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Volume 53: 1–23

© The Author(s) 2023
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compression SOCKS ankle DOI: 10.1177/15280837231170305
journals.sagepub.com/home/jit

cut-strips at practical extension

Hafiz Faisal Siddique1 , Adnan Ahmed Mazari1, David Cirkl2,

Engin Akçagün3 , Abdurrahim Yilmaz3, Musaddaq Azeem4,
Michal Petrů4  and Ivan Masin4

Abstract
Compression pressure exertion is strongly related to mechanical properties of com-
pression socks deployed with various type of materials and machine adjustments. These
socks work on the principle of highest pressure at the ankle and gradually decrease towards
the calf portion. Compression socks are used for the prophylaxis and treatment of venous
disorders. Venous disorders range from minor asymptomatic incompetence of venous
valves to chronic venous ulceration. Current research work contains analysis of the force at
practical extension compared to experimental pressure (Ps), the relationship between
experimental pressure (Ps), force at practical extension, and tensile indices which include
hysteresis (H), tensile resilience (TR), and tensile linearity (TL). Results showed that the
force value at practical extension (FL) impart the significant influence on experimental
pressure (Ps). It is also portrayed that the tensile indices (W, W0 , H, TR, and TL) combined
with force at practical and experimental pressure also shown to have contributed sig-
nificantly to the explanation of experimental pressure (Ps) results. Compression sock
tensile characteristics are highly significant and directly related to their productivity, ef-
fectiveness, and working life.

1
Department of Clothing, Technical University of Liberec, Czech Republic
2
Department of Mechanics, Elasticity and Strength, Technical University of Liberec, Czech Republic
3
Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, Vocational School, Clothing Production Technology, Istanbul, Türkiye
4
Institute for Nanomaterials, Advanced Technologies and Innovation, Technical University of Liberec, Liberec,
Czech Republic

Corresponding author:
Hafiz Faisal Siddique, Department of Clothing, Technical University of Liberec, Czech Repiblic
Creative Commons Non Commercial CC BY-NC: This article is distributed under the
terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits non-commercial use,
reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as
specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).
2 Journal of Industrial Textiles

Keywords
Tensile characterization, cut-strips, ankle, compression pressure

Introduction
Compression socks are a highly regarded textile item for applying pressure to the lower part of the
leg. It is used for the prophylaxis and treatment of venous disorders in the human lower ex-
tremities. Venous diseases range from minor asymptomatic incompetence of venous valves to
chronic venous leg ulceration. To reduce and get rid of venous hyper-pressure, a technique of
compression therapy is recommended.1 In developed countries, leg ulcers affect 1% of the
population and have a considerable negative impact on quality of life, costing the NHS between
£300 and £600 million annually. Also, insufficient or non-sustained compression therapy will be
less effective than sufficient and sustained compression due to an impaired hemodynamic effect.2
Mechanism of action which lowers the pressure exertion from the ankle to the calf
portion of the leg is shown in Figure 1. The pressure gradient propels blood from flowing
upwards toward the heart and instead, it refluxes downward to the foot or laterally into the
superficial veins. As demonstrated in Figure 2, proper graded compression reduces the
diameter of major veins, increasing blood flow volume and velocity.3
Various standards and especially British standard BS 6612:1985,5 French standard
ASQUAL6 and German standard RAL-GZ 387/1:2000 7 had been developed by different
authorities and countries to describe the procedural requisites to evaluate and analyze the
compression socks.8
Accoring to the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) and RAL-387/1:2000,7
compression socks were classified to class I (2.4–2.8 kPa), class II (3.1–4.3 kPa), class III
(4.5–6.1 kPa), and class IV (above 6.5 kPa). Class level also portrays the intensity of
compression pressure at ankle (B portion). Depending on the kind and severity of the diseases,

