Coarse and fine “fish hook” inflections in

hydrocyclone efficiency curves

T.C. Eisele1, C.H.N. Jeltema2, H. Walqui3 and S.K. Kawatra1
1Assistant professor and professor, Dept. of Chemical Engineering,
Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI
2Formerly graduate student, Dept. of Chemical Engineering, MTU; currently process engineer, F.L. Smidth Inc.
3Formerly graduate student, Dept. of Chemical Engineering, MTU;

currently area manager, Empire Plant Operations, Cliffs Natural Resources

Abstract
The literature contains many cases where the shape of hydrocyclone efficiency curves vary from the ideal “S”
shape. These often appear as changes in slope, or inflections. These inflections can be divided into two categories:
“coarse” inflections, which are caused by differences in the density of the minerals being separated, and “fine”
inflections, for which there are a number of competing hypotheses concerning their cause. The existing literature
addresses either the fine inflection or the coarse inflection, but no studies have reported both types of inflection
occurring at once in a single hydrocyclone test. This paper presents hydrocyclone results from both in-plant
studies and laboratory experiments that show both coarse and fine inflections. The industrial significance of
both types of inflections is discussed.
Minerals & Metallurgical Processing, 2013, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 137-144.
An official publication of the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc.

Key words: Hydrocyclones, Classification, Fish hook effect, Efficiency curves

Introduction or Lynch and Rao (1968)

Hydrocyclone efficiency curves show the prob-
ability of any given particle reporting to the hydrocy-
clone underflow as a function of its size. Selectivity
functions, S(d), are used to represent the fraction of
the feed material in size fraction “d” that reports to
the hydrocyclone underflow. Plotting this selectivity
function against particle size leads to the standard
S-shaped efficiency curve shown in Fig. 1. In the
“uncorrected” curve, the tail of the curve does not
go through 0%, because a portion of the solids are
bypassing classification. This happens as a result of
their being carried along by the water, and is most
important for the finest particles. The curve can be
“corrected” based on the fraction of the feed water
that reports to the underflow, represented by the by-
pass fraction, Rf. The corrected curve then normally
passes through 0%, as shown in Fig. 1.
The act of correcting the curve shifts the value of
the d50 size, which is the size that has an equal prob-
ability of reporting to either the overflow or to the
underflow. Correcting the curve to account for the
bypass fraction makes it easier to compare cyclone
performance under conditions that cause the quantity
of water in the underflow to change, but that do not
alter the actual corrected cut size (d50c).
The corrected efficiency curve can be expressed
closely by equations such as Plitt (1976):
(1)
(2)
where C(d) = classification function for particles of size d
after correcting for particles that bypass classification; d =
particle size in micrometers; d50c = particle size that has equal
probability of reporting to the overflow or the underflow, after
correcting for the particles that bypass classification; and m, α
= measures of the sharpness of separation.
In both of these equations, the value of the size “d” is divided
by the d50c, which allows the curve to be normalized to the
“reduced efficiency curve” shown in Fig. 2. The value of the
reduced curve is that it allows comparison of the sharpness of
separation achieved by different hydrocyclones, as shown in
Fig. 3. In general, a specific hydrocyclone is expected to have
a constant reduced efficiency curve as long as it is operating
correctly.
If a hydrocyclone is expected to produce a standard “S”
shaped efficiency curve, then it is possible to predict the cor-
rected d50 size using a relationship such as the one shown in
Eq. (3) (Plitt, 1976):
(3)
where d50c = corrected d50 (μm); φ = volumetric fraction of
solids in feed; Dc = cyclone diameter (cm); h = free vortex
height (cm); Di = inlet diameter (cm); Q = volumetric flow-
rate of feed (L/min); Do = overflow diameter (cm); ρs = solid

Paper number MMP-12-062. Original manuscript submitted October 2012. Manuscript accepted for publication November
2012. Discussion of this peer-reviewed and approved paper is invited and must be submitted to SME Publications Dept.
prior to August 31, 2013. Copyright 2013, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc.

