Open Elective Psychology & Life

2 mark questions :
Define the following

1. Introspection
Introspection is a method of studying Psychology which includes the examination of
one's own conscious thoughts and feelings. In psychology, the process of introspection relies
exclusively on observation of one's mental state.It has often been claimed that Wilhelm Wundt,
the father of modern psychology, was the first to adopt introspection to experimental
psychology.

2. Sensory memory
Sensory memory is the shortest-term element of memory. It is the ability to retain
impressions of sensory information after the original stimuli have ended.The sensory memory for
visual stimuli is sometimes known as the iconic memory, the memory for aural stimuli is known
as the echoic memory, and that for touch as the haptic memory.

3. Reinforcement
Reinforcement is a term used in operant conditioning to refer to anything that increases
the likelihood that a response will occur. Note that reinforcement is defined by the effect that it
has on behavior—it increases or strengthens the response. There are majorly two types of
reinforcements : Primary and secondary reinforcements. Eg : Incentives in job are reinforcers.

4. Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian conditioning) is learning through
association and was discovered by Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. In simple terms two stimuli are
linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal.The classical conditioning
process involves pairing a previously neutral stimulus (such as the sound of a bell) with an
unconditioned stimulus (the taste of food).

5. Extinction

Extinction is observed in both operantly conditioned and classically conditioned behavior. When
operant behavior that has been previously reinforced no longer produces reinforcing consequences the
behavior gradually stops occurring. In classical conditioning, when a conditioned stimulus is presented
alone, so that it no longer predicts the coming of the unconditioned stimulus, conditioned responding
gradually stops. Eg when children are not given attention the child stops throwing tantrums.
 6. Stereotypes
In social psychology, a stereotype is an over-generalized belief about a particular category
of people. Stereotypes are generalized because one assumes that the stereotype is true for each
individual person in the category. Stereotypes encourage prejudice. Eg : All Black Americans are
poor

7. Stress
Stress is a situation that triggers a particular biological response. Stress triggers your fight-
or-flight response in order to fight the stressor or run away from it. Typically, after the response
occurs, the body should relax. Too much constant stress can have negative effects on long-term
health.
8. Eustress
Stress from positive experiences is referred to as "eustress”. Eustress, or positive stress,
has the following characteristics:
• Motivates, focuses energy.
• Is short-term.
• Is perceived as within our coping abilities.
• Feels exciting.
• Improves performance.

9. Distress
Most definitions characterize distress as an aversive, negative state in which coping and
adaptation processes fail to return an organism to physiological and/or psychological homeostasis.
Distress, or negative stress, has the following characteristics:
• Causes anxiety or concern.
• Can be short- or long-term.
• Is perceived as outside of our coping abilities.
• Feels unpleasant.
• Decreases performance.
• Can lead to mental and physical problems.
 10. Stressor
A stressor is anything that causes the release of stress hormones. There are two broad
categories of stressors: Physiological (or physical) stressors and Psychological Stressors. Eg:
Chronic ill health or a headache or frustration at work or interpersonal problems.

11. Aptitude
An aptitude is a component of a competence to do a certain kind of work at a certain level.
Aptitude is inborn potential to do certain kinds of work whether developed or undeveloped.Eg:
Teaching aptitude or Clerical aptitude. Successful selection of a person for the right job needs
both aptitude and interest in the job.

12. Work Life Balance

Work–life balance is the term used to describe the balance that an individual needs between
time allocated for work and other aspects of life. Areas of life other than work-life can be, but not
limited to personal interests, family and social or leisure activities. Work Life imbalance is an
important contributor for stress in organisations.

13. Psychology
Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, including conscious and unconscious
phenomena, as well as feeling and thought. The word psychology derives from Greek roots
meaning study of the psyche, or soul.In 1890, William James defined psychology as "the science
of mental life, both of its phenomena and their conditions"

14. Learning
Learning is the process of acquiring new, or modifying existing, knowledge, behaviors,
skills, values, or preferences.It is a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to new
experiences. learning can involve both beneficial and negative behaviors.Eg: learning to ride a
bike or learning to be afraid of cockroaches

15. Memory
Memory is the faculty of the brain by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved
when needed. Memory is the term given to the structures and processes involved in the storage
and subsequent retrieval of information.“Memory is the means by which we draw on our past
experiences in order to use this information in the present’ (Sternberg, 1999)

16. Coping
In psychology, coping means to invest own conscious effort, to solve personal and
interpersonal problems, in order to try to master, minimize or tolerate stress and conflict. The
psychological coping mechanisms are commonly termed coping strategies or coping skills. The
term coping generally refers to adaptive (constructive) coping strategies. That is strategies which
reduce stress.

