Lecture 5

The next two set operations are directly related to the notions of logical conjunction
and disjunction.
Def: The union of two sets A and B is defined to be the set
A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
or, in words, A ∪ B is the set of all elements x for which the compund statement
“x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B” is true.
Def: The intersection of two sets A and B is defined to be the set
A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
or, in words, A ∩ B is the set of all elements x for which the compund statement
“x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B” is true.
The intersection of two sets measures how much two sets have in common with each
other.
Ex:

i). Let A = {0, 1} and B = {1, 2, 3}, then

A ∪ B = {0, 1, 2, 3}, A ∩ B = {1}.
ii). Let A and B be the following intervals of R. A = [0, 2) and B = [1∞),
A ∪ B = [0, ∞), B = [1, 2).
iii). Similar to the last example, let A and B be the following intervals. A = [0, 1)
and B = [1, ∞),
A ∪ B = [0, ∞), A ∩ B = ∅.

Def: Given two sets A and B. If A ∩ B = ∅, then we say that A and B are disjoint.
In other words, A and B have nothing in common.
Ex: Given the following two subsets of R2 ,
A = {(x, x2 ) | x ∈ R}
B = {(x, x + 2) | x ∈ R}
find A ∪ B and A\B. Done in class.
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Sets indexed by other sets Sometimes we have a large collection of sets that we
wish to work with. In this case, it can be easier to actually describe all of these sets
by using elements of another set. For example,
Ex: Consider the infinite collection of intervals of the reals,
1 1 1
A = [0, 1], B = [0, ], C = [0, ], D = [0, ], . . .
2 3 4
From observation, we notice a pattern, and find an easier way to label all of these
sets. By making use of the natural numbers, we can define all of the sets above in a
more compact notation,
1
In = [0, ] for n ∈ N.
n
In this case we write this infinite collection of intervals as {In }n∈N or {In }∞
n=1 .

In general, if Λ is a set of indices, and if Aα is a set for each α ∈ Λ we write {Aα }α∈Λ
as shorthand for
{Aα | α ∈ Λ}
the set of the sets Aα . There are situations in math in which you will need to consider
index sets larger than N, larger than R, larger than anything you could imagine really.
In general we have the following definitions of an arbitrary union and arbitrary inter-
section.
[
Aα = {x | x ∈ Aα for at least one α ∈ Λ}
α∈Λ
( )
_
= x (x ∈ Aα ) is true .
α∈Λ

and
\
Aα = {x | x ∈ Aα for all α ∈ Λ}
α∈Λ
( )
^
= x (x ∈ Aα ) is true .
α∈Λ

Ex: Let us look at the intervals {In }n∈N from the prior example. Then, we have
∞
[
In = [0, 1].
n=1

The reason for this is that

[0, 1] = I1 ⊇ I2 ⊇ I3 ⊇ · · · .
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As x ∈ ∞
S
n=1 In is equivalent to saying x ∈ Im for some m ∈ N, we see that x must
be in I1 = [0, 1] as all Im ⊆ [0, 1] for all m ∈ N. Now,
∞
\
In = {0}.
n=1

As 0 ∈ Im = [0, m1 ] for every m ∈ N, we have that 0 ∈ ∞

T
T∞ n=1 In . Now, we show why
y∈/ n=1 In for any 0 < y ≤ 1. Well, as 0 < y ≤ 1 we have that ∃m ∈ N such that
1
/ ∞
T
m
< y. So y ∈
/ Im , thus y ∈ n=1 In .

Now, back to some properties.

Associativity of ∪ and ∩.
Prop: For sets A, B, and C, we have that

i). (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C) = A ∪ B ∪ C.
ii). (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C) = A ∩ B ∩ C.

We will prove a portion of item ii). namely that A ∩ (B ∩ C) = A ∩ B ∩ C. The proof

that (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ B ∩ C is similar. The proof of item i). is left to the reader
as an exercise.
We will prove this result by relying on what was proved in lecture 1 for statements.

Proof. We begin with x ∈ A∩(B ∩C) and recall that this is equivalent to x ∈ A ∧x ∈
B ∩ C as a statement. It is important to note here the difference in notation when
working with sets instead of statements and vice–versa. (Mainly that ∪ and ∩ are
used for sets, and ∨ and ∧ are used for statements)

x ∈ A ∩ (B ∩ C) ⇐⇒ x ∈ A ∧ (x ∈ B ∩ C)
⇐⇒ x ∈ A ∧ (x ∈ B ∧ x ∈ C)
⇐⇒ x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B ∧ x ∈ C
⇐⇒ x ∈ A ∩ B ∩ C.

Note that in the third line we made use of the associativity of ∧ for statements. 

Distribution Rules
Prop: For sets A, B, and C we have the following

i). A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).
ii). A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).
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We will prove item ii). Item i). will be left as an exercise to the reader. We will also
make use of the language of statements for this proof as well.

Proof.

x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C) ⇐⇒ x ∈ A ∨ (x ∈ B ∩ C)
⇐⇒ x ∈ A ∨ (x ∈ B ∧ x ∈ C)
⇐⇒ (x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B) ∧ (x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ C)
⇐⇒ (x ∈ A ∪ B) ∧ (x ∈ A ∪ C)
⇐⇒ x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).