MINERALS & METALLURGICAL PROCESSING 137 Vol. 30 No. 3 • August 2013


Figure 1 — Typical hydrocyclone efficiency curve and
corrected efficiency curve after allowing for the bypass
fraction. An ideal corrected efficiency curve will have a
smooth, symmetrical S-shape.
Figure 3 — Efficiency curves corresponding to different
values of the sharpness parameter, α.
Figure 4 — A hydrocyclone efficiency curve showing two
inflections, one at the coarse end and one at the fine end.
August 2013 • Vol. 30 No. 3
Figure 2 — Reduced efficiency curve, obtained from
the corrected efficiency curve by dividing the sizes by
the corrected d50 size. This is useful for comparing the
performance of hydrocyclones with different diameters
and operating parameters.
density (g/cm3); Du = underflow diameter (cm); ρ = liquid
density (g/cm3).
However, there are a number of cases where the efficiency
curve does not follow this uniform, easily modeled shape. The
curve can show inflections where the slope changes abruptly,
and, in extreme cases, the curve can reverse direction, as shown
in Fig. 4. This is commonly referred to as a “fish-hook” in the
literature. The term comes from the fact that, when the small-
est size measured corresponds to the portion where the curve
is rising, it resembles a hook.
When inflections occur at either coarse or fine sizes, they
can make it difficult to unambiguously determine the d50c
size for the hydrocyclone, which greatly complicates efforts
to accurately model comminution circuits that incorporate
hydrocyclones.
A number of possible causes of efficiency curve inflections
have been proposed in the literature. Laplante and Finch (1984)
explained the inflections occurring at larger sizes (“coarse
inflection”) as being a result of a combination of density and
size distribution effects. The causes of the inflections at the
smaller sizes (“fine inflection”) are less clear, and a variety of
agglomeration, heavy media, entrainment and fines recircula-
tion mechanisms have been proposed (Heiskanen, 1993). To
date, no investigators have reported observing both coarse
inflection and fine inflection in a single efficiency curve,
which has tended to contribute to confusion as to which type
of inflection is being addressed in any given paper. This paper
will, therefore, consider both mechanisms, and examine how
each gives rise to the “fish-hook” inflection.
Coarse inflections. Since Eq. (3) includes a solids density
term, the d50c is clearly a function of the particle density, decreas-
ing as the density increases (Lynch and Rao, 1968). Identical
hydrocyclones, with one processing a slurry of low-density
particles and the other processing a slurry of high-density par-
ticles, will, therefore, obviously have different values of d50c.
If a feed contains particles that vary in density, each feed
component follows the appropriate efficiency curve for par-
ticles of its density. The effect of this on a synthetic mixture
of low-density and high-density particles can be seen in Fig.
138 MINERALS & METALLURGICAL PROCESSING
5, which includes the efficiency curves
for pyrite (specific gravity = 5.0) and non-
sulfides (specific gravity = 2.7), as well

