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Machines- Lecture- Prelims

DC and AC Machinery (Batangas State University)

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CHAPTER INTRODUCTION TO ENERGY

1 CONVERSION

INTRODUCTION

Energy is the fundamental need of our everyday life. So much so, that the quality of life and even its
sustenance, is dependent on the availability of energy. Hence, it is imperative for us to have a conceptual
understanding of the various sources of energy, the conversion of energy from one form to another and the
implications of these conversions.

You must have heard that heard that Energy conversion from one form to another is a well-known
phenomenon. The Law of conservation of energy even tells us that the only thing that takes place with energy is the
transformation from one form to another. This means that we can convert electrical energy into heat energy and
light energy, solar energy can be converted to chemical energy, potential energy can be converted into kinetic
energy, Gravitational potential energy can be converted into kinetic energy etc.

Energy Conversion is defined as the process where there is a change in energy from one form to another
such as the conversion of nuclear energy into heat energy, the conversion of light energy into heat, thermal energy
into work etc.

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, it is expected that the students will be able to:

1. Identify the principles and concepts of energy conversion, magnetic and electromagnetic induction;

2. Relate the effects of electricity to magnetism and how it is being produced;

3. Define the different magnetic and electromagnetic parameters; and

4. Solve problems related to magnetic and electromagnetism.

➢ TYPES OF ENERGY CONVERSIONS

There are various types of energy all around us and these energy sources can be converted from one form
to another as explained below:

• Light energy can be converted to heat energy.

• Electrical energy can be converted to mechanical energy, light energy, heat energy, etc.
• Chemical energy can be converted to electrical energy.
• Thermal energy can be converted to heat energy.
• Mechanical energy can be converted to electrical energy, potential energy, etc.
• Nuclear energy can be converted to light energy and heat energy.
• The Solar energy can be converted to heat energy, chemical energy, and electrical energy.
• The Gravitational potential energy can be converted to kinetic energy.

Some examples of energy conversion are:

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• A vehicle moving is an example of chemical energy being converted into kinetic energy.
• Electricity being produced with water is an example of potential energy being converted into kinetic energy.
• A ball from a height towards the ground is an example of potential energy being converted into kinetic energy.
• When you boil water using an electric kettle, it’s an example of electric energy being converted into heat energy.
These were some of the modern examples of energy conversion. Now, let’s take a look at how the energy conversion
technology has evolved over the years and how the early humans used energy conversion by harnessing the natural
forms of energy.

➢ THE EVOLUTION OF ENERGY CONVERSION

• The Use of Fire: The first evidence of energy conversion from the early ages is when the ancient humans discovered
the use of fire. They burned dried plant, wood, and animal waste and used the resultant energy for cooking and
heating. This was followed by the use of mechanical energy that was used to harness the energy of flowing water
and wind. However, this generation of mechanical energy with the invention of simple devices came much later
around 2000 years after humans discovered the use of fire.
• Waterwheels: The earliest evidence of a machine being used to grind grain is that of a waterwheel, which was later
also used to drive sawmills and pumps, driving tilt hammers for forging iron, etc. Waterwheels were the primary
means of mechanical power production, rivaled only occasionally by windmills. Therefore, many industrial towns,
especially in early America, were set up at locations that assured water flow all year.
• Windmills: Apart from waterwheels, windmills were also used as a source of power to replace the animal muscle.
Windmills were used in various parts of the world to convert the wind energy into mechanical energy for grinding
grain, pumping water, and draining the lowland areas.