Figure 1. Mechanism of action of compression socks.4

Siddique et al. 3

Figure 2. Comparison of reversible and irreversible blood flow.4

the degree of pressure and recommended class can be chosen in order to cure circulatory and
vascular medical conditions as well as fatigued, sore, swollen, or painful legs.9–12
Medical compression socks with the gradual increase in compression pressure from
distal to proximal regions are usually utilized to conduct the compression therapy.
Laplace’s law and Pascal’s law are the two primary concepts that help to describe how the
compression therapy system applies pressure to the leg. The first principle involves the
application of Pascal’s law and it requires muscle movement to generate a pressure pulse
which is distributed evenly in lower limbs during active and passive exercise. Pascal’s law
also used for explaining the dynamics of compression pressure. The compressive effect
can reduce the diameter of veins by positioning valves and forcing the venous blood to
return to the heart.13 The second principle uses Laplace’s law in combination with the
applied stocking tension and limb shape in order to provide a variety of interface pressure.
This law is used to evaluate the compression pressure in static conditions.14
According to Laplace’s formula, the operative pressure should be highest at the point
of least girth area/radius and have the lowest pressure at the point of maximum girth area/
radius. Thus, when compression socks are applied, the frontal feature of the leg en-
counters the highest amount of pressure while the lateral and medial sides of the leg
receive the least compression pressure. Apart from the position of the leg, the circum-
ference (thin or thick) of the leg also requires optimum or lower pressure on cutaneous and
subcutaneous skin layers which satisfies the Laplace’s law.15
Laplace theory was developed to relate the wall tension and radius of cylinders (e.g.
blood vessels) to the pressure difference due to inflation and deflation of two halves of
cylindrical vessels.11,16,17 The equation can be expressed as
T
P¼ (1)
r
4 Journal of Industrial Textiles

where; P denotes pressure [Pa], T is the tension in the cylinder wall [N/mm] and D is the
diameter of the cylinder [mm].
This law is now widely used to explain and assess the pressure that is delivered to a
limb of a known radius by a fabric under known tension.
The law of Laplace explains the basic physiologic mechanisms involved in com-
pression therapy. Figure 3 and equation (1) define that at constant tension and increasing
radius (r2) being inversely proportional to the curvature of the wooden leg (flat curve)
causes the lowering of interface pressure (P1) while lowering the radius (r1) which causes
the higher value of the curvature. This results with increased interface pressure.
Ancutiene et al. (2017) investigated the tensile properties especially tensile resilience
of stretch denim fabric using the KES-F system. She concluded that the degree of
elasticity is related to tensile resilience i.e., the higher the degree of elasticity, the higher
the tensile resilience.18 These graphical representations of the stretch and recovery results
portray the various mechanical properties of compression sock strips, directly and in-
directly, influencing their pressure performance and long-lasting properties. The calcu-
lated mechanical properties and definitions using the force-extension diagram are loading
energy (mJ), unloading energy (mJ), hysteresis, tensile resilience [%], tensile linearity,
and tensile practical stretch percentage [%], etc., as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 3. Theory of Laplace’s law and mechanism of working.

Siddique et al. 5

Figure 4. Load-extension curve.

Loading energy
Tensile energy (W) is defined as the energy required for extending the fabric which
reflects the ability of the fabric to withstand external stress during extension. The larger
value of W implicates a better tensile strength of the fabric.19 It can also be defined as the
area beneath the load-elongation curve.20,21 Another definition is The work done by the
extension up to maximum force.22 Tensile energy was measured by plotting a pair of
tensile force extension and recovery curves between zero and a maximum force of 15N, as
shown in Figure 4. The tensile energy W can be quantitatively estimated by equation (2).
Z x
W¼ FðxÞ: dðxÞ (2)
0

where; x is the displacement of the fabric stretched; F(x) is the tensile force needed in
response to the stretched displacement.23

Unloading energy
If the fabric undergoes a cycling loading process, the fabric is first stretched from zero
stress to a maximum and the stress is fully released, then an unloading process follows the
loading process. As a result, a residual strain is observed, since textile materials are
viscoelastic. With the decreasing of the stretch loading, the return curve formed reflects
the tensile resilience energy W0 of the fabrics,23 which can be calculated by equation (3).
Z x
W ¼0
FðxÞ0 : dðxÞ (3)
0
6 Journal of Industrial Textiles

Hysteresis measurement
Figure 4 portrayed that loading and unloading curves do not follow the same track. The
area encircled by the two curves forms a hysteresis loop, which indicated the energy
dissipated due to material plasticity during the extension process denoted by “H”. The
property of hysteresis (H) could be a useful parameter to evaluate the viscoelastic
properties of compression socks cut-strips. To obtain the areas encircled by the tensile and
resilience curves, the trapezoidal rule was considered to be a simple and effective
quadrature rule. The approximation of the definite integrals is usually referred to as the
numerical integration or quadrature. According to the trapezoid rule, the partial sum of
individual trapezoid areas could quantitatively present the hysteresis (H) when the fabric
is stretched under a certain tensile loading as shown in Figure 4.
Where H is the approximate area encircled by two load curves, y1i is the tensile curve
(load increasing), and y2i is the resilience curve (load decreasing).24 The mathematical
analysis was defined in the following way using equation (4).
X
n1
ðy1i  y2i Þ þ ðy1iþ1  y2iþ1 Þ
H≈ : ðxiþ1  xi Þ (4)
i¼1
2

