IH exam notes

Civil rights movement

**1. Background:**
- After the Civil War, Black Americans faced discrimination despite the end of slavery.
- Reconstruction allowed Black people to hold leadership roles, and constitutional
amendments granted equal protection and voting rights.

**2. Jim Crow Laws:**

- In the late 19th century, Jim Crow laws enforced racial segregation in the South.
- Black Americans faced discrimination in employment and were discouraged from joining the
military before World War II.

**3. Executive Order 8802 (1941):**

- President Roosevelt's order opened defense jobs to all, regardless of race, after threats of a
march on Washington by Black Americans.

**4. Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955):**

- Rosa Parks' refusal to give up her bus seat sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott.
- Martin Luther King Jr. led the protest, marking a significant moment in the civil rights
movement.

**5. Civil Rights Act of 1957:**

- President Eisenhower signed the first major civil rights legislation, allowing federal
prosecution for voting interference and establishing a commission against voter fraud.

**6. Freedom Riders (1961):**

- Activists challenged segregation on buses, facing violence in the South.
- U.S. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy intervened to protect the riders, and the Supreme
Court overturned their arrests.

**7. March on Washington (1963):**

- Over 200,000 people, led by Martin Luther King Jr., gathered for the March on Washington.
- King's iconic "I Have a Dream" speech called for civil rights legislation and job equality.

**8. Civil Rights Act of 1964:**

- President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the law, guaranteeing equal employment, limiting voter
literacy tests, and ensuring integration in public facilities.

**9. Bloody Sunday (1965):**

- Protesters marched from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, for voting rights.
 - They faced brutal attacks by police, highlighting the need for legislation to enforce the 15th
amendment.

**Conclusion:**
- The Civil Rights Movement fought against racial discrimination, leading to significant legal
changes and societal progress in the 1950s and 1960s.

Timeline of the whole movement

- **1868:** 14th Amendment grants equal protection under the law.

- **1870:** 15th Amendment grants Black American men the right to vote.
- **Late 19th Century:** Jim Crow laws are established in the South.
- **1941 (June 25):** Executive Order 8802 opens national defense jobs to all Americans.
- **1955 (December 1):** Rosa Parks refuses to give up her bus seat, sparking the Montgomery
Bus Boycott.
- **1957 (September 9):** President Eisenhower signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957.
- **1961 (May 4):** Freedom Riders embark on a bus tour to protest segregated bus terminals.
- **1963 (August 28):** March on Washington, where Martin Luther King Jr. delivers the "I Have
a Dream" speech.
- **1964 (July 2):** President Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law.
- **1965 (March 7):** Bloody Sunday - Selma to Montgomery march for voting rights faces brutal
police attacks.

These dates represent key moments in the Civil Rights Movement, capturing the struggles,
victories, and legislative changes that shaped the fight for equality.

Challenges faced by the people in civil rights movements

1. **Segregation and Discrimination:**

- Black Americans were subjected to widespread segregation in schools, public facilities,
transportation, and everyday life.
- Discrimination in employment opportunities limited economic progress, forcing many into
low-wage jobs.

2. **Jim Crow Laws:**

- Jim Crow laws enforced racial segregation and reinforced a system of inequality in the
Southern states.
- These laws restricted voting rights, education, and access to public spaces for Black
individuals.

3. **Violence and Intimidation:**

- Acts of racial violence, including lynching and bombings, were used to intimidate Black
communities and activists.
 - Freedom Riders and peaceful protesters often faced physical attacks from white
supremacists and law enforcement.

4. **Voting Rights Challenges:**

- Despite constitutional amendments granting voting rights, many southern states imposed
obstacles like literacy tests and poll taxes to disenfranchise Black voters.
- Intimidation and violence were used to discourage Black citizens from attempting to register
to vote.

5. **Limited Educational Opportunities:**

- Schools for Black students were often underfunded and lacked basic resources compared to
schools for white students.
- Segregation in education denied Black children equal educational opportunities.

6. **Limited Economic Opportunities:**

- Discrimination in employment and economic policies relegated Black Americans to
lower-paying jobs with fewer advancement opportunities.
- Economic disparities contributed to the cycle of poverty in many Black communities.

7. **Resistance and Backlash:**

- Activists and those advocating for civil rights faced resistance and backlash from white
supremacists, law enforcement, and even some politicians.
- Efforts to challenge the status quo were met with violence, arrests, and social ostracization.

