.
Ikhwān al-Ṣafā: Historical Background
Their full name is Ikhwān al-Ṣafā wa
Khillān al-Wafā wa Ahl al-‘Adl wa Abnā’
al-Ḥamd or wa Ahl al-Ḥamd wa Abnā’ al-
Majd (the Brethren of Purity, loyal friends,
just and sons of praise or the people of
praise and sons of glory). Why they chose
this name remains obscure. It can, however,
be deduced that they derived it from the
popular philosophy book titled Kalīlah wa
Dimnah, a book they admired a lot
(Farrukh, 2013:10). In one of the stories of
Kalīlah wa Dimnah, the narrator, when
describing the adventure of a ringdove,
mentioned the name “Ikhwān al-Ṣafā” and
further describes them and their attributes.
He also exemplifies it with the encounter of
some animals with a hunter (cf. Ibn al-
Muqaffa„ (trans.), 1937:177).
Ikhwān al-Ṣafā have been referred to, as
pointed out by al-Alūsī, as an illusionary
group pictured by an individual. In other
words, it is an individual who writes using
the name as his penname. Meanwhile, al-
Alusi refuted this and argued that, it is a
group of people who organised themselves
and formed a clandestine club during the
medieval period of Islam. This former view
has also been refuted by majority of
scholars due to the fact that the protagonists
of the view usually mention the name of
one prominent member of the group as the
author of the encyclopaedic Rasā’il. This
refutation is based on the premise that it
166
does not matter who the author(s) were, the
fact remains that the book was produced by
the Ikhwān al-Ṣafā (Alūsī, 1981:161).
Therefore, to go by the latter‟s view is
common-sensical as it had a real basis
considering the meaning of the name itself.
Scholars such as Hamdani (1989) and Van
Dyk (1896) have traced the origin of the
Ikhwān al-Ṣafā to al-Baṣrah, a prominent
city of Iraq established in 636CE and later
became an important citadel of learning and
intellectual centre in Islamic eras across the
ages. They are, according to them, a group
of intelligentsias who formed a secret club
for two reasons, one of which is political
and the other religious or, to use the
language of the Ikhwān al-Ṣafā themselves,
spiritual (Ikhwān al-Ṣafā, 2014:617).
Ikhwān al-Ṣafā started their underground
movement in Baṣrah around 4th/10th
century. The spiritual aim of the group is to
reform all the souls of their contemporary
people, though, in gradual process with
which Allah reveals to His prophets and
also the medium which the Prophets also
adopted in introducing Islam to their
people. Those reformed souls will then
serve as the ideal resource persons for the
second goal, which is to form an ideal
Islamic state. They referred to this Islamic
state as Dawlah Ahl al-Khayr (State of the
Charity People) as opposed to Dawlah Ahl
al-Sharr (State of the Bad People) (Ibid:
691). Even if we could not categorically say
that Ikhwān al-Ṣafā is ideologically
conglomerated with the present-day Ikhwān
al-Muslimīn (Muslim Brotherhood)
(Martin, 2004:345-348), the political
ambitions of the Ikhwān al-Ṣafā may be
likened, on the one hand with the struggle
of the Muslim Brotherhood to establish an
ideal Islamic state in the Arab world. On
the other hand, the major aim of the Ikhwān
al-Ṣafā is to build a spiritual city and not
necessarily the practical and democratic
one as we have it today. To achieve their
Alagunfoni and Ajibade, Rasá’il Ikhwán…, GJSH (2016). Vol. 2(2): pp. 165 - 173 ISSN: 2489-0049
twofold aim, Ikhwān al-Ṣafā secretly
organised themselves in group, which
mostly comprises youths. These youths
were initiated to what Farrukh (2013:5)
referred to as ethico-spiritual views. After
this organisation had been successfully set
up, Ikhwān al-Ṣafā started writing articles
and books that will later become their
manifestoes and constitutional guide. The
prominent of these write-ups is the Rasā’il.
