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Motivation – Part 2
Index
Clark Hull’s Drive Reduction Theory & Self-Efficacy Theory
Hackman and Oldham job characteristics model
Moderators
Porter and Lawler Model of Motivation & Hawthorne Effect
Three-Dimensional Theory of Attribution & Its types
Argyris’s Theory of Motivation & ERG Theory

Clark Hull’s Drive Reduction Theory & Self-Efficacy Theory

What is Drive-Reduction Theory?

• Created by: Clark Hull and further by his collaborator Kenneth Spence.
• It became popular during 1940s and 1950s.
• It is a way to explain behavior, learning, and motivation.
• According to this, reduction of drives is the primary force behind motivation.
• It was once a dominant force in psychology but is largely ignored today.
• Worthwhile for students to learn more about Hull’s ideas to understand the effect on psychology

Origin of Drive-Reduction Theory

● Clark Hull was working at Yale University when he began to develop drive-reduction theory
● This theory inspired by several prominent scientists: John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, Edward
Thorndike, and Charles Darwin.
● It is grounded on the principle of homeostasis.

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● It believes behaviour is one of the ways in which person can maintain state of homeostasis or
balance.
● It was further developed by Kenneth Spence
● It began to be a major theory of motivation in the late 1940s.

About Drive-Reduction Theory

● State of arousal or tension triggered by person’s physiological or biological needs.
● Needs: hunger, thirst, need for warmth, etc.
● Theory stated that drives give rise to an individual’s motivation.
● Hull explained that individual is in a state of need when his survival is threatened.

● When person’s drive emerges, unpleasant state of tension comes to the scenario
● To reduce tension, new ways to satisfy needs will be practiced by that person

● According to the theory, any behaviour that reduces the drives will be repeated by humans and
animals.
● This is because the reduction of the drive serves as a positive reinforcement (i.e. a reward) for the
behaviour that caused such drive reduction.

Application of Drive-Reduction Theory

● Currently, it is largely ignored in the field of psychology, despite its earlier glory
● Useful for students to learn about the theory, its concepts and its influence to modern psychology.
● Explains how primary reinforcers are effective in reducing drives

Criticisms of Drive-Reduction Theory

• It is not applicable in the concept of secondary reinforces.
• Example: money is a powerful secondary reinforcer as it can be used to purchase primary
reinforcers like food and water.
• However, money in itself cannot reduce individual’s drives.
• It does not provide an explanation about reason behind people engaging in behaviors that are not
meant to reduce drives
• Example: Person eating food even if he is not hungry.

Self-Efficacy Theory
• Propounded: Albert Bandura (1977)
• As per this theory, people are likely to engage in activities to the extent that they perceive
themselves to be competent.
• It believes in one’s effectiveness in performing specific tasks.
• It has important implications for motivation.

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“In order of strength; people who regard themselves as a highly efficacious act,
think, and feel differently from those who perceive themselves as inefficacious.
● 4 sources of self-efficacy are: (In boxes with 4 side boxes)
They produce their future,
o Performance rather than simply foretell It.” – Albert Bandura
Accomplishments
o Vicarious Experience
o Social Persuasion
o Physiological and Emotional States.

Sources of self-efficacy
1. Performance Accomplishments:

● Personal assessment information based on an individual’s accomplishments.

● Previous successes raise mastery expectations, while repeated failures lower the same.

2. Vicarious Experience:

● Gained by observing others perform activities successfully.

● Often referred to as modeling
● Can generate expectations in observers that they can improve their performance by learning from
observation.

3. Social Persuasion

● Activities where people are led, through suggestion to believe that they can cope successfully with
specific tasks.
● Example: Coaching and giving evaluative feedback on performance.

4. Physiological and Emotional States

● Individual’s physiological or emotional states influence self-efficacy judgments.

● Emotional reactions to tasks can lead to negative judgments

Hackman and Oldham job characteristics model

What is Job Characteristics Model?