17. Occupational Stress

Occupational stress is stress related to one's job. Occupational stress often stems from
unexpected responsibilities and pressures that do not align with a person's knowledge, skills, or
expectations, inhibiting one's ability to cope. Occupational stress can increase when workers do
not feel supported by supervisors or colleagues, or feel as if they have little control over work
processes.

18. Impression formation

Impression formation in social psychology refers to the process by which individual pieces
of information about another person are integrated to form a global impression of the individual
(i.e. how one person perceives another person).Impression formation is influenced by prejudice
and stereotypes. They also impact our communication with the person. It is also has a component
of emotions.

19. Effective communication

An Effective Communication is a communication between two or more persons wherein
the intended message is successfully delivered, received and understood.In other words, the
communication is said to be effective when all the parties (sender and receiver) in the
communication, assign similar meanings to the message and listen carefully to what all have been
said and make the sender feel heard and understood. In the business context, the communication
is effective if the information shared among the company employees contributes towards the
organization’s commercial success.

20. Communication
Communication is the process of transmitting information from one person to another. It
is the act of sharing of ideas, facts, opinions, thoughts, messages or emotions to other people, with
the use of the channel to create mutual understanding and confidence. Communication can be both
verbal ( includes written and spoken language) and non verbal ( includes body language, gestures
and voice modulations).

21. Non verbal communication

Non-Verbal Communication is the process of conveying meaning without the use of words either
written or spoken. In other words, any communication made between two or more persons through
the use of facial expressions, hand movements, body language, postures, and gestures is called as
non-verbal communication.
 22. Verbal Communication

Verbal Communication is a type of oral communication wherein the message is

transmitted through the spoken words. Here the sender gives words to his feelings, thoughts, ideas and
opinions and expresses them in the form of speeches, discussions, presentations, and conversations.

23. Inter personal communication

Interpersonal communication is the process by which people exchange information, feelings,
and meaning through verbal and non-verbal messages: it is face-to-face communication.
Interpersonal communication is not just about what is actually said - the language used - but how
it is said and the non-verbal messages sent through tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures and
body language.

24. Assertive communication

Assertive communication is the ability to express positive and negative ideas and feelings
in an open, honest and direct way. It recognises our rights whilst still respecting the rights of others.
It allows us to take responsibility for ourselves and our actions without judging or blaming other
people.

25. Prejudice
Prejudice is an unjustified or incorrect attitude (usually negative) towards an individual
based solely on the individual's membership of a social group.It is an unfavorable opinion or
feeling formed beforehand or without knowledge, thought, or reason. For example, a person may
hold prejudiced views towards a certain race or gender etc. (e.g. sexist).

5 marks questions

1. Define psychology. Briefly describe its importance

Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, including conscious and unconscious
phenomena, as well as feeling and thought. st. As a social science it aims to understand
individuals and groups by establishing general principles and researching specific cases.A
professional practitioner or researcher of Psychology is called a psychologist.
While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health
problems, it is also directed towards understanding and solving problems in several spheres of
human activity. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society.The majority of
psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or
school settings. Some are employed in industrial and organizational settings, or in other areas such
as human development and aging, sports, health, and the media, as well as in forensic investigation
and other aspects of law.
 2. Define Psychology and describe the branches of psychology

The word Psychology is derived from ancient Greek word Psyche meaning soul or mind and logos meaning
study of . In 1890, William James defined psychology as "the science of mental life, both of its phenomena
and their conditions". The branches of psychology are categoried broadly into 1. Basic Branches 2. Applied
branches

1. Basic Branches
a. General Psychology
b. Biological Psychology
c. Abnormal Psychology
d. Developmental Psychology
e. Experimental Psychology
f. Neuro Psychology
g. Social Psychology
h. Evolutionary Psychology
i. Psychophysics and others
2. Applied branches
a. Clinical Psychology
b. Educational Psychology
c. School Psychology
d. Counseling
e. Psychotherapy
f. Organizational Psychology
g. Sports Psychology and others

3. Define Psychology and explain the myths and misconceptions regarding Psychology

The word Psychology is derived from ancient Greek word Psyche meaning soul or mind and
logos meaning study of . In 1890, William James defined psychology as "the science of mental
life, both of its phenomena and their conditions". Of all sciences Psychology is the most
misunderstood and has a lot of myths around it. Some of them are as follows :

➢ Psychology is about face reading : No! Psychologists do use understanding the

observed body language and non verbal communication but do not read the face. It
is a false notions.
➢ Psychology is all about diseases and disorders: Only abnormal Psychology, Clinical
Psychology and related fields are related to mental disorders . In reality psychology
deals with extended applied fields over a spectrum of areas including education and
organisations. Clinical aspect is just one component of psychology.
➢ Psychology uses non scientific methods of treatment: All the methods of
psychology are drawn out of scientific research and are valid.
 ➢ Psychologists can control the behaviour of people: This again is a wrong notion.
Behaviour management and modification is a voluntary effort. However in applied
fields principles of psychology can be used to influence behaviour of people like in
propaganda and advertisements.
➢ All crime and criminals have a psychological disorder as a cause : False not all
crimes are because of a psychological problem . Infact there are crimes without
motives too.