Note that in the third line, we have used the analogous distribution rule for statements
for distributing disjunction over conjunction. 

Using our language from earlier. We can extend these rules. The proofs are incredibly
similar to the above, so they are omitted.
Associativity and Distribution over Indexed Collection of Sets
Prop: For an indexed collection of sets {Aα }α∈Λ and an arbitrary set B, we have the
following

• Associativity
(1)
" #
\ \
B∩ Aα = (B ∩ Aα ).
α∈Λ α∈Λ

(2)
" #
[ [
B∪ Aα = (B ∪ Aα ).
α∈Λ α∈Λ

• Distribution
(1)
" #
[ [
B∩ Aα = (B ∩ Aα ).
α∈Λ α∈Λ

(2)
" #
\ \
B∪ Aα = (B ∪ Aα ).
α∈Λ α∈Λ
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De Morgan’s Laws
The de Morgan laws tell us how intersections, unions, and complementation interplay
with each other. For sets A and B, they can be stated simply as
(A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c .
Just like we saw above, there is an extended version of the de Morgan laws that apply
to collections of sets indexed by other sets. We will state and prove this version.
Prop For a collection of sets {Aα }α∈Λ , the following hold

i). !c
[ \
Aα = Acα .
α∈Λ α∈Λ
ii). !c
\ [
Aα = Acα .
α∈Λ α∈Λ

We will prove item ii). and leave item i). as an exercise to the reader. I will present
two proofs. One by the language of statements, and one in the language of sets.
There really is no semantic difference between these two proofs. I am presenting both
to give the flavor of both arguments so a choice can made by the reader as to what
way formulating proof in sets is preferred by them.
Via statements
T
c
Proof. We begin with the statement x ∈ α∈Λ Aα for an element x. This proof
will rely on the two ways we can say that x is not an element of a set,
!c !
\ \
(1) x∈ Aα ⇐⇒ x ∈ / Aα
α∈Λ α∈Λ
!c !
\ \
(2) x∈ Aα ⇐⇒ ¬ x ∈ Aα .
α∈Λ α∈Λ

Equivalence (1) is written in the language of sets, and equivalence (2) is written in
the language of statements. Our result now follows from
!c !
\ \
x∈ Aα ⇐⇒ ¬ x ∈ Aα
α∈Λ α∈Λ
!
^
⇐⇒ ¬ (x ∈ Aα )
α∈Λ
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_
⇐⇒ ¬(x ∈ Aα )
α∈Λ
_
⇐⇒ (x ∈ Acα )
α∈Λ
[
⇐⇒ x ∈ Acα .
α∈Λ

Via sets

Proof. As we a doing a proof with sets, our definition of set equality, A = B, means
we must show A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.
T
c
Thus take an arbitrary element x ∈ α∈Λ Aα . Thus, by definition of the comple-
T
/ α∈Λ Aα . By definition, there must exist at least one α for which x ∈
ment, x ∈ / Aα ,
c
otherwise x would be in the intersection. Thus, x ∈ Aα for at least one α. So
[
x ∈ Acα ⊆ Acα .
α∈Λ

c
⊆ α∈Λ Acα .
T S
Thus, we have just shown α∈Λ Aα

Now, take x ∈ α∈Λ Acα . Thus x ∈ Acα for some α ∈ Λ. Thus, x ∈

S
/ Aα for this α ∈ Λ.
T
But, then x could not possibly be in the intersection α∈Λ Aα as x ∈
/ Aα for at least
one α ∈ Λ. Thus, !c
\
x∈ Aα .
α∈Λ
S c
T
c
This shows that α∈Λ Aα ⊆ α∈Λ Aα . 

Def: The symmetric difference of two sets is defined to be

A∆B = A\B ∪ B\A.

Note: It is important to note the following:

• The symmetric difference is symmetric, i.e. A∆B = B∆A.

• The symmetric difference is also equivalent to (A ∪ B)\(A ∩ B). (This is
perhaps easiest seen by Venn diagrams)

Alright, so at this point it is important to stop and mention again that the language
of sets and statements are equivalent. What we have learned so far, is that

• Logical conjunction ∧ is analogous to intersection ∩.

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• Logical disjunction ∨ is analogous to union ∪.

• The statement “If x ∈ A, then x ∈ C” is analogous to saying that A is a
subset of C,A ⊆ C.
• The statement “x is not in the set A”, ¬(x ∈ A) is analogous to saying x is
contained in the complement of A, x ∈ Ac .

Cartesian Product

Def: For two sets A and B, and arbitrary elements a, b of sets A,B respectively, the
ordered pair (a, b) is the pair of elements a and b where a is considered to be the
first element and b the second.
The collection of all ordered pairs coming from two sets is another important defini-
tion.
Def: The cartesian product of two sets A and B is the set
A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A, b ∈ B},
is the collection of all ordered pairs coming from A and B in which elements from A
are considered ‘first’ and elements from B are considered second.