e
as the combined bulk efficiency curve for
the mixture. Both of the pure components
clearly follow portions of classic S-shaped
efficiency curves, but the combined curve
deviates markedly from an S-shape.
In order for the differences in particle
density to produce a non-S-shaped ef-
ficiency curve, the particles must not only
differ in density, but also must differ in
size distribution, with the heavier mineral
being concentrated in the finer size fractions
(Laplante and Finch, 1984). This results
in the bulk efficiency curve following the
shape of the low-density component at
the coarser sizes, and then switching to
following the high-density component at
the finer sizes. If the relative percentages
of high-density particles and low-density Figure 5 — Example of an inflection at the coarse end of a hydrocyclone
particles in each size fraction are known, efficiency curve due to the presence of particles of very different densities
then it is possible to calculate the bulk (after Laplante and Finch, 1984).
efficiency curve based on the weighted
averages according to the respective weight
percentages of dense and light components contained in the and reclassification of material in the classifier (Luckie and
feed stream (Heiskanen, 1993). This is calculated as shown in Austin, 1975). However, air classifiers have a significantly
Eq. 4 (Napier-Munn et al., 1996): different design than hydrocyclones, and the fine inflection
in hydrocyclones cannot be explained in the same way as in
S(d) = fL(d)SL(d) + [1 - fL(d)]SH(d) (4) air classifiers.
A fine inflection can be modeled by assuming that it is due
where S(d) = bulk efficiency curve value for size fraction d; to changes in fines entrainment as a function of particle size
SL(d) = efficiency curve value of light feed component for size in the hydrocyclone underflow (Finch, 1983; Del Villar and
fraction d; SH (d) = efficiency curve value of heavy (dense) feed Finch, 1992; Kelly, 1991). Such a model is consistent with
component for size fraction d; fL(d) = weight fraction that is the the observation that, in many cases, the fine inflection is most
light feed component for size fraction d; d = particle size (μm). pronounced when the value of Rf is quite high (Pasquier and
The degree to which this effect occurs depends on the dif- Cilliers, 2000). However, the model does not predict two fea-
ference in density between types of particles. The most extreme tures that are often reported for the fine inflection: (1) it does
case is reported by Banishi et al. (1991), where metallic gold not allow the value of S(d) for the small particles to exceed the
particles in a silicate ore produce a pronounced inflection at value of Rf, and (2) it does not account for cases where S(d)
an unusually fine size, due to the extremely high density of for the fine particles first rises, and then falls again.
gold (19.3 g/cm3). A commonly proposed mechanism for the fine inflection is
fines agglomerating to the coarse solids and being preferen-
Fine inflections. While efficiency curve inflections at the tially carried to the underflow, as shown in Fig. 6. (Heiskanen,
coarser sizes are satisfactorily explained by differences in 1993; Finch, 1983). While this mechanism is quite plausible,
particle density and size distribution, the inflections at the finer it is difficult to conclusively prove and even more difficult to
sizes are a completely different phenomenon that has resisted reliably model. In any case, fine inflection has been observed
reliable measurement or modeling. It has even been proposed even in cases where measures have been taken to ensure thor-
that the phenomenon of fine inflections does not actually exist, ough dispersion (Rouse et al., 1987). Therefore, while fines
and that its appearance is due mainly to the difficulty of accu- agglomeration is likely a contributing factor in many cases, it is
rately measuring particle sizes and weights at very fine sizes. unlikely to be the cause of all observed cases of fine inflection.
The effect is sometimes elusive, and some authors have not It is expected that a fine inflection caused by fines agglomera-
observed the fine inflection even after extensive experiments tion onto coarser particles would be most pronounced when
(Coelho and Medronho, 2001), or doubt its significance (Nag- there are many coarse particles and few fine particles, as then
eswararao, 2000). There are numerous proposed mechanisms there would be significant surface area available to carry the
for fine inflection, ranging from particle/particle interactions fines. It would also be expected that the magnitude of the fine
to effects of the laminar/turbulent transition (Majumder et al., inflection would vary depending on the properties of the coarse
2003) and small-scale variations in flow speed and flow direction particles that could lead to agglomeration.
within the cyclone (Wang and Yu, 2010), which have not been Another possible mechanism is based on fine particles be-
conclusively demonstrated. It has also not been demonstrated ing entrained in the wake behind coarser particles, as shown in
whether the fine inflection is a significant consideration, since it Fig. 7 (Neesse et al., 2004; Kraipech et al., 2002, 2005). This
occurs at the very fine particle sizes, where there is often only is supported by the observation that when particles of different
a very small fraction of the total material present. sizes are settling together, the settling rates of the finer particles
The fine inflection is well-known in air classifiers, and can is increased compared to the settling rate that they have when
be expressed mathematically as the result of internal recycling no coarse particles are present. It is reported that this effect

MINERALS & METALLURGICAL PROCESSING 139 Vol. 30 No. 3 • August 2013

Figure 6 — Schematic of the fines agglomeration effect, Figure 7 — Fine particles trapped in the wake of a coarse
with a coarse particle carrying fines that are attached to particle, and being carried along by it to the hydrocyclone
its surface. underflow.

tion about the fine inflection that

would be useful in determining
more precisely what effects are
responsible for causing it. This
consisted of both in-plant stud-
ies and laboratory studies using
mixtures of silica and magnetite.
This system is particularly useful
both because silica and magnetite
have distinctly different densities
(magnetite, ρ = 5.18; silica, ρ =
2.65), and because the magnetite
can be readily separated mag-
netically so that size distributions
(and therefore efficiency curves)
can be determined independently
for each slurry component. Also,
iron ore is one of the most high-
volume metallic ores produced
and is, therefore, of considerable
practical importance.