Most of the members of Ikhwān al-Ṣafā are
from the grassroots. They mapped out some
modalities for who joins the group and who
does not and they internally screen people
with these modalities. They organised
meetings for the members, which holds
fortnightly or every twelfth day. During
their meetings, they share political and
spiritual thoughts with their members and
discuss the strategies in realizing their goals
(Brill, 186:1071-1076). Despite all these
ambitions and high sense of organisation,
there have not been any accounts of
rebellious or revolutionary movement or
demonstration carried out by them during
the time. Nevertheless, they have the
intention that one day their ideas and
theories will dominate the world and
constitute major, if not all, parts of the
world‟s polities (Farrukh, 2013:41).
Ikhwān al-Ṣafā‟s group was organised in
hierarchies which were segmented into four
divisions according to the age of the
members and their would-be
responsibilities. The first segment is the
group of younger ones. Members of this
group are between fifteen and twenty-nine
years of age. They are called al-Abrār wa’l-
Ruḥamā’ (righteous and merciful people).
Their duty is to act as craftsmen who brings
about new ideas to the society. In the
second segment are those in their thirties.
They are called al-Akhyār wa’l-Fuḍalā’
(good and eminent people). Their duty is to
assist the Abrār and guide them. They also
serve as the political leaders of the society.
The third segment are those in their forties
and they are named al-Fuḍalā’ al-Kirām
167
(the generous and respected ones). For
someone to be in this hierarchy, he must
have acquainted himself with theological
and ideological codes of the group. This set
of people are eligible to be the Kings of the
world since they possess knowledge and
experience, as the philosopher-king in the
Platonic view (Bloom, 1991). The last
category is for al-Mu‘allimūn or al-
Muqarrabūn ’ilā Allah (the teachers or
those who are close to Allah). The members
of this group are in their fifties and their
membership, goes up without age
limitation. The members of this group have
the potentials to be “Prophets” or
“Philosophers”. Based on this, Prophets Īsā
and Muhammad (May Allah be pleased
with them) were regarded by the Ikhwān to
be in this category (al-Bustānī, 1405AH: 7-
11). However, the question here remains
how do we determine the Ikhwān‟s linkage
between age and duty or potentials if both
Prophets Īsā (Jesus) and Muhammad are in
this last category with the fact that their
ages as at the time of their prophet hood are
lower than the one prescribed by the
Ikhwān? For this, one notices the influence
of the ancient Greek philosophy in this
Ikhwān‟s segmentation, as it owes too
much resemblance to Plato‟s division in
The Republic.
Ikhwān al-Ṣafā were generally regarded as
Muslims, but with special inclination to the
philosophy of the ancient Greek. They
strived to reconcile between the Islamic
creeds and philosophical sciences of the
Greek. By this, they believed, Islam of their
time is entangled and therefore not the ideal
one. They proposed that it can only be
liberated through philosophy, after which it
will be complete (al-Tawhidi, 2003:162-
170). This led them to reconcile their own
interpretations of all the religious sciences
of their time with philosophical knowledge.
The real identity of Ikhwān al-Ṣafā
remained unknown until the time of Abu
Hayyān al-Tawḥīdī, who mentioned the
names of their prominent members in his
al-Imtā‘ wal Mu’ānasah (Hamdani,
Alagunfoni and Ajibade, Rasá’il Ikhwán…, GJSH (2016). Vol. 2(2): pp. 165 - 173 ISSN: 2489-0049
1978:345-353). The names mentioned in
this book are Abū Sulaymān Muhammad b.
Ma'shar al-Bustī also known as al-
Muqaddisī, Abū al-Ḥasan 'Alī b. Hārūn al-
Zanjānī, Abū Ahmad al-Mihrajānī, and
Zayd b. Rifā„ah al-'Awqī (al-Tawhidi,
2003:163). Since al-Tawhīdī provided us
with the list, there have been efforts to
identify the members and most especially
the author(s) of the Rasā’il. The names of
both al-Muqaddisī and al-Zanjānī are most
of the time referred to, with the former
superseding the latter in terms of
popularity, as the major writers of the work
(Hamdani, 1978:348).
