Taguchi Methods

Taguchi methods are statistical methods or sometime called robust

design method developed by Genichi Taguchi to improve the quality of
manufactured goods.
1. Taguchi's work includes three principal
contributions to statistics:
(1) A specific loss function
(2) The philosophy of off-line quality control; and
(3) Innovations in the design of experiments.
(1) A specific loss function

• Taguchi realised that in much industrial production, there is a need to

produce an outcome on target, for example, to machine a hole to a
specified diameter.
• He therefore argued that quality engineering should start with an
understanding of quality costs in various situations.
• In much conventional industrial engineering, the quality costs are simply
represented by the number of items outside specification multiplied by
the cost of rework or scrap.
• However, Taguchi insisted that manufacturers broaden their horizons to
consider cost to society.
• Though the short-term costs may simply be those of non-conformance,
any item manufactured away from nominal would result in some loss to
the customer or the wider community through early wear-out; difficulties
in interfacing with other parts, themselves probably wide of nominal; or
the need to build in safety margins.
• These losses are externalities and are usually ignored by manufacturers,
which are more interested in their private costs than social costs.
• Such externalities prevent markets from operating efficiently, according to
analyses of public economics.
• Taguchi argued that such losses would inevitably find their way back to
the originating corporation, and that by working to minimise them,
manufacturers would enhance brand reputation, win markets and
generate profits.
• As we diverge from nominal, losses grow until the point where losses are
too great to deny and the specification limit is drawn. All these losses
are, unknown and unknowable, but Taguchi wanted to find a useful way
of representing them statistically.
Loss function
 Taguchi specified three situations:

1.Larger the better (for example, agricultural yield);

2.Smaller the better (for example, carbon dioxide emissions); and
3.On-target, minimum-variation (for example, a mating part in an
assembly).
• The first two cases are represented by simple monotonic loss functions.
• In the third case, Taguchi adopted a squared-error loss function for
several reasons:
• Total loss is measured by the variance.
• For uncorrelated random variables, as variance is additive the total loss
is an additive measurement of cost.
• The squared-error loss function is widely used in statistics, following
Gauss's use of the squared-error loss function in justifying the method
of least squares.
 Robust design

Output

Input
[A] STATIC PROBLEM (BATCH PROCESS OPTIMIZATION) :

There are 3 Signal-to-Noise ratios of common interest for optimization

of Static Problems;

(I) SMALLER-THE-BETTER :

n = -10 Log10 [ mean of sum of squares of measured data ]

This is usually the chosen S/N ratio for all undesirable characteristics like "
defects " etc. for which the ideal value is zero. Also, when an ideal value is finite
and its maximum or minimum value is defined (like maximum purity is 100% or
maximum Tc is 92K or minimum time for making a telephone connection is 1
sec) then the difference between measured data and ideal value is expected to
be as small as possible. The generic form of S/N ratio then becomes,

n = -10 Log10 [ mean of sum of squares of {measured - ideal} ]

(I) SMALLER-THE-BETTER :
(II) LARGER-THE-BETTER :

n = -10 Log10 [mean of sum squares of reciprocal of measured data]

This case has been converted to SMALLER-THE-BETTER by taking the

reciprocals of measured data and then taking the S/N ratio as in the
smaller-the-better case.
(III) NOMINAL-THE-BEST :

square of mean
n = 10 Log10 -----------------
variance
This case arises when a specified value is MOST desired, meaning that
neither a smaller nor a larger value is desirable.

Examples are;
(i) most parts in mechanical fittings have dimensions which are
nominal-the-best type.
(ii) Ratios of chemicals or mixtures are nominally the best type.
e.g. Aqua regia 1:3 of HNO3:HCL
Ratio of Sulphur, KNO3 and Carbon in gun powder
(iii) Thickness should be uniform in deposition /growth /plating /etching.
Signal To Noise (S/N) Ratios

• The product/process/system design phase involves deciding the best

values/levels for the control factors. The signal to noise (S/N) ratio is an
ideal metric for that purpose.
• The equation for average quality loss, Q, says that the customer’s
average quality loss depends on the deviation of the mean from the
target and also on the variance.
• An important class of design optimization problem requires minimization
of the variance while keeping the mean on target.
• Between the mean and standard deviation, it is typically easy to adjust
the mean on target, but reducing the variance is difficult. Therefore, the
designer should minimize the variance first and then adjust the mean on
target.
• Among the available control factors most of them should be used to
reduce variance. Only one or two control factors are adequate for
adjusting the mean on target.
Output

Target value

parameter

Target value

Output

parameter
 Taguchi Method treats optimization problems in two
categories :
[A] STATIC PROBLEMS :
Generally, a process to be optimized has
several control factors which directly decide
the target or desired value of the output. The
optimization then involves determining the
best control factor levels so that the output is
at the the target value. Such a problem
is called as a "STATIC PROBLEM".
This is best explained using a P-Diagram
which is shown below ("P" stands for Process
or Product). Noise is shown to be present in
the process but should have no effect on the
output! This is the primary aim of the Taguchi
experiments - to minimize variations in output
even though noise is present in the process.
The process is then said to have become
ROBUST.
[B] DYNAMIC PROBLEMS :
If the product to be optimized has a signal
input that directly decides the output, the
optimization involves determining the best
control factor levels so that the "input
signal / output" ratio is closest to the
desired relationship. Such a problem is
called as a "DYNAMIC PROBLEM".