• It is based on the idea that a task in itself is the key to the employee’s motivation.
o Boring and monotonous job is disastrous to an employee’s motivation
o Challenging and versatile job has positive effect on motivation.
• It is an individual variable that function as moderators
• It represents relationship between job characteristics and outcome variables.
• Its work’s redesign began in 60s
• It is aimed at restructuring tasks and responsibilities to make employees more motivated.
• Its idea arose to enrich jobs by boosting motivation instead of simplifying job characteristics.

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How Job Characteristics Model emerged?

Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham (1980)

o It presented definitive form of Job Characteristics Model in their book ‘Work Redesign’.
o It created Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) and Job Rating Form (JRF) for assessing constructions based
on the theory.

Hackman and Oldham five job characteristics

• Five core job characteristics were to invoke three psychological states in employees.
• Lead to a lot of favorable personal and work results.

1. Skill Variety

➢ Refers to the degree to which job demands different activities in the execution of tasks
➢ Monotonous job doesn’t help the employee to develop a variety of talents.
➢ Alternating work employees are more satisfied with job than monotonous job person.
➢ Having different tasks, more responsibility and independence will be beneficial for intrinsic
motivation.

2. Task Identity

➢ Degree to which work demands a complete process or product.

➢ Certain jobs have clear beginning and ending, allowing person to work on a complete process
rather than small parts.
➢ Employees often value carrying out complete process.
➢ It ensures more involvement and responsible than the one who only take on small part of the
process.

3. Task Significance

➢ Degree to which job has substantial impact on people live within organization and society.

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➢ Meaningfulness of work is important for the employee’s motivation.

4. Autonomy

➢ Degree to which an employee can work independently.

➢ Freedom to plan workday and new procedures increases one’s sense of responsibility, increasing
motivation.
➢ Within managerial positions, supervisory and ministerial positions, employees often enjoy higher
level of autonomy.
➢ Other employees should also be given the freedom to carry out their tasks independently.

5. Feedback

➢ Helps in better performance by getting effectiveness of recent performances.

➢ Can also have a positive effect on their motivation.
➢ When employees are told they’re doing a good job, their motivation is enhanced

Job Characteristics Model and psychological states

➢ Psychological states apply to the individual, who assigns the scores himself.
➢ When all five job characteristics are met, three of the psychological states are in motion
➢ Employee becomes highly intrinsically motivated.

Psychological States
Three psychological states are:

1. Experienced Meaningfulness

2. Experienced Responsibility

3. Knowledge of Results

1. Experienced Meaningfulness

➢ Degree to which employee experiences the work to be inherent and meaningful,

➢ Characterized by: Skill variation, task identity and task importance.

2. Experienced Responsibility

➢ It is formed by the amount of autonomy the job offers and demands.

3. Knowledge of Results

➢ Formed by feedback systems within a company.

➢ Degree to which task holder is provided with direct and clear information on effectiveness of
performance.

Work-related Results

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➢ Final part of Job Characteristics Model are:

o High Performance
o High Motivation
o High Satisfaction

Job Characteristics Model: Moderators

➢ Isn’t fully waterproof and applicable to everyone.
➢ Different individuals have different view of the same job.
➢ This grey area is bridged by set of inherent properties or characteristics.
➢ These are termed moderators.
➢ Moderators bridge the gap between function characteristics and psychological states.

Some of the important moderators are:

1. Knowledge & Skill

➢ States that an employee with knowledge and skills has a better chance of experiencing positive
emotions at work.
➢ The reverse is also true.

2. Growth Needs Strength

➢ Degree to which an employee desires to grow and develop.

➢ High need to grow = faster response to new opportunities and challenges.

3. Context Satisfaction

➢ Context is about matters such as the manager, wage, benefits and job security.
➢ When employee is satisfied with all these ancillary matters, he will be more positive and reach
the psychological states more easily.’

What is Performance management?

• Corporate management tool that helps managers monitor and evaluate employees' work.
• Goal: to create an environment for best performance and produce highest-quality work.