The reason behind the hidden identity of
the Ikhwān is also not clear. However, there
is claim that Ikhwān al-Ṣafā hid their
identity in order for people not to identify
them as adherents of Ismaīlī doctrines
(Tibawi, 1978:57-67 as cited by Fares,
2012:20-21). They have been also noted for
hiding their true identity as members of the
Ismaili sect. Nevertheless, their inclination
to the doctrines of the Ismaīlī Shia is
discernible in their philosophical and
religious theories to the extent that through
their epistles, a greater influence on a
subgroup of Ismaīlī sect appears to be very
visible as will be discussed later in this
work.
Works of Ikhwān al-Ṣafā
The Ikhwān al-Ṣafā produced many works,
all of which centred on their philosophical
and religious doctrines. Despite the
evidences of influence of Greek
philosophers seen in their writings, they
also drew some views from virtually all
religions of their time such as Christianity,
Buddhism, Zoroastrianism and definitely
Islam (Hamdani, 1989:99). The most
prominent of their works as earlier
mentioned is the Rasā’il Ikhwān al-Ṣafā.
Also to their credit are al-Jāmi„ah (a
general book), which is a summary of
168
Rasā’il Ikhwān al-Ṣafā and Jāmi‘ah al-
Jāmi‘ah which is a condensed version of
al-Jāmi‘ah and it is often referred to as
Zubdah min Rasā’il Ikhwān al-Ṣafā
(Extract from the Epistles of the Brethren
of the Purity) or al-Risalah al-Jami‘ah
(Farrukh, 2013:11). It is important to note
that the summaries and condensations they
made in their writings were to simplify and
make their knowledge accessible to all and
sundry in their contemporary society. the
case however turned out to be in reverse
(Ikhwan al-Safa, 2014:831).
Rasā’il Ikhwān al-Ṣafā: An Overview
The Rasā’il Ikhwān al-Ṣafā is an
encyclopaedia of the Ikhwān‟s views,
opinions and interpretations of their
religious standpoints. It consists of Fifty-
two (52) epistles preceded by a fourteen-
page content analysis of virtually all the
epistles and caudated with al-Jāmi‘ah, an
abridged version which summarised the
whole book. The Rasā’il is divided into
four divisions namely Riyāḍiyyah
Ta‘līmiyyah (Mathematical and
Instructional Sciences), Jismāniyyah
Ṭabī‘iyyah (Corporeal and Natural
Sciences), Nafsāniyyah ‘Aqliyyah
(Psychological and Rational Sciences) and
Nāmūsiyyah Shar‘iyyah (Divine and
Theological Sciences) (al-Bustānī,
1405AH:11-12).
The first division consists of fourteen
epistles covering virtually all areas of
mathematical and instructional subjects
such as al-‘Adad (Numbers), Jumaṭriyā
(Geometry), Asṭrunūmiyyā (Astronomy),
Jughrāfiyyah (Geography), al-Mūsīqā,
(Music), al-Nisbah al-‘Adadiyyah wal-
Handasiyyah (Numerology), al-Ṣanā’i‘ al-
‘Ilmiyyah (Intellectual Crafts), al-Ṣanā’i‘
al-‘Amaliyyah (Manual Crafts), al-Akhlāq
(Ethics), Isāghujay (Isagogue, a Logic book
of Aristotle), Ten Categories (of Aristotle),
Bārāmāniyās (Hermeneutics), al-
Mintiqiyyāt (Logic) and Anūlūṭīqā
Alagunfoni and Ajibade, Rasá’il Ikhwán…, GJSH (2016). Vol. 2(2): pp. 165 - 173 ISSN: 2489-0049
(Analytics) (Ikhwān al-Ṣafā, 1405AH, vol.
1).
The second division contains seventeen
epistles and deal with natural sciences.