This is best explained by a P-Diagram

which is shown below. Again, the primary
aim of the Taguchi experiments - to
minimize variations in output even though
noise is present in the process- is
achieved by getting improved linearity in
the input/output relationship.
Output Output Output

Signal factor Signal factor Signal factor

• In dynamic problems, we come across many applications where the output
is supposed to follow input signal in a predetermined manner. Generally, a
linear relationship between "input" "output" is desirable.
For example : Accelerator peddle in cars,
volume control in audio amplifiers,
document copier (with magnification or reduction)
various types of moldings
etc.
•
There are 2 characteristics of common interest in "follow-the-leader" or
"Transformations" type of applications,
(i) Slope of the I/O characteristics
and
(ii) Linearity of the I/O characteristics
(minimum deviation from the best-fit straight line)

The Signal-to-Noise ratio for these 2 characteristics have been defined as;
(I) SENSITIVITY {SLOPE}:

The slope of I/O characteristics should be at the specified value (usually 1).
It is often treated as Larger-The-Better when the output is a desirable
characteristics (as in the case of Sensors, where the slope indicates the
sensitivity).
n = 10 Log10 [square of slope or beta of the I/O characteristics]
On the other hand, when the output is an undesired characteristics, it can be
treated as Smaller-the-Better.
n = -10 Log10 [square of slope or beta of the I/O characteristics]

(II) LINEARITY (LARGER-THE-BETTER) :

Most dynamic characteristics are required to have direct proportionality between

the input and output. These applications are therefore called as
"TRANSFORMATIONS". The straight line relationship between I/O must be truly
linear i.e. with as little deviations from the straight line as possible.
Square of slope or beta
n = 10 Log10 ----------------------------
variance
Variance in this case is the mean of the sum of squares of deviations of measured
data points from the best-fit straight line (linear regression).
(2) The philosophy of off-line quality control:
Taguchi's rule for manufacturing
Taguchi realized that the best opportunity to eliminate variation is during the design of
a product and its manufacturing process. Consequently, he developed a strategy for
quality engineering that can be used in both contexts. The process has three stages:
•System design
•Parameter (measure) design
•Tolerance design
System design
This is design at the conceptual level, involving creativity and innovation.
Parameter design
Once the concept is established, the nominal values of the various dimensions and
design parameters need to be set, the detail design phase of conventional engineering.
Taguchi's radical insight was that the exact choice of values required is under-
specified by the performance requirements of the system.
In many circumstances, this allows the parameters to be chosen so as to minimize the
effects on performance arising from variation in manufacture, environment and
cumulative damage.
This is sometimes called robustification.
Robust parameter designs consider controllable and uncontrollable noise variables;
they seek to exploit relationships and optimize settings that minimize the effects of the
noise variables.
Tolerance design

• With a successfully completed parameter design, and an understanding of

the effect that the various parameters have on performance, resources can
be focused on reducing and controlling variation in the critical few
dimensions.
• This section deals with the problem of how, and when, to specify tightened
tolerances for a product or a process so that quality and
performance/productivity are enhanced.
• Every product or process has a number, perhaps a large number, of
components.
• We explain here how to identify the critical components to target when
tolerances have to be tightened. It is a natural impulse to believe that the
quality and performance of any item can easily be improved by merely
tightening up on some or all of its tolerance requirements.
• By this we mean that if the old version of the item specified, say, machining
to ± 1 micron, we naturally believe that we can obtain better performance by
specifying machining to ± ½ micron.
• This can become expensive, however, and is often not a
guarantee of much better performance.
• One has merely to witness the high initial and maintenance costs
of such tight-tolerance-level items as space vehicles, expensive
automobiles, etc. to realize that tolerance design, the selection of
critical tolerances and the re-specification of those critical
tolerances, is not a task to be undertaken without careful thought.
• In fact, it is recommended that only after extensive parameter
design studies have been completed should tolerance design be
performed as a last resort to improve quality and productivity.

The basic
condition
is missing!

I can not
fix this!
(3) Innovations in the design of experiments.
Taguchi developed his experimental theories independently. Taguchi's
framework for design of experiments is idiosyncratic and often flawed, but
contains much that is of enormous value. He made a number of
innovations.
Outer arrays
Taguchi's designs aimed to allow greater understanding of variation than did
many of the traditional designs from the analysis of variance.
Taguchi contended that conventional sampling is inadequate here as there is
no way of obtaining a random sample of future conditions.
Taguchi proposed extending each experiment with an "outer array" (possibly
an orthogonal array); the "outer array" should simulate the random
environment in which the product would function. This is an example
of judgmental sampling.
Many quality specialists have been using "outer arrays".
Later innovations in outer arrays resulted in "compounded noise." This
involves combining a few noise factors to create two levels in the outer array:
First, noise factors that drive output lower, and second, noise factors that
drive output higher. "Compounded noise" simulates the extremes of noise
variation but uses fewer experimental runs than would previous Taguchi
designs.
① Trial-and-error approach performing a series of
experiments each of which gives some understanding :