Tensile resilience. A measure is the ratio of recovered energy per unit area to the energy of
extending the fabric in the load-extension curve; or, the ability of a fabric to recover from
stretch after the application of tensile stress. A higher TR value implies that the fabric has
a better ability to recover its original shape after the applied tensile stress is released.22 It
can also be defined as the ratio of W and W0 23 as the following equation (5).
W0
RT ¼ :100 (5)
W
where; W is area under the loading curve and W0 is area under the unloading curve

Tensile linearity
Tensile linearity indicates the wearing comfort. Lower values of the LT give higher fabric
extensibility in an initial strain range indicating better comfort but the fabric dimensional
stability decreases. The tensile linearity in extension reflects the degree of buckling
deformation of the tensile curve of the tested elastic fabrics, thus, we have
2:W
L¼ (6)
Fm : am
where; Fm is the maximum stretch loading, am is maximum displacement23
Siddique et al. 7

Practical stretch and reduction ratio

It is the ratio of the circumferential difference between the leg and socks to the sock’s
circumference while reduction percentage is the ratio of the circumferential difference
between the leg and socks to the leg’s circumference calculated using equation (7) and
equation (8).7
L c  Sc
Stretch ratio ðSe Þ ¼ (7)
Sc

Lc  Sc
Reduction ratio ðRe Þ ¼ (8)
Lc
where; Lc is leg circumference, Sc is socks circumference
It is well proven that sock’s pressure can be calculated by analyzing the tensile be-
havior (modulus of elasticity). Higher the elasticity modulus, the lower degree of ex-
tensibility will be. Therefore modulus of elasticity and reduction percentage are main
predictors of compression pressure.25
The definition of periodical efficacy and targeted compression pressure heavily de-
pends on the tensile properties of compression socks. No studies that incorporated the
effects of tensile indices (W, W0, H, TR, TL), force at practical extension (FL), and
experimental pressure (Ps) were discovered in the scientific literature. There are a few
studies in the literature that used the Kawabata evaluation system (biaxial
extension)23,26–30 to measure tensile indices related to experimental pressure rather than
an uniaxial tensile tester.
The main purpose of current research was to investigate the mechanics of socks which
are force at practical extension compared to experimental pressure, comparison of tensile
indices, force at practical extension and experimental pressure.

Materials and Methodology

A total of 13 commercially available sock samples which exhibit compression class levels
were purchased (class I, 2.40–2.80 kPa; class II, 3.06–4.27 kPa and class III, 4.53–
6.13 kPa where 1 kPa = 7.500 mmHg). Class 1 is coded as A1, A2, and A3; Class II is
coded as B1, B2, and B3 while class III is coded as C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, and C7. Only
2 examples from class I that is being exhibited (1 laid-in mesh knit) were confirmed
following visual analysis, out of the majority of the socks (11 samples) that were dis-
played (1 laid-in plain knit). Samples of socks were evaluated on fixed-sized, typical
wooden legs with an ankle circumference of 24 cm.
All of the samples were evaluated for their built-in physical and technical specifi-
cations as shown in Table 1 and Table 2 with great precision and accuracy under standard
atmospheric conditions RH, 65 ± 5%, temperature, 20 ± 2°C as per CEN 15,831:2009,31
and RAL-GZ 387/1 (Medical compression hosiery quality assurance).7
Preliminary data of all 13 samples were evaluated at the ankle portion and include the
following: fabric weight [g/m2], fabric thickness [mm], quantitative analysis for lycra
8 Journal of Industrial Textiles

Table 1. Physical specifications of compression socks.

Circumference at Fiber analysis (%)

Sr. No. Code ankle [cm] *PU/*PA Classification

1 A1 19.0 30/70 *CCLI (2.40–2.80 kPa)

2 A2 18.6 31/69
3 A3 14.4 28/72
4 B1 15.6 33/67 *CCLII (3.06–4.27 kPa)
5 B2 17.8 30/70
6 B3 16.4 25/75
7 C1 16.2 50/50 *CCLIII (4.53–6.13 kPa)
8 C2 15.6 45/55
9 C3 14.6 38/62
10 C4 17.8 28/72
11 C5 15.6 40/60
12 C6 14.6 32/68
13 C7 16.2 45/55
*PA, polyamide; *PU, polyurethane; *CCL, Compression class level.7

Table 2. Technical specifications of compression socks.