Plant sampling studies

Figure 8 — Configuration of the hydrocyclone/pebble mill circuit sampled for this study. Plant sampling was primarily
The total flowrates of the various streams for the particular circuit sampled were: New carried out to examine the devel-
Circuit Feed – 120.6 long tons of dry solids per hour (LTPH) or 122.5 metric tons/hour opment of a coarse inflection in
(mt/hr); Cyclone underflow – 299.3 LTPH (304 mt/hr); Pebble mill discharge – 306.9 an operating grinding circuit.
LTPH (312 mt/hr); Circuit product – 128.1 LTPH (130.1 mt/hr). The hydrocyclone feed The hydrocyclones sampled were
was 13.2% solids. part of a standard hydrocyclone/
pebble mill circuit in a magne-
tite plant in the Lake Superior
becomes experimentally noticeable at particle sizes less than district, with the pebble mill flowsheet shown in Fig. 8. The
3.5 μm for lime particles, glass beads and dusts suspended in circuit normally operated with 14 cyclones, with two additional
water (Kraipech et al., 2002). This has been described math- cyclones available as spares.
ematically by Dueck et al. (2007) and Neesse et al. (2004). Samples were collected from the cyclone feed, cyclone
In this situation, the quantity of fines that could be carried to underflow, and circuit product as part of an overall survey
the underflow would depend on the volume of coarse particle of the plant performance. Size analyses of the samples were
wakes and would, therefore, increase as the number of coarse carried out by three methods: 1. Wet-sieving at 25 μm using
particles increased. It would also be expected that there would a woven-wire test sieve, followed by dry sieving of the +25
be relatively little dependence on the coarse particle proper- μm particles using woven-wire test sieves in a Ro-Tap sieve
ties, and the effect would depend only on the size and settling shaker; 2. Microsieving of dry powders using electroformed
velocity of the coarse particles. nickel-foil sieves in a Sonic Sifter apparatus, which allowed
The work described in this paper was carried out with the sieving down to 10 μm particle size; and 3. Microtrac laser
specific objective of determining whether coarse inflection and diffraction particle size analysis to measure particle sizes
fine inflection could be produced in a single hydrocyclone ef- down to 1 μm, primarily as a check on the accuracy of the
ficiency curve. This would not only clearly show the distinction sieve analyses. For the sieved samples, each individual size
between the two effects, but would also provide more informa- fraction was assayed using a dichromate titration method to

August 2013 • Vol. 30 No. 3 140 MINERALS & METALLURGICAL PROCESSING

 Table 1 — Flowrates for total solids, magnetics and nonmagnetics for the material entering and leaving the hydrocyclones.
Flowrates are in long tons per hour. Percentages are relative to the overall flowrate for the corresponding size fraction. Note
that the cyclone underflow, and particularly the -500 mesh fraction, is considerably enriched in magnetite compared to the
cyclone feed and overflow.
Total +500 mesh fraction -500 mesh fraction
Stream Overall Mag Nonmag Overall Mag Nonmag Overall Mag Nonmag
Cyclone feed 427.5
257.7 169.8 122.0 104.9 135.7 64.9
226.9 200.6
(60.3%) (39.7%) (53.8%) (46.2%) (67.6%) (32.4%)
Cyclone 73.5 54.6 7.0 9.1 66.5 45.5
128.1 16.1 112
overflow (57.4%) (42.6%) (43.5%) (56.5%) (59.4%) (40.6%)
Cyclone 201.4 97.9 115.8 91.3 5.6
299.3 207.1 92.2 6.6 (7.2%)
underflow (67.3%) (32.7%) (55.9%) (44.1%) (92.8%)

determine the iron assay of each sieved size fraction for

each stream. The size distribution and assay data were then
mass balanced, and the magnetite concentration in each size
fraction was calculated from the iron assays.