They are: Bayān al-Huyulā wa’l-Ḥarakah
(Categories of Matter or Form and Place or
Motion), al-Samā’ wa’l-‘Ālam (Heaven and
the Universe), al-Kawn wa’l-Fasād (Being
and Degeneration), al-Āthār al-‘Alawiyyah
(Heavenly Antiques), Takwīn al-Ma‘ādin
(Geology), al-Ḥayawanāt wa Aṣnāfuhā
(Animals and their species), Tarkīb al-
Jasad (Anatomy), al-Ḥāss wa’l-Maḥsūs
(Senses), Masqaṭ al-Nuṭfah (Source of
Spermatozoa), Qawluhum al-Insān ‘Ālam
Ṣaghīr (Mankind as a Minute Universe),
Nushū’ al-Anfus al-Juz’iyyah fi’l-Jasad al-
Insāniyyah (Development of Souls in
Human Body), Ṭāqah al-Isān fi’l-Ma‘ārif
(Epistemology), Ḥikmah al-Mawt wa’l-
Ḥayāh (Wisdom behind Life and Death),
Khāṣiyyah al-Ladhdhāt (Features of
Pleasure), and lastly, Ikhtilāf ‘Ilal al-Lughāt
(Discrepancies in Languages) (Ikhwān al-
Ṣafā, 1405AH, vol. 2).
The third section, which talks about
psychological sciences, consist of ten
epistles, they include: Mabādi’ al-
Mawjūdāt al-‘Aqliyyah ‘alā ra’y al-
Fithaghūriyyin (Pythagoreans‟ Principles of
Pshycology), al-Mabādi’ al-‘Aqliyyah ‘alā
ra’y Ikhwān al-Ṣafā (Psychological
Principles of the Brethren of Purity), Fi
Ma‘nā Qawl al-Ḥukamā’ al-Insān ‘Alam
Kabīr (The Meaning of the Word: “Man is
a Massive Universe), al-‘Aql wa’l-Ma‘qūl
(On Brain and Reasoning), al-Adwār wa’l-
Akwār (the Orbit and the Globe), Māhiyyah
al-‘Ishq (Essence of Passion), al-Ba‘th
wa’l-Qiyāmah (Resurrection), al-‘Ilal wal-
Ma‘lūlāt (Causes and Effects), and al-
Ḥudūd wa’l-Rusūm (Logical Terms and
Diagrams) (Ikhwān al-Ṣafā, 1405AH, vol.
3).
The last segment of the Rasā’il deals with
theological and religious issues and is made
up of eleven epistles. They are al-‘Ulūm al-
Nāmūsiyyah al-‘Ilāhiyyah wa’l-Shar‘iyyah
(Theological Sciences), Māhiyyah al-Ṭarīq
169
ilā Allah (How to reach Allah), I’tiqād
Ikhwān al-Ṣafā (Doctrines of the Brethren
of Purity), Kayfiyyah Mu‘āsharah Ikhwān
al-Ṣafā (How to relate with Brethren of
Purity), Māhiyyah al-Īmān (Essence of
Faith), Māhiyyah al-Nāmūs al-Ilāhī
(Essence of Divine Code), Kayfiyah al-
Da‘wah ilā Allah (How to Proselytize),
Aḥwāl al-Rawḥāniyyīn (Conditions of the
Spiritual Beings), Kayfiyah Anwā‘ al-
Siyāsāt wa Kamiyyatihā (Kinds of Politics
and their Magnitudes), Kayfiyah Naḍad al-
‘Ālam bi Asrih (The Framework of the
Worlds), and Māhiyyah al-Siḥr (Essence of
Sorcery) (Ikhwān al-Ṣafā 1405AH: vol. 4).
All the epistles under these four categories
have numerous chapters under it, whose
sizes vary between lengthy and pithy ones.
The lengthiest of the epistles is the epistle
thirty-two which contains one hundred and
forty pages, while there is as few as three-
page chapter in the book. The first three
divisions of the book are like a preamble.
They are frontloaded in other to prepare the
reader for what is later going to be the
major aim of the writer(s). These three
divisions were full of philosophical views
borrowed majorly from the ancient Greek
philosophers and popular religions of the
Ikhwān‟s time. This external and internal
influence can be best summarized by the
following assertion:
They (Ikhwān al-Ṣafā) are influenced
by Pythagorean arithmetic, numerology
and music; Euclidean geometry;
Ptolemaic astronomy; Hermetic and
Indo-Persian magic and astrology;
Aristotelian logic and physics, gnostic
esotericism, neo-platonic cosmology,
theory of emanations and metaphysics;
Biblical Prophetology; Platonic
concepts of law and leadership, as well
as Buddhist, Zoroastrian and
Manichaean wisdom and allegory
(Hamdani, 1989:99).