Inlaid
Fabric Course Wales Main yarn yarn
Thickness weight density density Stitch density
Code [mm] [g/m2] [per cm] [per cm] [stitches/cm2] Type Type

A1 0.40 139.44 22.4 19.21 430.43 MF* DCV*

A2 0.46 134.00 24.6 16.20 398.52 ACV* DCV*
A3 0.54 149.28 18.20 20.00 360.00 MF* DCV*
B1 0.90 291.60 22.00 18.00 396.00 ACV* SCV*
B2 0.75 298.00 22.60 18.27 412.90 MF + ACV* DCV*
B3 0.64 306.08 23.20 22.06 511.79 MF + ACV* DCV*
C1 0.69 281.60 20.80 22.41 466.12 MF + ACV* SCV*
C2 0.68 265.20 21.80 20.34 443.41 MF + ACV* SCV*
C3 0.65 296.00 21.00 23.44 492.24 MF + ACV* DCV*
C4 0.86 360.56 19.20 19.00 364.80 MF + ACV* DCV*
C5 0.70 298.44 24.00 22.00 528.00 MF + ACV* DCV*
C6 0.87 312.80 16.80 24.48 411.26 MF + ACV* DCV*
C7 0.72 384.88 22.60 26.00 587.60 MF + ACV* DCV*
*MF, multi-filament yarn; *ACV, Air covered yarn; *SCV, Single covered yarn; *DCV, Double covered yarn.

composition [%], type of yarns transformed to knitted base, stitch density, and
circumference/width of the compression socks at ankle portion. These data were then
classified into three levels of compression classes (Class I, class II, and class III) based on
the intensity of compression pressure at the ankle mentioned in CEN 15,831:2009 31 and
Siddique et al. 9

RAL-GZ 387/1.7 The class level is defined by considering the pressure at the ankle
portion because it is one of the complex parts of the leg (contour surfaces and bony).
Fiber analysis of all samples were conducted by using the standard procedure mentioned
in AATCC-20A-2013 shown in Table 1. As illustrated in Figures 5(b),(a) square of 25 cm2
was marked on both faces of the compression socks to validate the contents (Nylon/Lycra) at
the ankle section. Unraveled threads were also used to determine the yarn and knit type, the
contents and other details. Unraveled threads were weighed and then treated with a formic
acid solution at a concentration of 85% to dissolve the nylon filaments, as described in the
AATCC-20A method, in order to determine the quantity of lycra content (Quantitative
analysis of fiber composition). The following equation was used to calculate the percentage
of lycra present in each sample using the weight of the undissolved material that was
removed as part of the solubility test shown in Table 1.
Weight of lycra threads
Lycra percentage ½% ¼ :100 (9)
Total weight of the threads

The pick glass recommended by the RAL GZ-387/1 standard of quality assurance was
used to measure the number of wales and courses per centimeter as well as the stitch
density per centimeter square.7 Results of measured parameters; wales density (number of
wales per cm), course density (number of courses per cm), and stitch density (stitches per
centimeter square) are given in Table 2.
Digital thickness tester of model M034A, SDL (Atlas) device was used to determine
the thickness of the material according to standard test method ISO 5084:1996. The
quantity of material is determined by measuring the angle between the base plate, on
which the fabric sample is placed, and the circular pressing disc which is formed on the
surface of the fabric. The measurement progress is recorded by a computer program.
While a force of 200 g was applied, the pressing leg’s surface area was 20 cm2. Thickness
testing results are given in Table 2.
Sample cut-strips (5 × 5 cm2) obtained from each sock were relaxed for 24 h under
controlled standard atmospheric conditions and were weighed by using an electronic
weighing balance. Given results in Table 2 were calculated by using the formula given
below.
h g i Average f abric weight ½g
Fabric weight ¼ :400 (10)
m2 Area of f abric ½cm2 

Hand washing
Before evaluating the physical and technical specifications, each pair of samples of a sock
was hand washed and rinsed in water that was about 37°C, as per the exact specifications
listed in Table 3 below.
The process involved dipping the socks in a bucket for 10–15 min before dehydrating
(Hydro-extraction) them by laying them flat between two layers of towels for 24 h at
10 Journal of Industrial Textiles

standard atmospheric conditions (RH%, 65 ± 5%, temperature, 20 ± 2°C) as recom-

mended by the manufacturing brands of the socks.

