Atomic structure

1661- robert boyle proposed chemical elements

1803- John Dalton suggested elements were made of atoms that had particular masses
and couldn't be broken down further.
1896- Henri becquerel discovered radioactivity. This showed particles couldn't come
from inside the atom.
1897- JJ Thompson discovered the electron, its negative charge and their arrangement
like plums in a plum pudding.
1911- Ernest Rutherford discovered the central nucleus.

The subatomic particles

property Proton neutron electron

Mass 1.673x10-27 1.675x10-27 0.911x 10-30

Charge +1.602x10-19 0 -1.602x10-19

position nucleus nucleus Around nucleus

proton neutron electron

Relative mass 1 1 1/1840

Relative charge +1 0 -1

An atom consists of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons surrounded by

electrons.

Mass number and isotopes

Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
Atomic number = number of protons
Isotopes - atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
- they react in they exact same way because electron arrangements identical
- mass number varies because of the different number of neutrons in their nuclei.
The atom and electrons-
1913- Niels Bohr put forward the idea that an atom consisted of a positive nucleus
orbited by negative electrons.
1926- Erwin Schrodinger created an equation that predicts behaviour of subatomic
particles.
1932-James Chadwick discovered the neutron.

Time of flight spectrometry-

Vacuum- the apparatus is kept under high vacuum to prevent ions produced from
colliding with molecules in the air.
Ionisation- in electrospray ionisation samples dissolved in volatile solvent and forced
through a fine needle connected to high voltage supply. Solvent evaporated until they
contain a single positively charged ion.
An electron impact sample is vaporised and high energy electrons are fired with an
electron gun which knocks one ion off and forms 1+ ion.
Acceleration- positive ions attached to negatively charged plates accelerate towards it
at different speeds based on their weights.
Ion drift- ions pass through a hole in a negatively charged plate and travel along the
flight tube to a detector.
Detection- lighter ions arrive first due to their higher velocity. Flight times are recorded
and positive ions pick up an electron from the detector , forming current to flow.
Data analysis- signal from a detector is passed to a computer that produces a
spectrum.

Mass spectra- can identify different isotopes, ions, the relative abundance of isotopes
and different types of elements all based on their masses and times of light.

Electron configuration-
electrons in different shells have different amounts of energy so are represented by an
energy level diagram.
Atomic orbitals- an electron fills a volume in space called its atomic orbital.
Any single atomic orbital can hold two electrons, however electrons are in opposite spin
so two electrons in the same orbital will repel each other reducing energy needed to
remove them.

The shape of an atomic orbital tells you about the shape of an electron cloud .

Ionisation energy- the energy required to remove one mole of electrons from a mole of
atoms in the gaseous state.
First ionisation energy- the amount of energy needed to remove one electronfrom
each atom of an element in 1 mole of gaseous atoms. To form 1 mole of gaseous atoms
with a +1 charge.

Ionisation energies generally increase across a period because nuclear charge is

increasing, making it harder to remove an electron.

Ionisation energies in period 2-

Going up the group the nuclear charge increases. Which in theory should make it more
difficult to remove an electron, however the actual positive charge felt by an electron in
the outer shell is less than the full nuclear charge. is because

ionisation energies in period 3-

The small drop between P and S is because in Phosphorus each of the 3p orbitals has
one electron while in Sulphur one has two electrons and it is this repulsion that makes it
easier to remove one electron of sulphur than one electron from Phosphorus despite the
increase in nuclear charge.
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

496 738 578 789 1012 1000 1251 1521