4. Define Psychology and explain the role of a psychologist

The word Psychology is derived from ancient Greek word Psyche meaning soul or mind and
logos meaning study of . In 1890, William James defined psychology as "the science of mental
life, both of its phenomena and their conditions". People who are trained in Psychology and
apply it in the field are called Psychologists. The training includes academic as well as in field
training.
The roles of psychologists change with the area of work. However it must be noted that the
primary goal remains using principles of psychology and applying them for the betterment of
the society. Some of the roles of a psychologist include :

a. Counsellor: the most common role of the psychologist is to give psychological care
and motivation to enable maladjusted people solve their everyday life problems.
The counselors can work in a variety of settings like family, schools, institutions
and colleges.
b. Clinical Psychologists: work in the hospitals and mental health centers with patients
of psychiatric and psychological problems . They work towards diagnosis and
giving non medical therapies.
c. Rehabilitation psychologists: they work in rehabilitation centers along with
physiotherapists and sometimes educators and doctors to get people back from
physical and mental trauma and help them regain their lost abilities
d. In the HR profession psychologists can work towards recruitment and training of
employees to have the right person at the right job and to increase the work
efficiency of employees
e. As educational psychologists , the psychologists work in developing the optimal
curriculum and experiment with pedagogies
f. In the field of special education , the psychologists work towards imparting life
skills in addition to normal curriculum to children with special needs. Depending
on the level of independence of the students vocational training is also given to
them.
5. Define communication and write a note on steps involved in communication

Communication (from Latin communicare, meaning "to share") is the act of

conveying meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually
understood signs,symbols, and semiotic rules.
The main steps inherent to all communication are:

a. The formation of communicative motivation or reason.

b. Message composition (further internal or technical elaboration on what exactly to
express).
c. Message encoding (for example, into digital data, written text, speech, pictures,
gestures and so on).
d. Transmission of the encoded message as a sequence of signals using a specific
channel or medium.
e. Noise sources such as natural forces and in some cases human activity (both
intentional and accidental) begin influencing the quality of signals propagating
from the sender to one or more receivers.
f. Reception of signals and reassembling of the encoded message from a sequence of
received signals.
g. Decoding of the reassembled encoded message.
h. Interpretation and making sense of the presumed original message.

6. Define communication. Write a note on nonverbal communication

Two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not only
exchange (encode-decode) information, news, ideas and feelings but also create and share
meaning. In general, communication is a means of connecting people or places. In business,
it is a key function of management--an organization cannot operate without communication
between levels, departments and employees.
Interpersonal communication is much more than the explicit meaning of words, the
information or message conveyed. It also includes implicit messages, whether intentional
or not, which are expressed through non-verbal behaviours.Non-verbal communication
includes facial expressions, the tone and pitch of the voice, gestures displayed through
body language (kinesics) and the physical distance between the communicators
(proxemics).These non-verbal signals can give clues and additional information and
meaning over and above spoken (verbal) communication.
 7. Write a note on occupational stress

Stress is a feeling of emotional or physical tension. It can come from any event or thought that makes one feel

frustrated, angry, or nervous. Stress is the body's reaction to a challenge or demand. In short bursts, stress can

be positive, such as when it helps avoid danger or meet a deadline and this is called Eustress. But when

stress lasts for a long time, it may harm ones health.

Occupational stress is stress related to one's job. Occupational stress often stems from
unexpected responsibilities and pressures that do not align with a person's knowledge,
skills, or expectations, inhibiting one's ability to cope. Occupational stress can increase
when workers do not feel supported by supervisors or colleagues, or feel as if they have
little control over work processes.