➢ ENERGY CONVERSION DURING THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

• Steam Engine: With the rapid growth of the industry around the mid-18th century (and somewhat later in various
other countries), there was a pressing need for new sources of motive power, particularly those independent of
geographic location and weather conditions. To meet the demands of the industry, the steam engine was developed
as the first device for converting thermal energy into mechanical energy.
• Newcomen Engine: A few years later, a better and more efficient version of the steam pump which consisted of a
cylinder fitted with a piston was developed. Although engines of this kind converted only about one percent of the
thermal energy in the steam to mechanical energy, they remained unrivaled for more than 50 years.
• Watt’s Engine: Subsequently in the later years, the Newcomen engine was modified by adding a separate
condenser to make it unnecessary to heat and cool the cylinder with each stroke. Since the cylinder and piston
remained at steam temperature while the engine was operating, the fuel costs dropped by about 75 percent.
Later many improvements on the existing technology for energy conversion were carried out which saw the
development of many other technologies. Devices such as the Stirling engine, Internal-Combustion engines, Electric
generators & motors, Direct-energy conversion devices, and now the renewable energy sources have taken over to
meet the dwindling supplies of natural sources of energy.

➢ CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Lastly, let’s understand the law of conservation of energy to further strengthen your fundamentals.

The Conservation of energy is the principle that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only be
converted from one form to another or transferred from one object to another. The energy transformation is
applicable to all types of energy such as kinetic energy, potential energy, light energy, heat energy, sound energy,
nuclear energy, gravitational potential energy etc. These transformations would occur again and again till the time
that resource is present there. The friction effect and the air-pressure are the other factors which can affect the
transformation to some extent.

Magnetic mattter attracts magnetic materials but not non-magnetic materials. Magnetism is a non-contact
force (acts at a distance).

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MAGNETISM AND ELECROMAGNETISM

➢ MAGNETISM

Magnetism is defined as the ability to attract iron and steel. The knowledge of magnetism goes back to the
Ancient Greeks who realized that a certain rock (Iodestone) attracted pieces of iron. When the hang a piece of this
material, it rotates until it is pointing in a north-south direction of the earth.

Magnets are named after the town magnesia (a district in Thessaly) in Lydia, Asia Minor where the
Iodestone was mined in ancient times. Natural permanents were called Lodestone (magnetic, 𝐹𝑒3 𝑂4 ) after Iodestar
(or guiding star). Lodestone was first permanent magnetic material to be identified and studied. The regions near
the ends of a magnet are called its poles.

Some of the known magnetic materials are:

➢ Iron
➢ Steel
➢ Nickel
➢ Cobalt

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER ACCORDING TO THE MAGNETIC PROPERTY

Magnetic properties of matter arise from the alignment of atomic or molecular spins, generating magnetic
fields. Materials exhibit varying degrees of magnetism: ferromagnetism, paramagnetism, diamagnetism. These
behaviors stem from interactions between magnetic moments, impacting material responses to external fields

1. Ferromagnetic

Ferromagnetism is the basic mechanism by which certain materials (such as iron) form permanent magnets.
This means the compound shows permanent magnetic properties rather than exhibiting them only in the presence
of an external magnetic field. In a ferromagnetic element, electrons of atoms are grouped into domains in which
each domain has the same charge. In the presence of a magnetic field, these domains line up so that charges are
parallel throughout the entire compound. Whether a compound can be ferromagnetic or not depends on its number
of unpaired electrons and on its atomic size. If materials such as cobalt, nickel or iron are put near a magnet they
begin to act like another magnet.

Figure 11: Ferromagnetism (a) non-magnatized material and (2) Magnetized material with
corresponding magnetic fields shown.

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Ferromagnetism, the permanent magnetism associated with nickel, cobalt, and iron, is a common occurrence
in everyday life. Examples of the knowledge and application of ferromagnetism include Aristotle's discussion in
625 BC, the use of the compass in 1187, and the modern-day refrigerator.

2. Diamagnetic

Diamagnetic substances are characterized by paired electrons, e.g., no unpaired electrons. According to the
Pauli Exclusion Principle which states that no two electrons may occupy the same quantum state at the same time,
the electron spins are oriented in opposite directions. This causes the magnetic fields of the electrons to cancel out;
thus there is no net magnetic moment, and the atom cannot be attracted into a magnetic field.

Diamagnetic materials have the ability to slightly repel magnetic field. Faraday discovers these materials in
1845. He found that bismuth and glass are repelled from magnetic fields.