Sampling results. A summary of the results from plant

sampling around the hydrocyclones is shown in Table 1.
It is interesting to note that the -500 mesh fraction of the
cyclone underflow product is highly enriched in magnetite
relative to the cyclone overflow. This indicates that the
magnetite is being retained in the grinding circuit until it
is ground to a finer size than the silicate gangue and, as
a result, is being significantly concentrated into the finer
size fractions.
The size analyses of the individual components (magne-
tite and quartz) were then used to calculate the hydrocyclone
efficiency curves for the magnetite phase, the quartz phase
and the overall combined result. These efficiency curves
are shown in Fig. 9.
Discussion - plant sampling. The efficiency curves in
Fig. 9 illustrate the effect of the different mineral densities
on the hydrocyclone separation size. While the hydrocy-
clone begins to remove silica from the circuit at a fairly
coarse size (d50 = 39 μm), it does not remove the magnetite
until a significantly finer size (d50 = 20 μm). The hydro-
cyclone underflow between approximately 20 μm and 39
μm is, therefore, predominantly magnetite, as the cyclone
is rejecting silica in that size range from the grinding circuit
while retaining the magnetite. This material is then returned
to the grinding circuit and reground until it finally becomes
fine enough to be removed. This results in a substantial ac-
cumulation of magnetite in the hydrocyclone underflow in this
size range, as shown in Fig. 9.
The effect of this retention of the higher-density fraction in
the circuit is seen in the overall efficiency curve of Fig. 9. While
the magnetite and quartz efficiency curves are very close to the
ideal “S” shape, the overall curve shows an inflection. This is a
direct result of the fact that the cyclone feed is approximately
equal quantities of magnetite and quartz at sizes coarser than
39 μm, but at finer sizes than this, it is primarily composed of
magnetite. As a result, the overall efficiency curve is initially
the average of the magnetite and quartz efficiency curves, but
then rapidly switches to following the magnetite efficiency
curve once it reaches sizes where the quartz has been removed
from the circuit. The resulting coarse inflection in the overall
efficiency curve results from this transition from the mixture
Figure 9 — Hydrocyclone efficiency curves determined from
overflow and underflow samples collected from an operating
hydrocyclone in the magnetite concentrator studied. The d50
sizes were 20 μm for the homogeneous magnetite efficiency
curve and 39 μm for the homogeneous quartz curve. The coarse
inflection in the overall curve is circled. This phenomenon was
observed for numerous samples collected from this plant.
efficiency curve to the magnetite-only efficiency curve.
The practical significance is that such an inflection only
occurs when the cyclone feed has become enriched in the
denser mineral in the fine sizes, such as is seen in Fig. 10.
It is, therefore, an artifact of closed-circuit operation of the
mill. If the high-density and low-density minerals have the
same size distribution, then the overall bulk efficiency curve
will simply be the average of the curves for the high- and
low-density minerals, and it will still be a smooth curve. The
inflection can only be seen when the overall curve switches
from following the low-density curve to following the high-
density curve, which can only happen if there is a difference
in size distributions between the two minerals.
The difference in size distribution for coarse and fine
particles occurs naturally in closed-circuit grinding using a
hydrocyclone or other classifier, but only because the high-
density mineral is retained longer, and ground more, than the
low-density mineral. The appearance of a coarse inflection
can, therefore, be considered a diagnostic effect, showing that

MINERALS & METALLURGICAL PROCESSING 141 Vol. 30 No. 3 • August 2013

 Laboratory studies
In order to more closely examine the coarse inflec-
tion phenomenon, and to determine how the relative
size distributions affect the degree of the inflection,
a series of laboratory experiments were carried out
using controlled size distributions for the hydrocy-
clone feed. Also, the plant sampling was unable to
determine whether a fine inflection was occurring,
and so the laboratory experiments were designed to
be able to detect the fine inflection.

Equipment. A 10.2-cm diameter Krebs hy-

drocyclone was used, mounted on a test rig with
a variable-speed pump, pressure gauge, ultrasonic
flowmeter and sampling mechanism for collecting
simultaneous overflow and underflow samples. The
hydrocyclone dimensions were:

• Feed inlet: 3.5 cm

• Vortex finder diameter: 3.81 cm
Figure 10 — Quantities of magnetite and quartz by size fraction in the • Spigot diameter: 2.22 cm
hydrocyclone underflow collected from an operating hydrocyclone
in a magnetite concentrator plant. The particles larger than 20 μm The hydrocyclone test rig consisted of a sump
and smaller than 39 μm were primarily magnetite. with a variable-speed centrifugal pump circulating
material continuously through the hydrocyclone. An
oil-filled pressure gauge was used to
monitor hydrocyclone inlet pressure.
Flowrates in the hydrocyclone test rig
were monitored using an ultrasonic
Doppler flowmeter. Samples were
collected using a specially designed
sample cutter that simultaneously
collected samples from both the
cyclone overflow and underflow,
so that the relative flowrates of the
two streams could be accurately
measured. Particle size distributions
were determined using a Leeds and
Northrup Microtrac laser diffraction
particle size analyzer.