The fourth division clearly states the aims,
objectives, doctrines and activities of
Ikhwān al-Ṣafā. Procedures on how to join
the group, the strategies in calling to the
Alagunfoni and Ajibade, Rasá’il Ikhwán…, GJSH (2016). Vol. 2(2): pp. 165 - 173 ISSN: 2489-0049
way of Allah, which they see as the ideal
cause, are also conspicuously stated in this
division. Some facts on fundamentals of
Islam and their philosophical inclinations
are adumbrated. They also talked
extensively on Faith (Ikhwān al-Ṣafā,
1405AH. vol 4:61-123). In fact, they
provided detailed analogical expressions in
forms of separate epistles. (Ikhwān al-Ṣafā
1405AH, vol 4:145).
Despite the fact that the Rasā’il is arranged
and divided into four, the topics therein are
interwoven, one notices that some topics
which supposed to have been under one
division, say psychology, are found under
Natural Sciences. The glaring example of
this is the tenth epistle in the second
division titled: Qawluhum al-Insān ‘Ālam
Ṣaghīr and the third epistle in the third
division with the rubric: Fi Ma‘nā Qawl al-
Ḥukamā’ al-Insān ‘Alam Kabīr both of
which are opposite of each other and which
should have been better placed together for
coherence sake. Examples of this kind of
mixture can also be found in other divisions
(cf. Ikhwān al-Ṣafā, 1405AH, vol 1: 114-
150 & vol 4: 341-365).
The style of writing adopted in the Rasā’il
resembles so much the classical one but,
surprisingly with little rhymes. Expressions
in it are linguistically simple but the
meanings are full of conundrums and
indirect speeches. Every epistle in the book
starts with the Qur‟anic verse:
َ ‫فىَع‬
ُ ‫للِل‬ ْ ‫لىَع ِلاَِ ِه ِي الَ ِرَهَ ا‬
َ ‫ط‬
َ ‫ل َما ع‬
َ‫ش ِسكُُن‬ ْ َُ َِ‫َخ ْيسع أَم‬
… Praise and thanks be to Allah, and
peace be on His slaves whom He has
chosen (for His Message)! Is Allah
better, or (all) that you ascribe as
partners (to Him)?” (of course, Allah is
Better) Q27:59
It may be that they adopt this verse to
support their nomenclature as having
derived from the Glorious Qur‟an. The
conundrums in the books are much to the
extent that the messages may be very
difficult to easily comprehend. The
philosophical terminologies in it may also
contribute to the obscurity of the meanings.
However, they provide justification for all
these at the end of the last epistle under the
subheading as follows:
‫لمِذا ألغزوِ ٌرا العىم َألجمىِي؟‬
‫ لم لم تىصح بٍرا العىم الشسَف‬:‫فقِل لً السِئل‬
‫ لُ فعىىِ ذلك لعظم ضسزي‬:‫ليىتىع بً الخىق؟ فقِل‬
‫ فإوِّ إومِ وىصح بعمل زَحِويِت العِلم‬،ِ‫َبفل أَض‬
‫ بل أشسوِ إليً إشِزة‬،‫األطغس فع زلِلتىِ ٌري‬
‫ حرزا أن تقع السلِلة فع َد غيس‬،‫فحسب ال غيس‬
،‫ ََىسد الىسِء‬،‫ فيٍىك الحسث َالىسل‬،‫مستحق‬
.‫ فىرلك ألغزوِي َألجمىِي‬، ‫ٍََتك الحس‬
Why do we make this knowledge
ambiguous?
Someone then told him: Why don‟t you
explicitly present this knowledge in
order for people to benefit from it?