3. Paramagnetic

Paramagnetism refers to the magnetic state of an atom with one or more unpaired electrons. The unpaired
electrons are attracted by a magnetic field due to the electrons' magnetic dipole moments. Hund's Rule states that
electrons must occupy every orbital singly before any orbital is doubly occupied. This may leave the atom with
many unpaired electrons. Because unpaired electrons can spin in either direction, they display magnetic moments
in any direction. This capability allows paramagnetic atoms to be attracted to magnetic fields.

Also discovered by Faraday. He noted that some substances clearly not permanent magnets are nevertheless
attracted by magnetic fields and these materials are named paramagnetic.

➢ MAGNETS

A magnet is any object that has a magnetic field. It attracts ferrous objects like pieces of iron, steel, nickel
and cobalt. One of the most common magnets - the bar magnet - is a long, rectangular bar of uniform cross-section
that attracts pieces of ferrous objects. The magnetic compass needle is also commonly used. The compass needle is
a tiny magnet which is free to move horizontally on a pivot. One end of the compass needle points in the North
direction and the other end points in the South direction.

The end of a freely pivoted magnet will always point in the North-South direction. The end that points in
the North is called the North Pole of the magnet and the end that points South is called the South Pole of the magnet.
It has been proven by experiments that like magnetic poles repel each other whereas unlike poles attract each other.

The region around a magnet where a magnetic force can be felt is called the magnetic field.

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The magnet field is strongest at the poles of a magnet.

➢ MAGNETIC FIELD

Magnetic field is the space surrounding a magnet, in which magnetic force is exerted. If a bar magnet is
placed in such a field, it will experience magnetic force. However, the field will continue to exist even if the magnet
is removed. The direction of magnetic field at a point is the direction of the resultant force acting on a hypothetical
North Pole placed at that point.

A magnetic field around a bar magnet has a shape and direction.

The magnetic field is represented using magnetic field lines (lines of force , flux lines) that show the shape,
direction and strength of the field.

➢ HOW IS A MAGNETIC FIELD CREATED?

When current flows in a wire, a magnetic field is created around the wire. From this it has been inferred that
magnetic fields are produced by the motion of electrical charges. A magnetic field of a bar magnet thus results
from the motion of negatively charged electrons in the magnet.

Magnetic fields are produced by electric currents, which can be macroscopic currents in wires, or microscopic
currents associated with electrons in atomic orbits. The magnetic field (β) is defined in terms of force on moving
charge in the Lorentz force law. The interaction of magnetic field with charge leads to many practical applications.
Magnetic field sources are essentially dipolar in nature, having a north and south magnetic pole.

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➢ ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE PERMEABILITY OF A MEDIUM

Permeability is defined as the ability of a material to conduct magnetic flux through it. A material’s
magnetic permeability refers to its ability to align itself with a magnetic field. A high magnetic permeability
indicates that a material easily aligns itself to a magnetic field. If it is difficult to align to the magnetic field, the
material is said to have low magnetic permeability.

Magnetic permeability can also be thought of as how easily a material can be magnetized. The more
permeable the material, the easier it is to magnetize – therefore, it has high magnetic permeability.

The phenomena of magnetism and electromagnetism are dependent upon a certain property of the medium
called its permeability. Every medium is supposed to possess two permeabilities:

➢ Absolute permeability, µ𝒐

In electrostatics, permeability is the measure of the ability of the material to allow the formation of magnetic
lines of force or magnetic field within.

Absolute permeability refers to the permeability of the free space.

The absolute permeability is a constant and its value is given as 4πx107 Henry/meter, (constant 33 on your
calculator)

➢ Relative permeability, µ𝒓

Relative permeability is the ratio of permeability of the substance to absolute permeability.

The ratio of permeability of a substance to the permeability of the vacuum is known as relative permeability:
𝜇
𝜇𝑟 =
𝜇0

Where

𝜇𝑟 is the relative permeability,

𝜇 is the permeability of the substance, and

𝜇0 is the permeability of the vacuum.