8. **Fear of Retaliation:**
- Fear of retaliation and reprisals from employers, neighbors, or local authorities often
prevented individuals from openly supporting the civil rights cause.
- The risk of losing jobs, homes, or even facing physical harm created a climate of fear.

Despite these challenges, the Civil Rights Movement persevered, leading to significant
legislative changes and societal advancements towards equality. The courage and
determination of Black Americans and their allies played a crucial role in overcoming these
obstacles.

Impacts of civil rights movements on black americans

The Civil Rights Movement had Ir and lasting impacts on Black Americans, bringing about
significant social, political, and legal changes. Here are some key impacts of the Civil Rights
Movement:

1. **Legal Equality:**
- Landmark legislation, such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965,
aimed to end racial segregation, protect voting rights, and outlaw discrimination in public
spaces.
 - These laws paved the way for legal equality and provided mechanisms to challenge
discriminatory practices.

2. **Desegregation:**
- The movement led to the desegregation of schools, public facilities, and transportation,
breaking down the barriers that had enforced racial separation.
- Landmark cases like Brown v. Board of Education (1954) played a crucial role in ending
segregation in public schools.

3. **Voting Rights:**
- The Voting Rights Act of 1965 eliminated discriminatory voting practices, such as literacy
tests and poll taxes, ensuring that Black Americans could exercise their right to vote.
- This legislation significantly increased Black political participation and representation.

4. **Educational Opportunities:**
- Desegregation efforts improved educational opportunities for Black students by ending
racially discriminatory policies in schools.
- Affirmative action programs aimed to address historical inequalities and promote diversity in
higher education.

5. **Economic Progress:**
- The Civil Rights Movement contributed to breaking down barriers to economic opportunities
for Black Americans.
- Affirmative action policies in employment sought to address systemic discrimination and
promote diversity in the workplace.

6. **Empowerment and Political Activism:**

- The movement empowered Black Americans to assert their rights and actively engage in
political activism.
- Black leaders, including Martin Luther King Jr., became influential voices in advocating for
civil rights and social justice.
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7. **Cultural Impact:**
- The Civil Rights Movement had a profound cultural impact, influencing art, music, literature,
and popular culture.
- It inspired a sense of pride and resilience within the Black community, leading to the
emergence of the Black Arts Movement.

8. **Shift in Public Opinion:**

- The movement played a key role in shifting public opinion, garnering support for civil rights
reforms and challenging deep-seated racial prejudices.
- The struggle for civil rights became a national conversation, fostering empathy and
understanding.
9. **Legacy of Activism:**
- The Civil Rights Movement laid the foundation for future social justice movements, inspiring
activism on various fronts, including women's rights, LGBTQ+ rights, and other marginalized
communities.

While challenges persist, the impacts of the Civil Rights Movement have been transformative,
contributing to a more inclusive and equitable society. Black Americans continue to build upon
the progress achieved during this pivotal era in American history.

Biomes

### Aquatic Biome:

**1. Location:**
- Oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, and ponds.

**2. Climate:**
- Varies from polar to tropical depending on the location.

**3. Temperature:**
- Ranges widely based on depth and location.
- Shallow waters tend to have more variable temperatures.

**4. Soil:**
- No specific soil type as it's primarily water-based.

**5. Vegetation:**
- Phytoplankton, seaweed, and various aquatic plants.
- Coral reefs are prominent in warm tropical waters.

**6. Animals:**
- Fish, whales, dolphins, sharks, jellyfish, and various marine invertebrates.

**7. Insolation:**
- Penetration of sunlight varies with depth.
- Light availability crucial for photosynthetic organisms.

**8. Precipitation:**
- Non-applicable as it's water-based.

**9. Food Chain:**

- Begins with phytoplankton and progresses to larger marine animals.

---
### Grassland Biome:
**1. Location:**
- Found on every continent except Antarctica.

**2. Climate:**
- Temperate grasslands experience distinct seasons.
- Tropical grasslands have a wet and dry season.

**3. Temperature:**
- Seasonal variations, with hot summers and cold winters.

**4. Soil:**
- Rich and fertile, suitable for agriculture.

**5. Vegetation:**
- Dominated by grasses with scattered trees or shrubs.
- Prairies in North America and steppes in Eurasia are examples.