Say; if we do, its damage will be great
and it (the knowledge) will be
extinguished. But we clearly stated that
of spiritual (actions) of the lower
universe, and only mentioned it
passingly, being cautious of making the
epistles available for those who do not
have the right to have it, thereby,
destroying the crops and the cattle,
causing the women to be corrupt and
violating rights, for these reasons, we
puzzle with the words. (Ikhwan al-
Safa, 2014:831)
َ ََ ِ‫قُ ِل ْال َح ْمدُ ِ َلِل‬
Linguistically, many aspects of ‘Ilm al-
Balāghah (Arabic Rhetorics) are also in the
work; the prominent of which, as reflected
in the quotation above, is Iqtibās
(adaptation) found in the expression ‫"فيٍىك‬
"‫ الحسث َالىسل‬which is taken from Qur‟an 2
verse 205. where Allah says:
َ ْ‫سدَ فِيٍَِ َََُ ٍْ ِىكَ ْالحَس‬
‫ث‬ ِ ‫ض ِليُ ْى‬
ِ ْ‫لعَع فِي ْاألَز‬ َ ‫ََإِذَا ت ََُلَع‬
ْ
َ َ‫الِلُ َال َُحِ ب الى‬
َ‫سِه‬ ْ َ‫ََالى‬
َ ََ ‫س َل‬
And when he turns away (from you O
Muhammad [SAW]), his effort in the
land is to make mischief therein and to
170
Alagunfoni and Ajibade, Rasá’il Ikhwán…, GJSH (2016). Vol. 2(2): pp. 165 - 173 ISSN: 2489-0049
destroy the crops and the cattle, and
Allah likes not mischief.
Ikhwān al-Ṣafā’s Views as Reflected in
their Rasā’il
As earlier discussed, the Rasā'il is a book
full of ideas and ideologies which cut
across all aspects of sciences, philosophy,
religions etc. It therefore contributed to the
important theories and views in
Mathematics, Chemistry, Geography,
Ecology, Cosmology, Evolutional Theory
etc. (Darraz, 2013:133-161; El-Bushra,
1992: 161-164; cf. Mohamed, 2000). In the
following pages, attempt is made to select
two out of their numerous views on religion
and sciences.
Religious Pluralism: this is one of the
basic principles of the Ikhwān al-Ṣafā.
Even though, they profess Islam as their
religion, they are not categorically against
other religions and also believed that
virtually all religions have an element of
truth (Mattila, 2017). The Rasā’il has been
described as “an irenic text which, by
appeal to perennial human wisdom, argues
for the practice of an Islam, grounded in the
ideals of toleration, cooperation, and
coexistence between differing
denominations and faiths” (Fares, 2012:16).
Division of Science: In the seventh epistle
of the Rasā’il, classification of sciences are
critically and logically explained. The ones
that are necessary, which every inquisitive
mind should endeavour to know among the
sciences, are also suggested. In the
beginning of the Epistle, essence of all
‘Ulūm (sciences) and what features a
science should possess before it can be
viewed as worthy of learning are described.
All knowledge, according to the Rasa’il, is
divided into three namely: al-Riyādiyyah
(Training Sciences), al-Shar‘iyyah al-
Waḍ‘iyyah (Conventional Religious
Sciences) and al-Falsafah al-Ḥaqīqiyyah
(Real Philosophical Sciences). The Rasā‘il
further explains the divisions under each
171
science and the objectives of learning them.
The Riyādiyyah which is otherwise known
as Educational Science (‘Ilm al-Adab)
includes, among others, Reading and
Writing, Grammar, Poetics and Prosody,
Economics etc. The Second Science i.e. al-
Shar‘iyyah al-Waḍ‘iyyah has, as its
branches, Qur‟anic Science, Exegesis,
Science of Traditions and Ascetism to
mention but a few. The last one which is of
utmost priority to the Ikhwān is the
Philosophical Sciences. Its branches
include al-Riyāḍiyyāt, (Mathematical
Sciences), al-Ṭabī‘iyyāt (Natural Sciences),
al-Manṭiqiyyāt (Logics) and al-Ilā‘iyyāt
(Divine Sciences), this branches happen to
be the very basic divisions of the letters in
the Rasā‘il.
The Rasā‘il from the beginning to the end
concentrates on the last two sections but
with more emphasis placed on the
philosophical sciences. Albeit, the first one
i.e. the Riyāḍiyyah, is not defined, it is
viewed as merely useful for this life unlike
the other two which are useful for this life
and the Hereafter (Callatay, 2003:3).