Materials and procedures. The

materials used were finely-ground
silica sand and magnetite concentrate.
The size distributions of the silica
Figure 11 — Combination of hydrocyclone and fine industrial screen for prevent- and magnetite are shown in Fig. 12.
ing overgrinding in an iron ore grinding circuit. Such a circuit is appropriate when Experiments were conducted
analysis of a hydrocyclone efficiency curve shows a coarse inflection, which is a using this magnetite and silica in a
symptom of overgrinding of the higher-density minerals. mixture that was 45% magnetite by
weight. The hydrocyclone was oper-
ated at either 10% solids or 20% solids
the denser mineral is being significantly overground by the and at either 28 or 124 kPa (4 or 18 psi). While operating the
grinding circuit. Such overgrinding consumes excess energy, hydrocyclone, all samples were collected in triplicate at each
and can result in the higher-density product being ground too hydrocyclone operating condition, and each of the triplicate
fine for subsequent processing. samples were analyzed separately to determine the random
Overgrinding of the higher-density minerals can be prevented variations from test to test. In all experiments, random variation
most effectively by use of screening for at least part of the siz- in the fraction of each size reporting to the underflow was less
ing operation in a grinding circuit. An arrangement such as that than +/- 0.01 units, which is sufficiently small that the error
shown in Fig. 11 would allow a modern fine screen to remove bars would not show at the scale of the graphs. These triplicate
high-density iron oxide grains from hydrocyclone underflow, measurements were carried out to ensure that the observed
preventing the iron oxides from being overground. Running inflections were real, and not simply measurement errors.
it in series with a hydrocyclone as shown will greatly reduce Size distributions were determined by first using a Davis
the amount of fine particles and water that will need to pass Magnetic Tube to separate the silica from the magnetite. Each
through the screen, thus giving it a much higher capacity than mineral was then analyzed separately using a Microtrac laser
a screen alone would have. diffraction unit to determine particle size distributions. These

August 2013 • Vol. 30 No. 3 142 MINERALS & METALLURGICAL PROCESSING

data were then used to calculate separate efficiency curves
for magnetite and silica, and also to calculate an overall
efficiency curve.