Motivation for Performance Management

Motivating employees to create a good working environment is a fundamental task of any business.

Various ways for motivating employees:

• Valuing work, ability, and effort of each employee.

• Confidence on the individual skills of the employees.
• Showing positive results of their contribution towards company
• Additional incentives also stimulate and promotes motivation within the employee.

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• Setting new meaning goals so that employee does not feel stagnated.
• Keeping in mind the quote “Employees are people, not machines”.
• Reconciling work with family.
• Salary along with good incentives can boost motivation of an employees
• Allowing flexible work environment

Motivational effects of performance management

There are several studies showing the effect of performance management on motivation and
performance.

Positive approach studies

• Belfield and Marsden (2003):

o conducted an analysis on 1998 workplace employee relations survey
o Concluded that performance pay has positive influence over organizational performance.
• Lazear (2000)
o examined performance pay effect in a glass manufacturing company
o Concluded that adoption of performance pay increased performance by 44% on average.
• Kellough and Selden (1997):
o examined attitudes of the executives in personnel departments in state governments
o Concluded that 56.5% answered that performance pay increased their work motivation.

Negative approach scholars

• Pearce and Perry (1983):

o asked employees in federal agencies about working hard for cash rewards
o Their studies indicated neutral or negative responses.
o Concluded that no significant change in performance by performance management.

Contingencies of the motivational effects

Moderators affecting motivational effect of performance management:

1. Intrinsic or extrinsic motivation

• Frey & Jegen (2001): Motivational effect of performance pay depends on intrinsically or
extrinsically motivation type.
• Weibel, Rost, and Osterloh (2009):
o Performance pays reduce willingness to spend additional work time for intrinsically
motivated people
• Bellé (2015)
o Performance pays reduced performance of the activity with prosocial impact
o It undermines employee’s self-image as a benevolent person.

2. Individual’s characteristics

• Jones (2013):
o Male teachers are more likely to react positively to performance pay than women.

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o This is because of the more responsibilities on woman

• Young, Beckman, and Baker (2012)
o Motivational effect of performance pay is influenced by degree to which the incentives
are consistent with their work-related values.
o Incentive’s effect was weaker, if possible, loss of autonomy is there.
o Incentive’s effect is stronger if program’s goal is aligned with employees’ professional
goals.

3. Amount of financial incentives

• Chung, Palaniappan, Wong, Rubin, & Luft (2010) and Greene (2013):
o Suggested that motivational effect of performance pay depends on the amount of
financial incentives
• Gneezy and Rustichini (2000):
o Participants produced better performance when proper compensation is provided.

Porter and Lawler Theory of Motivation

What is Porter and Lawler theory?
● Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler came up with comprehensive theory of motivation
● Combines various aspects and uses two additional variables in their model.
● Built-in large part of Vroom's expectancy model.
● Porter and Lawler’s model is a more complete model of motivation.
● This model has been practically applied in their study of managers.
● It is a multivariate model which explains the relationship between job attitudes and job performance.

Four basic assumptions

This model is based on four basic assumptions:
● Multivariate model: Individual behavior is determined by a combination of factors.
● Individuals are assumed to be rational, who make conscious decisions about their behaviour.
● Individuals have different needs, desires, and goals.
● Individuals decide between alternate and decided behaviour for desired outcome.

Elements of Porter and Lawler Theory of Motivation

Various elements of this model are explained in the following figure:

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1. Effort:

⮚ Amount of energy which a person exerts on a job.

2. Value of Reward:

⮚ Referred to as valence in Vroom’s theory.

⮚ Every person is affected by different rewards in distinct ways
⮚ Person looking for more money will not get attracted with extra vacation time reward.
⮚ If the reward to be obtained is attractive or valent then an individual will put extra efforts to
perform the job.
3. Perceived Effort Reward Probability:

⮚ Before putting effort, people will assess the probability of a certain level of effort leading to
desired level of performance.
⮚ Based on reward valence and effort reward probability, people can decide to put in certain level
of work effort.
4. Performance:

⮚ Expected level of performance depend upon:

o amount of effort
o abilities and traits of the individual
o role perceptions.
⮚ Abilities include knowledge, skills, and intellectual capacity to perform a job.