Ikhwān al-Ṣafā’s Influence on Later
Generation
The Rasā‘il and invariably the
philosophical and spiritual views of the
Ikhwān, hitherto, wield countless influence
on later generation of scholars and
organisations alike. From the organization
side, the conspicuous influence of the
Ikhwān can be found on the Bāṭiniyyūn
(Esotericists), Qaramiṭah (Qarmatians)
(Fierro, 1996), Sufists (Mysticists)
(Ebstein, 2015) while on the individual
scholars Abu Ḥāmid al-Ghazalī (Ozkan,
2016) and Ibn Sīnā were said to be the most
pronounced.
In the case of the first two, the tracts of the
Ikhwān al-Ṣafā formed the basis for the
majority of their spiritual and religious
doctrines to the extent that the Qarmatians
(who are sub-sect of the Ismaīlī Shia)
Alagunfoni and Ajibade, Rasá’il Ikhwán…, GJSH (2016). Vol. 2(2): pp. 165 - 173 ISSN: 2489-0049
erroneously attributed the authorship of the
Epistles to their putative leader Ja„far al-
Ṣādiq (Alūsī, 1981:161). Also, the division
of hierarchies in the Rasā’il Ikhwān al-Ṣafā
explained above is the same ideology and
division of the responsibilities and positions
the Qarmatians adopted in their doctrines
(WAMY, 1420AH:378). As for the Sufists,
most of their ethical and spiritual
ideologies, both esoteric and exoteric, take
its source from the compliances and
opinions of the Ikhwān al-Ṣafā which are
deeply rooted in some of the Islamic
primary sources and issues. Sufists of the
present-day hold some of those views in
high esteem. The conspicuous example of
the Ikhwān al-Ṣafā’s views in Sufism is
Waḥdah al-Wujūd (Pantheism) (WAMY,
1420AH:783).
In the same vein, traits of the Ikhwān al-
Ṣafā’s understandings are evident in the
works of Ibn Sīnā‟, who had early contact
with the Rasā’il when he was ten years old,
because his father, who was one of the
Qarmatians, owned a copy. He later
attributed his being a philosopher to the fact
the he acquainted himself with the
ideologies of the Qarmatians and the
Rasā’il early in his life (Ibn Taymiyyyah,
2004:226). Meanwhile, the Iḥyā’ Ulūm al-
Dīn of Imam al-Ghazālī also borrows some
views from the Ikhwān al-Ṣafā (Alūsī,
1981:71).
Conclusion
Attempts have been made, so far, to discuss
the origin of Ikhwān al-Ṣafā and the depth
of their ideologies, works and the style
adopted in writing the acclaimed
encyclopaedia of their philosophy, Rasā’il
Ikhwān al-Ṣafā. After discussing
extensively on the Rasail, focussing on
their philosophical views and the influence
wielded on the later generation‟s. It can
therefore be concluded that the Ikhwān al-
Ṣafā as a distinct group did not only
contributed immensely to the Muslims‟
philosophical thought in medieval Islam but
that their work also could be regarded as
what al-Musawi (2015) referred to as the
172
“Republic” of thoughts and ideas on its
own and could enrich our understanding of
the cultural and intellectual endeavours of
the medieval Muslims and their
philosophical inclinations.
References
Al-Bustānī, B. (1405AH). Ikhwān al-Ṣafā‟.
Rasā’il Ikhwān al-Ṣafā wa Khillān al-
Wafā. Maktab al-I„lām al-Islāmī, Qom,
Iran. Pp. 5-20.
Al-Juhanī, M. H. (2000). al-Mawsū'ah al-
Muyassarah fi’l-Adyān wa’l-Madhāhib
wa’l-Aḥzāb al-Mu'āṣirah. 2 vols. Dar
al-Nadwah al-'Ālamiyyah, Riyad. KSA.
pp. 1224.
Al-Musawi, M. J. (2015). The Medieval
Islamic Republic of Letters: Arabic
Knowledge Construction. University of
Notre Dame Press, Indiana, USA. xiv +
450pp.
Al-Tawḥīdī, A. (2003). al-Imtā' wa’l-
Mu'ānasah. 3 vols. al-Maktabah al-
„Aṣriyya, Beirut, Lebanon. pp. 464.
Alūsī, N. (2006). Jilā' al-'Aynayn fi
Muḥākama al-Aḥmadayn. al-Maktabah
al-„Aṣriyya, Beirut, Lebanon. pp. 566.