It is important to take note that the relative permeability is a dimensionless quantity.

➢ FLUX PER UNIT POLE (Φ ) OR MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE

Just as an electric field is described by drawing the electric lines of force, in the same way, a magnetic field
is described by drawing the magnetic lines of force. When a small north magnetic pole is placed in the magnetic
field created by a magnet, it will experience a force. And if the North Pole is free, it will move under the influence
of magnetic field. The path traced by a North magnetic pole free to move under the influence of a magnetic field is
called a magnetic line of force. In other words, the magnetic lines of force are the lines drawn in a magnetic field
along which a north magnetic pole would move.

The direction of a magnetic line of force at any point gives the direction of the magnetic force on a north
pole placed at that point. Since the direction of magnetic line of force is the direction of force on a North Pole, so
the magnetic lines of force always begin on the N-pole of a magnet and end on the S-pole of the magnet. A small
magnetic compass when moved along a line of force always sets itself along the line tangential to it. So, a line
drawn from the South Pole of the compass to its North Pole indicates the direction of the magnetic field.

Properties of the magnetic lines of force

➢ The magnetic lines of force originate from the North Pole of a magnet and end at its South Pole.
➢ The magnetic lines of force come closer to one another near the poles of a magnet but they are widely
separated at other places.
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➢ The magnetic lines of force do not intersect (or cross) one another.

When a magnetic compass is placed at different points on a magnetic line of force, it aligns itself along the tangent
to the line of force at that point.

Magnetic Flux (φ) - It is the number of magnetic lines of forces in a magnetic field.

Maxwell - unit of magnetic flux equal to one line of force.

Weber - SI unit of magnetic flux equal to 108 lines or Maxwell. 1Wb = 1x108 Maxwell

Conversion

q = 1.602x10−19 C 1 𝑘𝑔𝑓 = 9.81 N 1 N = 105 Dynes

1 𝑙𝑏𝑓 = 4.4484 N 1 Tesla = 104 Gauss

➢ FLUX DENSITY (β)

It is given by the flux passing per unit area through a plane at right angles to the flux. It is measured in
Wb/𝑚2
𝜱
β= = µH = µ𝟎 µ𝒓 H
𝑨

Direction of the magnetic field at any point is defined as the direction of motion of a change particle on which
the magnetic field would not exert force.

Magnitude of the magnetic field vector is proportional to the force acting on the moving charge, the magnitude
of its velocity and the angle between velocity and magnetic field. Unit is the Tesla or Gauss

SI CGS ENG

Wb/𝑚2 (Tesla) Max/𝑐𝑚2 (Gauss) lines/𝑖𝑛2

➢ ELECTROMAGNETISM

FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR LYING IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

• The magnetic force on a charged particle depends on the relative orientation of the particle's velocity and
the magnetic field.
• A magnetic force cannot change the speed of a charged particle, only its direction.
• When a charged particle enters a uniform magnetic field in a direction perpendicular to that field, its motion
is continuously changed by the magnetic force
• A current consists of many small charged particles running through a wire. If immersed in a magnetic field,
the particles will be experience a force; they can transmit this force to the wire through which they travel.
• The force on a section of wire of length L carrying a current I through a magnetic field B is

F = βILsinƟ (N) where: β – Tesla

I – Current in Ampere (A)
L – length in meter (m)
𝛃𝐈𝐋𝐬𝐢𝐧Ɵ
F= (Dynes) where: β – Gauss
𝟏𝟎
I – Current in Ampere (A)
L – length in centimeter (cm)

𝛃𝐈𝐋𝐬𝐢𝐧Ɵ
F= (𝒍𝒃𝒇 ) where: β – lines
𝟏𝟏.𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔
I – Current in Ampere (A)
L – length in in/ft

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Because forces are easy to measure, it is the force exerted on a current-carrying wire which is used to define the
SI unit of current, the ampere.

MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH/ MAGNETIZING FORCE/MAGNETIC INTENSITY (H)

Magnetic field strength at any point within a magnetic field is numerically equal to the force experienced
by a N-pole of one Weber placed at that point.

It should be noted that the field strength is a vector quantity having both magnitude and direction.

mmf (magnetomotive force) per unit length of path of the magnetic flux. It is also called as the magnetizing
force or the magnetic gradient

OERSTED - cgs unit of magnetic field strength equal to gilbert per centimeter.

AT/m – SI unit for H

1 oersted = 79.577 AT/m

a. Long Straight Wire

𝑵𝑰
H= where: r – distance
𝟐𝝅𝒓
N- Number of turns

I – Current in Amperes (A)

b. Long Solenoid
𝑵𝑰
H=
𝒍

c. Circular Coil
𝑵𝑰
H= where: r – radius (H at the center of the coil)
𝟐𝒓

𝑵𝑰
H= 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝜽 ( H at a point away from the coil)
𝟐𝒓

d. Square Coil

√𝟐𝑵𝑰
H= where: a – distance to the side of the coil
𝝅𝒂

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. A solenoid 30cm long is wound with 300turns. What is the value of its field strength inside the solenoid,
when the coil is carrying a current of 2 Amperes?

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2. If a current of 5A flows through a long wire of radius 0.004 meter, what is the intensity of magnetic field
produced 0.02 meter away from the surface of the wire?

3. A flat circular coil with 40 loops of wire has a diameter of 32 cm. What current must flow in its wires to
produce a field of 3.0x 10−4 Wb/𝑚2 ?

FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CONDUCTORS

➢ Current in the same direction. The field strength in the space between the conductors is decreased due to
the two fields there being in the opposition to each other. Hence, the two conductors are attached towards
each other.

➢ Current in the opposite direction. The field strength is increased in the space between the two conductors
due to the two fields being in the same direction there. Because of the lateral repulsion of the lines of force,
the two conductors expensive a mutual force of repulsion.

µ𝟎 µ𝒓 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝒍
F= where: µ𝟎 - constant permeability, const 33
𝟐𝝅𝒅
µ𝒓 - relative permeability
𝑙 - length in meter (m)
𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟕 µ𝒓 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝒍
F= I – current in amperes (A)
𝒅
d – distance between two conductors

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. An armature conductor 12cm long moves right angle to the magnetic flux of 1.20 Tesla and carrying 5A.
What is the force experienced by the conductor?

2. Two straight parallel wires 2m long and 3mm apart carries a current of 8A in opposite direction. Calculate
the force between these conductors?

3. A coil of moving instrument is wound with 250 turns of wire. The flux density in the gap is 0.085 Tesla
and the effective length of the coil side in the air gap is 5cm. Find the force doing acting on each coil side
when carrying current of 60mA? In Dynes.

FORCE ON A CHARGE

➢ The amount of attraction or repulsion between charged objects can be put in quantitative terms by the
introduction of the electric force. The simplest case to consider is the force between two points charges
(charges with a negligible size)

F = qvβsinƟ (N) where: q – charge in Coulomb

Ɵ – angle between wire and magnetic field

v – velocity in m/s

β – flux density in Tesla

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LORENTZ RIGHT HAND RULE

The Lorentz Force Law can be used to describe the effects of a charged particle moving in a constant magnetic
field.

In an open right hand, the direction of the four fingers points to the direction of the magnetic field, the thumb
pointing perpendicular to the four fingers points to the direction of the magnetic force in a positive charge is in the
direction in which your open palm would push.

The implications of this expression include:

1. The force is perpendicular to both the velocity (v) of the charge (q) and the magnetic field (B)
2. The magnitude of the force F=qvBsinθ where θ is the angle<180 degrees between the velocity and the
magnetic field. This implies that the magnetic force on a stationary charge or a charge moving parallel to
the magnetic field is zero.
3. The direction of the force is given by the right hand rule. The force relationship above is in the form of a
vector product.