Marking and slicing of cut-strips (ankle portion)

Initially, a dried sock sample was placed onto a wooden leg so that it was not fully
stretched in the direction of wales (longitudinal direction), taking into account that there
were no creases on the surface or face of the fabric. This is shown in Figure 5(a), which
corresponds to the main grooved line engraved on the face of the wooden leg in
Figure 5(e). After marking the mean-dashed line (), socks were put-off and allowed to be
relaxed for 24 h. After 24 h, a square of 5 × 5 cm was drawn on the fabric’s surface, with
the drawn dashed line () serving as its mean line. This was done to overcome variation
due to repeated measurement of compression pressure and to keep the wales and courses
smooth and straight.
All of the hand-washed sock samples were put on and taken off five times while
keeping the Salzmann MST MKIV model’s mean value at the main grooved line around
the leg (see Figure 5(c)). Such a method of marking can be proposed to avoid the
variability and reliability of compression pressure results. After marking and pressure
measurements, a circular strip having widths of almost 50 mm was sliced into loop-strips
as shown in Figure 5(d). The slicing can be made at any position of leg up to thighs and

Table 3. Hand washing parameters.

Parameters Dipping time Water temperature Samples weight, g Water quantity

Hand washed 10–15 min 37±3°C 250 5L

Figure 5. Marking (a) Locating exact grooved line on leg on the face of socks (b) Square marking
50 × 50 mm (c) Mean and main lines crossing over the sensor near the ankle on the leg surface (d)
Deformed width after wearing loop strip (e) grooved line (ankle portion).
Siddique et al. 11

arms in un-stretched form. To measure deformed width (wf), all 13 socks samples’ sliced
loop strips were put on the leg as shown in Figure 5(d).

Wooden leg model

The compression pressure of each sock sample was measured on a standard-sized wooden
leg. This leg exhibits the requisite specifications a cB (circumference at ankle; 240 mm)
andlB (position of the ankle from the sole of foot along the leg, 12 cm) arranged by
Swisslastic standard leg producing company, located in Switzerland which follows the
recommended RAL-GZ 387/1 and CEN 15831 as shown in Figure 6.

Measurement of experimental pressure

Currently, there are two major methods used for the determination of compression
performance-the direct in vivo method and the indirect in vitro method which uses
different tools. In this research work, we performed in vitro method for indirect evaluation
of compression pressure using the Salzmann pressure measuring device MST MKIV
(Salzmann AG, St Gallen, Switzerland). This device is comprised of a thin plastic sleeve
(4 cm wide, 0.5 mm thick), with four paired electrical contact points connected to an air
pump and a pressure transducer. Sensors are located on the medial (inner) side of the
wooden leg and it is placed between the leg and socks as shown in Figure 7. The air pump
inflates the envelope until the contacts open (when the inner pressure exerted by the air is
just above external pressure due to the compression device). When the contacts open, the
transducer reads the pressure at located measuring points and it is displayed digitally with
1-mmHg resolution. Two lengths of the probe are available for this device however only
the shorter one (34 cm long) with four contact points was used in this study. Such
evaluation of compression measurement was performed under the standard test method
RAL-GZ-387/1.

Figure 6. Standard wooden leg model.

12 Journal of Industrial Textiles

Force-extension curve analysis using the cut-strip method

In this scientific research, all detached cut-strips were investigated for their tension behavior.
Using a CRE (constant rate of extension) based Testometric tensile testing machine has the
set maximum load of 5 kN and a set of extension rate at 100 mm/minute under standard
testing conditions (temperature: 21 ± 1゚C and relative humidity: 65 ± 2%) according to
ASTM D1775-04.
For tensile characterization, all individually linearized cut-strips were extended to
practical extension for five times context to circumference of the leg at ankle portion. The
gauge length was set to 50 mm. Most of studies in which the strips are stretched to fixed
extension depending on the size of the object or requisite intensity of compression
pressure. Ng et al. (2001)22 mentioned that elastic fabric is stretched during the making up
a pressure garment for clinical treatment generally ranges from 5-50%. While RAL-GZ
387/1 defines this range by mentioning that standard size hosiery can be a maximum of
50% of the extensibility transversely at all measuring points. Dongsheng et al.32 proposed
that clothing pressure increases linearly by increasing fabric elongation when it is within
the 60% range. A person while wearing a tight garment, transversal extension is not more
than 60% of the initial length. Chattopadhyay et al.9 mentioned during preliminary studies
of pressure garments on several subjects that the maximum extension at which the
samples were subjected during wear is about 60%. Therefore, it was decided to study the
load elongation behaviour of the test samples only up to 60% extension.