Sources of occupational stress come from:

o a toxic work environment

o negative workload
o isolation
o financial pressures
o types of hours worked
o role conflict & role ambiguity
o lack of autonomy, career development barriers
o difficult relationships with administrators and/or coworkers
o managerial bullying
o harassment
o organizational climate

8. Explain the concept of assertive communication . Elaborate on its advantages/ explain its
characteristics/ How can assertive communication be achieved
Assertive communication is the ability to express positive and negative ideas and feelings
in an open, honest and direct way.It recognises our rights whilst still respecting the rights
of others.It allows us to take responsibility for ourselves and our actions without judging
or blaming other people. And it allows us to constructively confront and find a mutually
satisfying solution where conflict exists.
 There are many advantages of assertiveness in communication, most notably these:
o Assertiveness helps us feel good about ourselves and others
o Assertiveness leads to the development of mutual respect with others
o Assertiveness increases our self-esteem
o Assertiveness helps us achieve our goals
o Assertiveness minimises hurting and alienating other people
o Assertiveness reduces anxiety
o Assertiveness protects us from being taken advantage of by others
o Assertiveness enables us to make decisions and free choices in life
o Assertiveness enables us to express, both verbally and non-verbally, a wide range
of feelings and thoughts, both positive and negative
There are six main characteristics of assertiveness in communication. These are:
o eye contact: demonstrates interest, shows sincerity
o body posture: congruent body language will improve the significance of the
message
o gestures: appropriate gestures help to add emphasis
o voice: a level, well-modulated tone is more convincing and acceptable, and is not
intimidating
o timing: use your judgement to maximise receptivity and impact
o content: how, where and when you choose to comment is probably more important
than WHAT you say

9. Describe various health issues related to stress

Stress is the body's reaction to harmful situations -- whether they’re real or perceived.
When you feel threatened, a chemical reaction occurs in your body that allows you to act
in a way to prevent injury. This reaction is known as "fight-or-flight,” or the stress
response. During stress response, your heart rate increases, breathing quickens, muscles
tighten, and blood pressure rises. Common effects of stress on body
o Headache
o Muscle tension or pain
o Chest pain
o Fatigue
o Change in sex drive
o Stomach upset
o Sleep problems
o Hypertension
o Life style disorders like diabetes
o Breathlessness
o Psychosomatic disorders like asthma and eczema
o Insomnia or sleelessness
 Common effects of stress on mood
o Anxiety
o Restlessness
o Lack of motivation or focus
o Feeling overwhelmed
o Irritability or anger
o Sadness or depression
Common effects of stress on behavior
o Overeating or undereating
o Angry outbursts
o Drug or alcohol abuse
o Tobacco use
o Social withdrawal
o Exercising less often

10. Describe any 2 different branches of Psychology ( any 2 of the below)

Psychology can be roughly divided into two major areas:
a. Research, which seeks to increase our knowledge base these branches are also
called basic branches
b. Practice, through which our knowledge is applied to solving problems in the real
world these branches are also called applied branches
Some of the major branches are :
• School psychology is a field that involves working in schools to help children deal
with academic, emotional, and social issues. School psychologists also collaborate
with teachers, students, and parents to help create a healthy learning environment.
• Industrial-organizational psychology is a branch that applies psychological
principles to research on workplace issues such as productivity and behavior. This
field of psychology, often referred to as I/O psychology, works to improve
productivity and efficiency in the workplace while also maximizing the well-being
of employees. Research in I-O psychology is known as applied research because it
seeks to solve real-world problems. I-O psychologists study topics such as worker
attitudes, employee behaviors, organizational processes, and leadership.
• Sports psychology is the study of how psychology influences sports, athletic
performance, exercise and physical activity. Some sports psychologists work with
 professional athletes and coaches to improve performance and increase motivation.
Other professionals utilize exercise and sports to enhance people’s lives and well-
being throughout the entire lifespan.
• Health psychology is a specialty area that focuses on how biology, psychology,
behavior and social factors influence health and illness. Other terms including
medical psychology and behavioral medicine are sometimes used interchangeably
with the term health psychology. The field of health psychology is focused on
promoting health as well as the prevention and treatment of disease and illness.
• Forensic psychology is a specialty area that deals with issues related to psychology
and the law. Those who work in this field of psychology apply psychological
principles to legal issues. This may involve studying criminal behavior and
treatments or working directly in the court system.Forensic psychologists perform
a wide variety of duties, including providing testimony in court cases, assessing
children in suspected child abuse cases, preparing children to give testimony and
evaluating the mental competence of criminal suspects.
• Experimental psychology is the branch of psychology that utilizes scientific
methods to research the brain and behavior. Many of these techniques are also used
by other areas in psychology to conduct research on everything from childhood
development to social issues. Experimental psychologists work in a wide variety of
settings including colleges, universities, research centers, government and private
businesses.