Bloom, A. (1991). The Republic of Plato.
Translated with notes and Interpretive
Essay. 2nd edn. Basic Books, USA. xxvi
+ pp. 485.
Brill, E.J. (1986). The Encyclopaedia of
Islam, vol. 3, E.J. Brill, Leiden,
Netherlands. 2000+pp.
Callatay, G. (2003). The Classification of
the Sciences according to the Rasā‟il
Ikhwān al-Ṣafā. Departmental Lecture
Series. The Institute of Ismaili Studies,
UK. https://iis.ac.uk/classification-
sciences-according-rasa-il-ikhwan-al-
safa (accessed July 16, 2019)
Darraz, M. A. (2013). Islamic eco-
cosmology in Ikhwān al-Ṣafā‟s view.
Alagunfoni and Ajibade, Rasá’il Ikhwán…, GJSH (2016). Vol. 2(2): pp. 165 - 173 ISSN: 2489-0049
Indonesian Journal of Islam and
Muslim Societies, 2(1): 133-161.
Ebstein, M. (2015). Was Ibn Qasī a Sūfī?.
Studia Islamica, 110(2): 196-232.
El-Bushra, E. S. (1992). Perspectives on the
Contribution of Arabs and Muslims to
Geography. GeoJournal 26(2): 157-
166.
Fares, M. J. (2012). Letters from the
Goodwill Brothers of Basra: A
Medieval Islamic Message of Tolerance
and Pluralism. MA Thesis. The
University of Texas at Austin, USA.
Farrukh, O. (2013). Rasā’il Ikhwān al-Ṣafā.
Hassan Yahya Publications, Michigan,
USA. pp. 72.
Fierro, M. (1996). Bā inism in Al-Andalus.
Maslama b. Qāsim al-Qur ubī (d.
353/964), Author of the Rutbatal-
Ḥakīm and the hāyat al-Ḥakīm
(Picatrix). Studia Islamica, 84: 87-112.
Hamdani, A. (1978). Abu Hayyān al-
Tawḥīdī and the Brethren of Purity.
International Journal of Middle East
Studies, 9(3): 345-353.
Hamdani, A. (1989). Time according to the
Brethren of Purity. Alif: Journal of
Comparative Poetics, 9. The Questions
of Time: 98-104.
Ibn al-Muqaffa' A. (1981). Kalīla wa
Dimna (trans.). Dār al-Shurūq, Beirut,
Lebanon. 370pp.
Ibn Taymiyyah A. (1995). Sharḥ al-'Aqīdah
al-Aṣfahāniyyah. al-Maktabah al-
„Aṣriyyah, Beirut, Lebanon. pp. 216.
173
Ikhwān al-Ṣafā (1405AH). Rasā’il Ikhwān
al-Ṣafā wa Khillān al-Wafā. 4 vols.
Maktab al-I„lām al-Islāmī, Qom, Iran.
463pp, 483pp, 544pp, 469pp.
Ikhwān al-Ṣafā (2014). Rasā’il Ikhwān al-
Ṣafā. (Online Book, Retrieved February
10, 2014, from www.al-mostafa.com)
Martin, R. C. (ed.) (2004). The
Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim
World. Macmillan, Thomson Gale,
USA. xxxv + pp. 839.
Mattila, J. (2017). The Ikhwān al-Ṣafā on
Religious Diversity. Journal of Islamic
Studies 28(2): 178-192.
Mohamed, . (2000). The Cosmology of
the Ikhwān al-Ṣafā‟, Miskawayhi and
al-Iṣfahānī. Islamic Studies 39(4): 657-
679.
Ozkan, A. (2016). Al- hazālī and Rasā’il
Ikhwān al-Ṣafā . Their Influence on
His Thought. PhD Dissertation. Los
Angeles: University of California.
Tibawi, A. L. (1978). Further Studies on
Ikhwān al-Ṣafā. Islamic Quarterly,
20/23(3): 57-67.
Van Dyck, E. (1896). Iktifā' al-Qanūc bimā
huwa Maṭbūc. al-Hilal, Cairo, Egypt.
pp. 677.