B – Magnetic field (Wb/𝑚2 (Tesla) Max/𝑐𝑚2 (Gauss) lines/𝑖𝑛2

F – Force N Dynes 𝑙𝑏𝑓

v- velocity/speed m/s cm/s in/s,ft/s

FLEMING LEFT AND RIGHT HAND RULE

Whenever, a current carrying conductor comes under a magnetic field, there will be force acting on the conductor
and on the other hand, if a conductor is forcefully brought under a magnetic field, there will be an induced current
in that conductor. In both of the phenomenons, there is a relation between magnetic field, current and force. This
relation is directionally determined by Fleming Left Hand rule and Fleming Right Hand rule respectively.
'Directionally' means these rules do not show the magnitude but show the direction of any of the three parameters
(magnetic field, current, force) if the direction of other two are known. Fleming Left Hand rule is mainly
applicable for electric motor and Fleming Right Hand rule is mainly applicable for electric generator. In late 19 th
century, John Ambrose Fleming introduced both these rules and as per his name, the rules are well known as
Fleming left and right hand rule

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Fleming Left Hand rule

It is found that whenever a current carrying conductor is placed inside a magnetic field, a force acts on the conductor,
in a direction perpendicular to both the directions of the current and the magnetic field. In the figure it is shown
that, a portion of a conductor of length L placed vertically in a uniform horizontal magnetic field strength H,
produced by two magnetic poles N and S. If i is the current flowing through this conductor, the magnitude of the
force acts on the conductor is, F = BIL

Fleming Right Hand rule

As per Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor moves inside a magnetic field, there will
be an induced current in it. If this conductor gets forcefully moved inside the magnetic field, there will be a relation
between the direction of applied force, magnetic field and the current. This relation among these three directions is
determined by Fleming Right Hand Rule This rule states "Hold out the right hand with the first finger, second
finger and thumb at right angle to each other. If forefinger represents the direction of the line of force, the thumb
points in the direction of motion or applied force, then second finger points in the direction of the induced current.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Using the right hand rule, find the direction of the missing information in the diagram

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TORQUE ON A FLAT COIL IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

When a current carrying loop is placed across a magnetic field, it has the tendency to be rotated either
clockwise or counter-clockwise dependent on the direction of the magnetic field and the current. Its direction of
rotation is determined using the right hand rule.

Before considering the mathematical nature of the forces on currents in magnetic fields it is worth just looking at
the simple magnetic field diagrams that give rise to these effects. These are shown in Figure 1. (a) is the field
between two magnets, (b) the field due to a current in a straight wire and (c) the resulting field if they are put
together. This last field is known as the "catapult" field because it tends to catapult the wire out of the field in the
direction shown by the arrow.

T = INAβsinƟ (N-m) where: N- turns

I – current in amperes (A)

A – area of the coil

Ɵ – angle between magnetic field and a perpendicular to the plane of the coil

SAMPLE PROBLEM

1. A rectangular loop 10cm high and 5cm wide is placed in magnetic field of 0.01 Tesla. If the loop
contains turns and carries a current of 50mA. What is the torque on it? Assume that the face of the loop
is parallel to the field? Given 250 turns.

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Table 1. Summary of Symbols and Units

UNITS
SYMBOL MKS CGS
Β Wb/𝑚2 (Tesla) Max/𝑐𝑚2 ( Gauss)
𝛷 Wb ( Weber) Max (Maxwell)
A 𝑚2 𝑐𝑚2
µ0 Const 33 1
µ𝑟 - -
H AT/m Oersted
R AT/Wb Gilbert/Max
mmf AT Gilberts

MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

Magnetic circuit may be defines as the route or path which is followed by magnetic flux. The law of
magnetic circuit are quite similar (but not the same as) those of the electric circuit.

Consider a solenoid or toroidal iron ring having a magnetic path of l meters, are of cross-section A m2 and
a coil of N turns carrying I amperes wound enywhere.

- A closed path in which magnetic induction or flux flows.