Results and discussion. The results from three sets

of experiments are presented in Figs. 13, 14 and 15. The
experiment shown in Fig. 13 was carried out at a cyclone
feed pressure of 124 kPa (18 psi), and a slurry solids load-
ing of 20% solids. In the overall combined curve, a coarse
inflection is clearly evident, while the individual curves
for silica and magnetite are smooth over the same particle
size range. This coarse inflection is clearly due to a switch
between following the silica efficiency curve at a coarser
size, and following the magnetite curve at a finer size.
The overall efficiency curve of Fig. 13 also shows a
pronounced fine inflection, with the fractional recovery of
fine particulates reaching nearly 0.2. This is significantly
higher than the bypass fraction of 0.14, indicating that this Figure 12 — Silica and magnetite size distributions used in
was not simply due to fine particles following the water. laboratory hydrocyclone experiments. The silica was specifically
Looking at the individual mineral efficiency curves, it chosen to have a coarser size distribution than the magnetite,
can been seen that the silica by itself does not show a so that a coarse inflection could be observed. The silica was
significant inflection, as the fines recovery is very close 80% passing 57 μm, while the magnetite was 80% passing 34
to the water bypass fraction. However, the magnetite is μm (after Jeltema, 2007)
showing a very pronounced fine inflection that is more
than double the magnitude of what would be expected
simply from the bypass fraction.
The fact that only the magnetite is showing a pronounced
fine inflection indicates that this is unlikely to be due to a
purely hydrodynamic effect. If the fine inflection was being
produced entirely by small particles being carried in the
wake of larger particles, it would be expected that both the
magnetite and the silica would have similarly-sized fine
inflections. This result is, therefore, not predicted from the
hydrodynamic model (Neesse et al., 2004). The result is
much more consistent with agglomeration of fine particles
onto the coarse surfaces. In this particular system, there
is potential for magnetic agglomeration of fine magnetite
particles onto the coarse magnetite, which would account
for the much higher value of the fine inflection for pure
magnetite than for pure quartz. When there is no coarse
magnetite present to carry the fine magnetite particles,
but only nonmagnetic quartz particles, then the behavior
of the fine magnetite becomes much more similar to that Figure 13 — Hydrocyclone efficiency curve results for a silica/
of the fine quartz. magnetite mixture at 20% solids and a feed inlet pressure of
The fine inflection can be considerably enhanced by 124 kPa (18 psi). The bypass fraction calculated from the split
reducing the hydrocyclone inlet pressure, as shown in Fig. of water between the overflow and underflow was 0.14 (after
14. Much of this increase was a result of approximately Jeltema, 2007).
doubling the bypass fraction.
The fraction of fine silica reporting to the underflow at
the lower pressure was still nearly identical to the water bypass the specific properties of the minerals in question.
fraction. However, the fine magnetite recovery to the underflow
was two units higher than the bypass fraction, which is the Conclusions
same magnitude of effect as was seen at the higher pressure. There are two distinct phenomena that lead to inflections
When the hydrocyclone is still operated at a feed pressure in hydrocyclone efficiency curves. The coarse inflection is
of 28 kPa (4 psi), but the percent solids was reduced to 10%, caused by the presence of fine, high-density particles combined
a significant enhancement of the magnetite fine inflection was with coarser, low-density particles in the cyclone feed. This
seen, as shown in Fig. 15. While the recovery of the fine silica to results in the efficiency curve being dominated by low-density
the underflow is still closely tracking the water bypass fraction materials at the coarser sizes and high-density materials at
of 0.22, the fine magnetite recovery has reached 0.65, which is the finer sizes, with the inflection occurring when the curve
three times greater than the bypass fraction. This clearly shows switches from one to the other. In a comminution circuit,
that the tendency to produce a fine inflection becomes greater such an inflection is an indicator that high-density particles
as the quantity of solid particles is reduced. This heightened are being preferentially retained in the grinding circuit, and
divergence between the behavior of magnetite and of silica are being overground. Since overgrinding is a significant
clearly shows that, for this system, the fine inflection is not due waste of energy and can cause loss of valuable minerals, the
to simple hydrodynamic effects. Instead, it is definitely due to appearance of a coarse inflection in a hydrocyclone efficiency

MINERALS & METALLURGICAL PROCESSING 143 Vol. 30 No. 3 • August 2013

curve in a plant is a sign that there is a problem that
needs to be corrected.
The fine inflection, on the other hand, has a
number of theories that attempt to explain it, many
of which do not fully account for the behavior seen
in the results reported here. The observed behavior
is most consistent with an agglomeration mecha-
nism, where fine particles agglomerate onto coarse
particles and are carried into the cyclone underflow.
In this case, the behavior of fine magnetite is almost
entirely responsible for producing the fine inflection,
with very little contribution from the silica particles.
The fine inflection effect is most pronounced at low
cyclone operating pressure and low percent solids,
both of which would be expected to allow a high
degree of flocculation of fine particles to coarser
particles. This mechanism can only carry a limited
quantity of fines; thus, when there are very large
quantities of fine particles present, the majority of
Figure 14 — Hydrocyclone efficiency curve results for a silica/magnetite
them follow the theoretical curve, because there is
mixture at 20% solids and a feed inlet pressure reduced to 28 kPa (4
insufficient coarse particle surface to carry them all.
psi). The bypass fraction calculated from the split of water between
the overflow and underflow was 0.31 (after Jeltema, 2007).
Acknowledgments
This project was partially supported by the U. S.
Department of Energy under Grant No. DE-FC26-
01NT41062. The support of the Cleveland-Cliffs
Iron Co. is also gratefully acknowledged. The authors
would also like to thank Ted Weldum, Todd Davis,
Gary Rajala and Ron Mariani for their considerable
advice and assistance in carrying out this work.

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