⮚ Traits are important for many jobs are endurance and goal directedness.
⮚ Abilities and traits will moderate effort- performance relationships.
⮚ People performing the jobs should have accurate role perception.

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⮚ Employees Role defined by organization perform well when they put forth requisite effort.
5. Rewards:

⮚ Performance leads to certain outcomes in the form of two types of rewards:

o Extrinsic rewards: are given by others in organization in the form of money,
recognition, or praise.
o Intrinsic rewards: internal feelings of job, sell esteem and sense of competence.
6. Satisfaction:

⮚ It is resulted from both extrinsic and intrinsic rewards.

⮚ But for being satisfied, individual will compare his actual rewards with perceived rewards
⮚ If actual rewards meet or exceed perceived rewards, individual feel satisfied
⮚ If these are less than equitable rewards, individual will feel dissatisfied.

Significance of the Porter and Lawler Model

● It is a departure from the traditional analysis of satisfaction and performance relationship.
● In practice, we find that motivation is not a simple cause and effect relationship as a complex
phenomenon.

Motivation: Three-Dimensional Theory of Attribution & Its types

Types of Attribution
As per attribution theory, attribution can be:
• Dispositional
• Situational
• Interpersonal
• Predictive
• Explanatory attributions
1. Dispositional Attribution

• Person’s intrinsic characteristics are the cause of their behavior in this.

2. Situational attribution
• Process of attributing causes for behavior to situations or events beyond person’s control rather
than internal characteristics.
3. Interpersonal Attribution
• When an individual describes a story to group of friends or acquaintances, they are likely to tell
the story in a way that places you in the best possible light, which is interpersonal attribution

4. Predictive Attribution

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• It occurs due to human tendency of attributing things in ways that let them make future
predictions.
5. Explanatory Attribution
• It occurs when we make assumptions for making sense of the world around us.
• People can have either optimistic explanatory style and pessimistic styles.

Three-dimensional Theory of Attribution

➢ Explains how we attach meaning to our own, and other people’s, behavior.
➢ It was propounded by Bernard Weiner
➢ According to Weiner, reasons we attribute to our behavior can influence how we behave in the future.
➢ Weiner theorized that specific attributions were less important than the characteristics of that
attribution.
Main characteristics of attributions:
➢ Stability
➢ Locus of control
➢ Controllability
1. Stability:
➢ According to Weiner, stable attributions for successful achievements can lead to:
o Positive expectations
o Higher motivation
➢ However, in negative situations, stable attributions can lead to lower expectations in the future.

2. Locus of control:
➢ Refers to the perception of the cause of any event as internal or external.
➢ If someone believes that they will fail because of inability, this is due to internal attribution.
➢ If someone blames others for their failure, then it will be called external attribution.

3. Controllability:
➢ Refers to whether the cause of any event is under control.
➢ Cause is controllable if one believes in their ability
➢ Environmental or external attributions cannot be considered as controllable.

Theories Supporting Attribution Concept

1. Jones & Davis Correspondent Inference Theory
➢ It helps in understanding the process through which internal attribution is made.
➢ As per this theory, ideas about the conditions that influence us in making dispositional attributes
to someone’s behavior that assume as intentional.
2. Kelley’s Covariation Model

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➢ It is a logical model for analyzing that whether an individual’s action could be attributed to some
characteristic (dispositional) of that invidious or the environment around (situational).
3. Heider’s ‘Common Sense’ Theory
➢ This theory suggested that human beings observe others and do the analysis of their behavior to
finally come up with common-sense explanations for the actions of the others.