- A system of magnetic conductors which magnetism maybe established upon the application
of magnetomotive force (mmf)

MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE (mmf)

This drives or tends to drive flux through a magnetic circuit and corresponds to electromotive forec
(e.m.f.) in an electric circuit.

Magnetomotive force is equal to the work done in joules carrying a unit magnetic pole once through the
entire magnetic circuit. It is measured in ampere-turns.

Mmf = NI (if the unit is in AT)

= 0.4πNI (if the unit is in Gilberts)

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RELUCTANCE (R)

It is the name given to that property of material that opposes flux flow. It is equal to the ratio of the mmf
in a magnetic circuit to the magnetic flux through any cross section of the magnetic circuit.
𝒍 𝒍
reluctance = =v units: AT/Wb; Gilbert/Max
µ𝒐 µ𝒓 𝑨 𝑨

Where:

𝑙 − Mean length of the magnetic path (m)

µ𝑜 - Free space of permeability

µ𝑜 − Relative permeability

A – Cross sectional area of the magnetic path (sq. m)

1
v – reluctivity ; the reciprocal of permeability =
µ

𝑙 - mean length / circumference

𝑙 − πd ; where d = mean diamete

𝑙 − 2πr; where r = radius

𝑅𝑐𝑔𝑠 = 79.577𝑥 106 𝑅𝑚𝑘𝑠

Permeance (P) – reciprocal of reluctance

- Implies the ease or readiness with which magnetic flux is developed.

𝟏 µ𝟎 µ 𝒓 𝑨
P= =
𝑹 𝒍

FLUX ( 𝜱)

- Used to indicate the apparent stress in the space surrounding an energized coil or magnet.

𝒎𝒎𝒇 𝑵𝑰 𝟎.𝟒𝝅𝑵𝑰
𝜱= = =
𝑹 𝑹 𝑹

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. A certain laminated steel core has a permeability of 3000. The length is 5cm and the cross sectional area is
2sq.m. What is the reluctance?

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2. A magnetic circuit consists of silicon steel of 3000 permeability and air gap. The length of the steel core is
10cm and the air gap is 2cm. Both have the same cross section of 1.5 sq.cm. A current of ½ Ampere flows
through the windings to produce 2351 Maxwell flux. How many turns are there in the coil?

3. A solenoid has 250 turns. What is the magnetomotive force (mmf) in Gilbert when the current is 0.12
Amp?

4. A coil with 900 turns is wound over a magnetic core with a reluctance of 10000 AT/Wb. If a current of
2A is passed through the coil, determine the flux density inside the coil?

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ENERGY STORED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

The energy stored in a magnetic field is equal to the work needed to produce a current through
the inductor.
When a conductor carries a current, a magnetic field surrounding the conductor is produced. The
resulting magnetic flux is proportional to the current. If the current changes, the change in magnetic flux
is proportional to the time-rate of change in current by a factor called inductance (L). Since nature abhors
rapid change, a voltage (electromotive force, EMF) produced in the conductor opposes the change in
current, which is also proportional to the change in magnetic flux. Thus, inductors oppose change in
current by producing a voltage that,in turn, creates a current to oppose the change in magnetic flux; the
voltage is proportional to the change in current.
Due to energy conservation, the energy needed to drive the original current must have an outlet.
For an inductor, that outlet is the magnetic field—the energy stored by an inductor is equal to the work
needed to produce a current through the inductor.

𝟏 𝟏 𝜷𝟐 𝟏
W = R𝜱𝟐 W = (LA) [ ] W = 𝑳𝑰𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 µ 𝟐

Where: w – energy stored in Joules (J) 𝛷 - Flux

µ - permeability of core 𝛽 – Magnetic flux density

R – Reluctance

L – Inductance

I – Current

FARADAY’S LAW

A law that states an electrical field is induced in any system in which a magnetic field is changing with
time.

➢ FARADAY’S FIRST LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION. Whenever the flux linking a

coil or current changes, an emf is induced in it.
➢ FARADAY’S SECOND LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION. The magnitude of the
induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages.