Figure 7. MST MKIV pressure measuring device.

Siddique et al. 13

Due to these numerous reasons, it is understandable that the strips are extended
transversally above 50% and below 70% literately. But the concept for the practical
extension to predict compression pressure was never well-thought-out. To describe the
tensile indices and the effect of practical extension on force, the load-extension curve data
of the 5th cycle at practical extension was employed (Figure 8). This force at practical
extension [mm] effect was also used for the prediction of compression pressure with the
help of developed mathematical models.

Sample preparation
All of the circular cut-strips from the ankle portion of compression socks were linearized
into rectangular strips while maintaining the square mark (50 × 50 mm) in the center of the
strip, as illustrated in Figure 8(a), to evaluate the tension behavior. All 13 sample strips
were allowed to be relaxed under controlled atmospheric conditions for 24 h. Relaxed
samples were cleaned by removing edging threads along the course direction to ensure
inlaid threads are griped to both clamping jaws in order to get an accurate and precise
measurement of the force compared to extension data as shown in Figures 8(a),(b). Tensile
testing along the wale direction is not tested here because there is no impact of the force of
longitudinal extension on compression pressure. So it is decided to characterize the
samples circumferentially.
The test and machine specifications were followed according to BS EN 14,704-
1 standard test method. Test specifications include tensile rate as 100 mm/minute, specimen
dimension which is 146–190 mm × 40–55 mm (lengthways dimension of all cut-strips ×

Figure 8. (a) Clamped strip without extension, (b) clamped strip after extension.
14 Journal of Industrial Textiles

widthways dimension of all cut strips) and gauge length adjusted to 50 mm. While the
width-wise dimension of cut-strips refers to the strip width along the length of compression
socks or the wales direction of compression socks, the lengthwise dimension of cut-strips
refers to the circumferential, transversal, or course direction of cut-strips at the ankle region.
To examine the mechanical performance under tension, a five cycle extension-
relaxation setup between zero extensions and practical stretch ratios at the prescribed
load of 5 kN was used to study the dynamic tension behavior. The loading (5th cycle
extension) and unloading (5th cycle relaxation) behavior at practical extension conditions
for the gauge length (50 mm) was obtained for all of the 13 socks samples and the
mechanical characterization of compression socks at the ankle portion were measured.
The measurements include force at practical extension conditions for the circumference of
the leg (Figure 9) and tensile indices value measurements at 5th cycle (Table 4). Force
compared to the practical extension diagram is given below in Figure 9.
Here is a description of all parameters in notation. Gauge length/initial length/original
length is denoted by “lo,” strips extended to practical elongation concerning gauge length
(50 mm) are notated as ‘Δl’ (extended length/change in original length) while the total
length, “l” named as final or total length as the sum of gauge length and extended length
l
( =lo+ Δl). The difference between total length and gauge length named as extended
length (Δl=ll - o).
Equation (7) calculates practical elongation by taking into account the circumferences
of the leg and of the socks at the ankle portion. Here, the leg circumference is fixed at
240 mm, but each sample of socks has a different ankle circumference, which affects the
force of extension at a given practical elongation (extension level). Figure 9 showed that
due to the various parametrical and dimensional parameters, the practical extension
force’s intensity differs for each sample of socks.
Here the Table 4 depicts the tensile indices values obtained from the force at the
practical extension curve (Figure 9). These tensile indices parameters such as loading
energy (equation (2)), unloading energy (equation (3)), hysteresis (equation (4)), tensile

Figure 9. Force extension diagram at practical extension.

Siddique et al. 15

resilience (equation (5)) and tensile linearity (equation (6)) were measured to compare
their influence on the intensity of the compression pressure.

Statistical analysis
All the testing results were statistically analyzed using simple regression analysis. Re-
gression analysis is the statistical tool used to define the data point’s distribution by using
the least-squares estimation method which derives the regression equation by minimizing
the sum of the square of errors. The best-fit line is the regression model line. This re-
gression line passing through data points gives us a regression model that helps to
determine how well the independent variable explains the dependent variable. Regression
results help to identify the direction, size, and statistical significance of the relationship
between a predictors and responses. Regression equation provides ‘best’ fit line to ex-
amine how the response variable is changed by changing the predictor value as well as to
predict the value of the response variable for any predictor value. To determine a re-
lationship between any of two variables, Pearson correlations (r) and coefficient of
determination values (R2) were computed with a significant threshold set at p < 0.05.