10 mark questions

1. Describe any 5 different branches of Psychology ( any 5 of the above)

2. Explain the steps taken to face a job interview

Facing a job interview is always a challenge and more so when it is done at the initial stages
of ones career. The following could be used to guide us through the process of interviews:

o Research the company. The first thing you should do after you’ve been asked to
interview for a position at a company is to research the company. Find out what the
mission of the company is, how long it’s been around, how many employees it has,
 and what your position would be if you got the job. If the company has a motto,
memorize it. Make sure you know as much about it as you can so you can impress
your interviewers and show them how much you care.
o Research your interviewers if you can. If you can spend a few minutes looking up
your interviewers, finding out where they went to college, where they previously
worked, or anything else about them
o Prepare to answer common questions. Though each interview is different, there are
certain questions that many interviewers commonly ask, and it’s good to have some
answers . Eg what are your strengths, what are your weaknesses, why do you want
to work in this company etc.
o Prepare to ask at least two questions. At the end of most interviews, your potential
employers will ask you if you have any questions you want to ask them.eg :Details
about an aspect of the job you’d like to know more about, Asking what your daily
life on the job would look like, such as how much time you’d spend collaborating
with other co-workers
o Practice with a friend. If you want to feel really confident going into that interview,
then you may want to practice with a friend or even someone who knows about
your field first. This can help you practice stating your answers with confidence,
getting the body language down, and feeling secure in what you have to offer.
o Prepare to explain why you’d be a good fit for the company. Another thing you
need to get ready to say is why you’d be a great fit for the company.
o Prepare to bring everything you need. It’s important to get everything you need
together the day before you go to the interview so you don’t have to do any last-
minute preparation to get ready for the big day. You’ll most likely need to bring
your resume and cover letter to use as a reference, as well as any other additional
materials that you think will help give your interviewers a better sense of who you
are and the work that you do.

In addition there are some common rules to follow in addition to communication both
verbal and non verbal:

o Dress professionally.
 o Arrive at least 10 minutes early.
o Introduce yourself with confidence
o Be articulate when you answer the questions.
o Avoid sharing overly personal information.
o Make sure to thank your interviewers in person
o Don’t bad mouth your current job or employer.
o Follow up. Once you’ve completed your interview, you should send your
interviewer a quick email thanking him or her for taking the time to meet with you
and to reiterate your interest in this position. Taking the time to write a quick note
to your interviewer shows that you took the process seriously and that you’re eager
to find out about the next steps

3. Explain the process and roadblocks to work life balance

Work–life balance is the term used to describe the balance that an individual needs
between time allocated for work and other aspects of life. Areas of life other than work-
life can be, but not limited to personal interests, family and social or leisure activities. The
term ‘Work-Life Balance' is recent in origin, as it was first used in UK and US in the late
1970s and 1980s, respectively. More recently the term has drawn on some confusion; this
is in part due to recent technological changes and advances that have made work and work
objectives possible to be completed on a 24-hour cycle. The use of smartphones, email,
video-chat, and other technological innovations has made it possible to work without
having a typical "9 to 5 work day".

There are three moderators that are correlated with work-life imbalance: Gender, time spent
at work, and family characteristics.

Gender differences could lead to a work-life imbalance due to the distinct perception of
role identity. It has been demonstrated that men prioritize their work duties over their
family duties to provide financial support for their families, whereas women prioritize their
family life.

Spending long hours at work due to "inflexibility, shifting in work requirements, overtime
or evening work duties" could lead to an imbalance between work and family duties. It has
been demonstrated "that time spent at work positively correlate with both work interference
with family and family interference with work, however, it was unrelated to cross-domain
satisfaction". This could be due to the fact that satisfaction is a subjective measure. This
being said, long hours could be interpreted positively or negatively depending on the
individuals. Working long hours affect the family duties, but on the other side, there are
financial benefits that accompany this action which negate the effect on family duties.

Family characteristics include single employers, married or cohabiting employers, parent

employers, and dual-earning parents. Parents who are employed experience reduced family
satisfaction due to their family duties or requirements.This is due to the fact that they are
unable to successfully complete these family duties. In addition, parent workers value
family-oriented activities; thus, working long hours reduces their ability to fulfill this
identity, and, in return, reduces family satisfaction. As for the married and/ or dual-earning
couples, it seems that "not only require more time and effort at home but also are a resource
for individuals to draw from, both instrumentally through higher income and emotionally
through increased empathy and support."

The search for work-life balance is a process in which people seek to change things in
accordance with changes in their own priorities, physical, psychological or both, and these
can be triggered in their turn by factors such as: age; changes in working conditions; the
demands of new technology; and poor management.