INDUCED EMF – it is the voltage generated by a conductor or coil moving in magnetic field.
𝒅𝜱
e=N
𝒅𝒕
where: e – induced emf (Volt)
N – number of turns
𝑑𝛷
- rate of change of flux (Weber per second)
𝑑𝑡

INDUCED EMF

A voltage can be developed in a wire by moving the wire across a magnetic field so that flux cutting
results (Faraday’s Principle)

e = βLv sin Ɵ

where: e – induced emf (volt)

β – flux density at the location of the conductor (Tesla)

L – length of the conductor (meter)

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v – relative velocity (meter per second)
𝒅𝒊
e=L
𝒅𝒕

where: e – self- induced emf (volt)

L – self inductance (Henry)

di/dt – rate of change of current ( Ampere per second)

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Find the electromotive force in a conductor of length 50cm moving perpendicular at a velocity 590m/s
to a region of flux density 1 Tesla?

2. A magnetic coil produces 100,000 Maxwells with 2000 turns and with a current of 2 Amp. The current
is cut-off and the flux collapses in 0.01sec. What is the average voltage that will appear across the coil?

3. The flux density emanating from a pole of a generator is 20,000 Gauss. A conductor one meter long
cuts the flux perpendicularly at a speed of 40m per second. What voltage is developed?

INDUCTANCE

A property of an electric circuit by which emf is induced in it as the result of changing magnetic
flux. it is also a circuit element, typically a conducting coil, in which emf is generated by electromagnetic
induction.

Self Inductance – the ratio of emf produced in a circuit by self induction to the rate of change of current
producing it, expressed in Henries (H)

𝑵𝜱 µ𝟎 µ𝒓 𝑨𝑵𝟐 𝑵𝟐
L= L= L=
𝑰 𝒍 𝑹

Where: L – inductance (Henry)

µ0 - permeability of free space (const 33, 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 Henry per meter
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µ𝑟 - relative permeability of the core used
A – cross sectional are of the magnetic path( square meter)
N – number of turns
φ – flux (Weber)
I – Current (Ampere)
𝑙 - mean length of the magnetic path (meter)
R – reluctance of the magnetic path (AT/Weber)

Mutual Inductance – the ratio of emf in a circuit to the corresponding change of current in a neighboring circuit.
Measures the mutual induction between two magnetically linked circuits, given as the ratio of the induced emf to
the rate of charge of current producing it, measured in Henries (H)

𝑵𝜱 µ𝟎 µ𝒓 𝑨𝑵𝟏 𝑵𝟐
M= M=
𝑰 𝒍

Series Coil with mutual inductance

Series aiding – sources of electromotive force (emf) which give the ability to the current to flow in the
same direction.

𝑳𝑻𝑨 = 𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 + 2M

Series opposing – sources of electromotive force (emf) which give the ability to the current to flow in
opposite direction.

𝑳𝑻𝑶 = 𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 - 2M

Parallel Coil with mutual inductance

Parallel aiding – this is where connected coils increasing the total equivalent inductance.

𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 − 𝑴𝟐
𝑳𝑻𝑨 =
𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 − 𝟐𝑴

Parallel opposing – this is where connected coils decreasing the total equivalent inductance compared to
coils that have zero mutual inductance.

𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 − 𝑴𝟐
𝑳𝑻𝑨 =
𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 + 𝟐𝑴

Where: 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 - self inductance in H (Henry)

M – Mutual inductance
𝑳𝑻𝑨− 𝑳𝑻𝟎
M=
𝟒

Coupling Factor/ Coefficient of coupling

𝑴
k=
√𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Two coils in a network are positioned such that there is 80% coupling between them. If the inductance of
one coil is 20mH and the inductance of the other coil is 16mH. Find the mutual inductance?

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2. A current of 2 Amp through a coil sets up flux linkages of 4Wb-turns. What is the inductance of the coil?

3. Two coils of inductance 𝐿1 = 1.16 mH, 𝐿2 = 2 mH are connected in series. Find the total energy stored
when the steady current is 2 Amp?

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