**6. Animals:**
- Bison, gazelles, zebras, and various rodents.
- Predators like lions and wolves.

**7. Insolation:**
- Varies based on latitude and season.

**8. Precipitation:**
- Can be dry, with periodic droughts.

**9. Food Chain:**

- Grasses are primary producers, supporting herbivores and carnivores.

---

### Forest Biome:

**1. Location:**
- Found across the globe, with variations like tropical, temperate, and boreal forests.

**2. Climate:**
- Varies from hot and humid in tropical forests to cold in boreal forests.

**3. Temperature:**
- Temperatures depend on the type of forest and its location.

**4. Soil:**
 - Diverse soil types, often nutrient-rich.

**5. Vegetation:**
- Canopy, understory, and forest floor layers.
- Tropical rainforests have high biodiversity.

**6. Animals:**
- Jaguars, monkeys, bears, and various bird species.
- Each type of forest hosts a unique set of species.

**7. Insolation:**
- Amount of sunlight reaching the forest floor varies with canopy density.

**8. Precipitation:**
- High in rainforests, varying in temperate and boreal forests.

**9. Food Chain:**

- Begins with plants, supporting herbivores and carnivores in a diverse ecosystem.

---

### Desert Biome:

**1. Location:**
- Found on every continent, with the largest in Africa and Asia.

**2. Climate:**
- Extremely arid with low precipitation.

**3. Temperature:**
- High daytime temperatures and cold nights.

**4. Soil:**
- Often sandy and lacks nutrients.

**5. Vegetation:**
- Adapted to conserve water, like cacti and succulents.

**6. Animals:**
- Camels, snakes, lizards, and specialized insects.

**7. Insolation:**
- Intense sunlight due to low cloud cover.

**8. Precipitation:**
 - Very low, often less than 250 mm per year.

**9. Food Chain:**

- Starts with plants adapted to the harsh conditions, supporting adapted herbivores and
predators.

---

### Tundra Biome:

**1. Location:**
- Found near the poles and at high altitudes.

**2. Climate:**
- Cold with short growing seasons.

**3. Temperature:**
- Extremely cold, with permafrost beneath the surface.

**4. Soil:**
- Permafrost restricts drainage, limiting plant growth.

**5. Vegetation:**
- Mosses, lichens, and low-growing shrubs.

**6. Animals:**
- Arctic foxes, reindeer, polar bears, and migratory birds.

**7. Insolation:**
- Varies with seasons; long days in summer and extended darkness in winter.

**8. Precipitation:**
- Low, often in the form of snow.

**9. Food Chain:**

- Limited plant life supports herbivores and predators adapted to cold conditions.

---

### Taiga Biome:

**1. Location:**
- Extensive biome found in northern regions of North America, Europe, and Asia.

**2. Climate:**
- Cold with long winters and short summers.
**3. Temperature:**
- Low temperatures, with freezing winters.

**4. Soil:**
- Acidic and nutrient-poor.

**5. Vegetation:**
- Dominated by coniferous trees like spruce, fir, and pine.

**6. Animals:**
- Moose, wolves, bears, and migratory birds.

**7. Insolation:**
- Limited sunlight due to high latitude and dense tree cover.

**8. Precipitation:**
- Moderate, mainly as snow in winter.

**9. Food Chain:**

- Coniferous trees support a range of herbivores and predators adapted to cold conditions.

---

### Steppe Biome:

**1. Location:**
- Found in the interiors of continents, between deserts and forests.

**2. Climate:**
- Dry with a semi-arid to arid climate.

**3. Temperature:**
- Extreme temperature variations between summer and winter.

**4. Soil:**
- Varies but often fertile, supporting agriculture.

**5. Vegetation:**
- Dominated by grasses, with scattered shrubs and trees.

**6. Animals:**
- Grazing herbivores like gazelles, horses, and various predators.

**7. Insolation:**
 - Intense sunlight due to the lack of significant cloud cover.

**8. Precipitation:**
- Low to moderate, with distinct wet and dry seasons.

**9. Food Chain:**

- Grasses form the basis, supporting herbivores and carnivores adapted to the semi-arid
conditions.

---

### Savanna Biome:

**1. Location:**
- Found in tropical regions, often between rainforests and deserts.

**2. Climate:**
- Wet and dry seasons, with distinct rainfall patterns.

**3. Temperature:**
- Warm to hot throughout the year.

**4. Soil:**
- Often nutrient-poor, with variations based on location.

**5. Vegetation:**
- Dominated by grasses and scattered trees, like acacias.

**6. Animals:**
- Lions