Applying Attribution Theory in eLearning

Attribution process involves three stages:
➢ Observation
➢ Belief
➢ Cause
Stage 1: Observation
➢ Observing the behavior is the first step towards the application of attribution theory
➢ It includes perceiving the actions, environment, and reactions or behaviors of others in the
situation.
➢ Most effective way is by integrating a branching scenario.
Stage 2: Belief
➢ It is performed after the observation is done.
➢ Individual must believe that the behavior was performed intentionally, accidentally, or
intentionally.
➢ It demands careful assessment of the character’s motivations and any other factors that may have
a direct impact on the outcome.
Stage 3: Cause
➢ Cause is the culmination of e-learner’s evaluation of the situation, their personal thoughts, and
their perception of the character’s internal and external traits.

Argyris’s Theory of Motivation & ERG Theory

What is Argyris’s Theory of Motivation?

⮚ Chris Argyris has developed his motivations theory

⮚ It was based on proposition of management practices affecting behaviour and growth.
⮚ As per him, personality of an individual develops from immaturity to maturity:
o immaturity exists in individuals due to organizational setting and management.

o Affected by task specialization, command, direction, and span of management.

o To grow mature, he proposes gradual shift:
▪ from existing pyramidal organization structure to humanistic system
▪ from existing management system to more flexible management.

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o Situation satisfies physiological, motivational and safety needs.

Seven Changes under Argyris’s Theory of Motivation

According to Argyris, seven changes occur, when person becomes mature over the years:

1. Individuals move from passive state as infants to state of increasing activity as adults
2. Individuals develop relative independence from a state of dependency upon others
3. Individuals behave in only few ways as infants, but as adults they are capable of behaving in many
ways
4. Individuals develop deeper and stringer interests as mature adults

5. In maturity, time perspective changes from present to past and future

6. Individuals as infants are subordinate to everyone, but they move to equal or superior positions
with others as mature adults
7. As children, individuals lack self-awareness, but as adult, self-awareness comes to picture

These changes reside on continuum. Healthy personality develops along continuum from “immaturity” to
“maturity”. These changes are general tendencies.

Limitations of Argyris’s Theory of Motivation

⮚ Relies on individual’s personality, so, there will be different results as when someone will reach
all the seven stages.
⮚ It based on the development of healthy child and does not consider child with disabilities and
their development.

ERG Theory of Motivation

● Proposed by: Clayton Alderfer.
● Aim: To bring Maslow’s need hierarchy theory of motivation in synchronization with empirical
research,
● It is recategorized Maslow’s hierarchy of needs into three simpler and broader classes of needs.

Three Needs defined ERG Theory of Motivation

1. Existence needs: It includes need for basic material necessities like physiological and physical safety
needs.
2. Relatedness needs: It includes aspirational individuals for maintaining significant interpersonal
relationships. It includes Maslow’s social needs and external component of esteem needs.

3. Growth needs:
● It includes need for self-development and personal growth and advancement.
● Ex: Maslow’s self-actualization needs and intrinsic component of esteem needs

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The significance of the three classes of needs may vary for everyone.

Difference between Maslow Need Hierarchy Theory and Alderfer’s ERG Theory

⮚ According to Maslow, individual remains at need level until that need is satisfied.
⮚ While according to ERG theory, if higher- level need aggravates, individual may revert to increase
satisfaction of lower- level need.
⮚ This is called frustration- regression aspect of ERG theory.

⮚ Maslow’s theory:
o rigid as it assumes that needs follow a specific and orderly hierarchy
o unless lower-level need is satisfied, individual cannot proceed to higher-level need
⮚ ERG Theory:
o very flexible as he perceived needs as a range/variety rather than perceiving them as a
hierarchy.
o Individual can work on growth needs even if his existence or relatedness needs remain
unsatisfied.

Implications of ERG Theory

➢ Managers must understand that an employee has various needs that must be satisfied.
➢ If manager concentrates solely on one need at a time, this will not effectively motivate the
employee.
➢ Frustration- regression aspect of ERG Theory has an added effect on workplace motivation.
➢ Sooner the manager realizes and discovers this, more immediate steps they will take to fulfill
those needs
➢ It will decrease frustration at the right.

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