Results and Discussion

In this scientific research work, the tensile properties of socks’s cut strips were statistically
compared with experimental pressure and force at practical extension. These tensile
properties include hysteresis (H), loading energy [Nmm], unloading energy [Nmm],
Table 4. Mechanical properties of compression socks’ cut-strips.

Loading
energy Unloading Tensile Tensile Force at practical
Hysteresis [Nmm] energy [Nmm] resilience (%) linearity extension [N]

Code H W W’ RT% LT FL

A1 3.54 14.26 10.72 75.175 0.728 2.978

A2 4.36 16.16 11.8 73.020 0.652 3.416
A3 6.41 75.12 68.71 91.467 0.993 4.54
B1 12.96 103.78 90.82 87.512 0.979 7.872
B2 8.84 45.92 37.08 80.749 1.024 5.148
B3 19.77 107.24 87.47 81.565 1.199 7.72
C1 13.02 115.78 102.76 88.755 1.159 8.304
C2 13.42 116.29 102.87 88.460 1.049 8.238
C3 15.35 155.6 140.25 90.135 1.035 9.338
C4 11.78 71.96 60.18 83.630 1.042 7.928
C5 18.12 144.33 126.21 87.445 1.149 9.332
C6 14.671 199.421 184.75 92.643 1.129 10.972
C7 19.075 160.44 141.365 88.111 1.111 11.996
16 Journal of Industrial Textiles

tensile resilience [%] and tensile linearity (TL). To determine a relationship between any
of two variables, Pearson correlations (r) and coefficient of determination values (R2) were
computed with a significant threshold set at p < 0.05.

Force at practical extension compared to experimental pressure

Figure 10 portrays the effect of force at the practical extension on experimental pressure
(Ps). The practical force of extension is the function of compression pressure exerted by
compression socks. This function of exertion is defined mainly by Laplace’s law and
various researchers. The contribution of the force at the practical extension to com-
pression pressure was statistically analyzed using simple linear regression analysis.
Regression analysis is a statistical technique that used to define the data point’s distri-
bution by using a best-fit regression line considering the minimum sum of the square of
errors. This regression line passing through data points gives us a regression model that
helps to determine how well the independent variable (force at practical extension)
explains the dependent variable (experimental pressure).
Statistical results shown in Figure 10 have revealed that force at practical extension
imparts a significant influence on the intensity of compression pressure. It was quantified
based on the coefficient of determination values (R2 -value = 0.9431). This R2 -value
depicts that the intensity of pressure exertion depends about 94.31% on the practical force
of extension [N]. The regression model (Figure 10) also comprised of two more important
coefficients explaining the nature and trend of the regression line. These regression
coefficients are named y-intercept (0.8997) and slope value (0.4714). Here y-intercept
value (0.8997) means the regression line intercepts the y-axis at 0.8997 which is very
closer to the origin of axes while the slope gives the rate at which the dependent variable
can be explained by the independent variable. The slope values (0.4714) also indicated
that experimental pressure will increase by 0.4714 kPa for every increase in 1 unit of force
at practical extension. The correlation value between the force of practical extension and
experimental pressure were also measured (by using r = 0.9603) which also shows a direct
positive relationship between the two mentioned parameters. The reason for the de-
pendency of the practical extension [mm] on compression pressure is mainly due to cut-
strips areal density (fabric weight).

Hysteresis
Figure 11 illustrates the statistical relationship between force at practical extension (FL),
hysteresis (H) and experimental pressure (PS). But it was necessary to relate how hys-
teresis (H) values of the all the socks samples explains the experimental pressure (Ps) and
force at practical extension.
5Figure 11 Portrays that hysteresis value of each sample explain 74.7% the ex-
perimental pressure values. The strength of the significance was measured on the basis
of the coefficient of the determination values (R2 value = 0.747) and correlation co-
efficient (r = 0.864; strong positive Pearson correlation coefficient) using second order
polynomial fitting line in regression analysis. It also portrayed that hysteresis has a very
Siddique et al. 17

Figure 10. Force at practical extension compared to experimental pressure.

Figure 11. Hysteresis and force at fixed extension compared to experimental pressure.

strong relationship with force at practical extension values. The extent of dependency
was computed based on the coefficient of the determination value (R2 = 0.8297) and
direction of the relationship using Pearson correlation coefficient (r = 0.910; strong
18 Journal of Industrial Textiles

positive correlation). This shows that hysteresis values of all samples explain the
82.97% to force at practical extension.

Loading energy
Figure 12 represents the relationship between the force of practical extension (FL), loading
energy (LE), and experimental pressure (PS). The extent of the dependency was measured
on the basis of the coefficient of the determination values (R2 -value) and Pearson
correlation coefficient(r). As the loading energy increases, the area under the loading
curve increases which increases the intensity of experimental pressure (Ps). The greater
the tensile energy and tensile strain, the easier the fabric deforms in stretch loading.30
Higher deformation causes higher recovery of fabric to return to its original position
ultimately increasing the intensity of compression pressure. The strength of the rela-
tionship between loading energy (as predictor) and experimental pressure (response
variable) was R2 = 0.7794 and r = 0.882. While extent of the relationship between loading
energy and force at practical extension was R2 = 0.8765 and r = 0.936. These R2 and r
values represents that loading energy explains the experimental pressure about 77.94%
and correlation value r = 0.936 (strong positive relationship) while to force at practical
extension explains the loading energy about 87.65%.

Figure 12. Loading energy and force at fixed extension compared to experimental pressure.
Siddique et al. 19

Unloading energy
Figure 13 reflected the relationship between unloading energy (UE), force at practical
extension (FL) and experimental pressure (Ps) of all 13 socks samples. Figure 15 also
replicated that unloading energy (UE) has a direct relationship with the experimental
pressure (Ps) which means as the unloading energy (UE) increases the compression
pressure (Ps) value increases.
Simple linear regression analysis was also conducted to observe the strength of the
influence by the unloading energy (UE) on force at practical extension (R2 -value =
0.851 and r = 0.922) and experimental pressure (R2 -value = 0.7582 and r = 0.870) by
measuring the coefficient of the determination value and correlation. These values portray
that unloading energy (UE) explains experimental pressure about 75.82% and to force at
practical extension 85.1% simultaneously.

Tensile resilience
Figure 14 represented that by increasing the value of the tensile resilience (TR), the
pressure value (Ps) and force at practical extension value increases quadratically.
The extent of the relationship between predictor; TR was measured based on coefficient of
the determination values (R2 value). Simple quadratic regression analysis represents
that the strength of the relationship between tensile resilience compared to experimental
pressure R2-value = 0.511, r = 0.714) and to force at practical was R2 -value = 0.5563, r =

Figure 13. Unloading energy and force at fixed extension compared to experimental pressure.
20 Journal of Industrial Textiles

Figure 14. Tensile resilience and force at fixed extension compared to experimental pressure.

Figure 15. Tensile linearity and force at fixed extension compared to experimental pressure.
Siddique et al. 21

0.745. These values depict that tensile resilience of the socks’s cut-strips explains 51.1%
to experimental pressure and 55.63% to force at practical extension.

Tensile linearity
Figure 15 Comprised of the relationship between forces at practical extension, tensile
linearity, and experimental pressure. To understand their mutual dependency, linear
regression analysis was conducted to quantify it. Figure 15 portrays that the tensile
linearity explains experimental pressure to 59.92% based on the coefficient of the de-
termination values (R2 -value = 0.5992, r = 0.773). While it explains to force at practical
extension about 58.85% based on the coefficient of the determination values (R2 -value =
0.5885, r = 0.7671).

Conclusions
Tensile characterization of the compression socks is of great importance that helps to
understand the engineering of compression socks and how these play a role to exert
adequate pressure to avoid the insufficiency and reversibility of blood flow. This scientific
research was conducted on the wooden leg rather than the human leg to highlight the
engineering of these socks not for the treatment of diseased leg. Also, there are various
reasons to select the wooden leg, ankle part, and practical extensibility comparable to
circumference of the leg at ankle portion. Tensile properties of compression socks are also
of great importance to describe the engineering of compression socks. Many of these
directly relate to present the intensity of exertion of compression pressure especially
Hysteresis, loading energy, unloading energy, tensile linearity, and tensile resilience.
In this scientific result, it was concluded that
Force at practical extension (FL) values context to the circumferential difference
between the socks and leg at the ankle portion have a strong relationship with the values of
the experimental pressure (Ps).
Tensile indices: especially hysteresis (H), loading energy (LE), unloading energy (UE)
combined with the force at practical extension (FL) depicts a strong relationship on
compression pressure. While tensile resilience and tensile linearity also portrays a sig-
nificant relationship between force at practical extension and experimental pressure.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/
or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
22 Journal of Industrial Textiles

ORCID iDs
Hafiz Faisal Siddique  https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3251-8886
Engin Akçagün  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3668-7268
Michal Petrů  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7643-8450

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