• This requires making measurements after every experiment so that

analysis of observed data will allow him to decide what to do next - "Which
parameters should be varied and by how much".
• Many a times such series does not progress much as negative results may
discourage or will not allow a selection of parameters which ought to be
changed in the next experiment.
• Therefore, such experimentation usually ends well before the number of
experiments reach a double digit! The data is insufficient to draw any
significant conclusions and the main problem (of understanding the science)
still remains unsolved.
② Design of experiments :

• A well planned set of experiments, in which all parameters of interest are

varied over a specified range, is a much better approach to obtain
systematic data.
• Mathematically speaking, such a complete set of experiments ought to give
desired results. Usually the number of experiments and resources
(materials and time) required are prohibitively large.
• Often the experimenter decides to perform a subset of the complete set of
experiments to save on time and money!
• However, it does not easily lend itself to understanding of science behind
the phenomenon.
• The analysis is not very easy (though it may be easy for the
mathematician/statistician) and thus effects of various parameters on the
observed data are not readily apparent.
• In many cases, particularly those in which some optimization is required,
the method does not point to the BEST settings of parameters.
• A classic example illustrating the drawback of design of experiments is
found in the planning of a world cup event, say football.
• While all matches are well arranged with respect to the different teams and
different venues on different dates and yet the planning does not care about
the result of any match (win or lose)!!!!
• Obviously, such a strategy is not desirable for conducting scientific
experiments (except for coordinating various institutions, committees,
people, equipment, materials etc.).
③ TAGUCHI Method :

• Dr. Taguchi of Nippon Telephones (at that time) and Telegraph Company,
Japan has developed a method based on " ORTHOGONAL ARRAY "
experiments which gives much reduced " variance " for the experiment with
" optimum settings " of control parameters.
• Thus the marriage of Design of Experiments with optimization of control
parameters to obtain BEST results is achieved in the Taguchi Method.
• "Orthogonal Arrays" (OA) provide a set of well balanced (minimum)
experiments and Dr. Taguchi's Signal-to-Noise ratios (S/N), which are log
functions of desired output, serve as objective functions for optimization,
help in data analysis and prediction of optimum results.
 Background

• The technique of laying out the conditions of experiments involving multiple

factors was first proposed by the Englishman, Sir R.A.Fisher. The method is
popularly known as the factorial design of experiments.
• A full factorial design will identify all possible combinations for a given set of
factors. Since most industrial experiments usually involve a significant
number of factors, a full factorial design results in a large number of
experiments.
• To reduce the number of experiments to a practical level, only a small set
from all the possibilities is selected. The method of selecting a limited number
of experiments which produces the most information is known as a partial
fraction experiment.
• Although this method is well known, there are no general guidelines for its
application or the analysis of the results obtained by performing the
experiments.
• Taguchi constructed a special set of general design guidelines for factorial
experiments that cover many applications.
 Table : Layout of L9 orthogonal array.

L9 (34) Orthogonal array

Performance
Independent Variables
Parameter Value

Experiment # Variable 1 Variable 2 Variable 3 Variable 4

1 1 1 1 1 p1

2 1 2 2 2 p2

3 1 3 3 3 p3

4 2 1 2 3 p4

5 2 2 3 1 p5

6 2 3 1 2 p6

7 3 1 3 2 p7

8 3 2 1 3 p8

9 3 3 2 1 p9
Outer arrays
• Taguchi's designs aimed to allow greater understanding of variation than
did many of the traditional designs from the analysis of variance.
• Taguchi contended that conventional sampling is inadequate here as
there is no way of obtaining a random sample of future conditions.
• Taguchi proposed extending each experiment with an "outer array"
(possibly an orthogonal array); the "outer array" should simulate the
random environment in which the product would function. This is an
example of judgmental sampling.
• Many quality specialists have been using "outer arrays".
• Later innovations in outer arrays resulted in "compounded noise." This
involves combining a few noise factors to create two levels in the outer
array: First, noise factors that drive output lower, and second, noise
factors that drive output higher. "Compounded noise" simulates the
extremes of noise variation but uses fewer experimental runs than would
previous Taguchi designs.
Example:
Inefficencies of Taguchi's designs
• Interactions are part of the real world. In Taguchi's arrays, interactions
are confounded and difficult to resolve.
• Statisticians in response surface methodology (RSM) advocate the
"sequential assembly" of designs: In the RSM approach,
a screening design is followed by a "follow-up design" that resolves only
the confounded interactions judged worth resolution. A second follow-up
design may be added (time and resources allowing) to explore
possible high-order univariate effects of the remaining variables, as
high-order univariate effects are less likely in variables already
eliminated for having no linear effect. With the economy of screening
designs and the flexibility of follow-up designs, sequential designs have
great statistical efficiency. The sequential designs of response surface
methodology require far fewer experimental runs than would a
sequence of Taguchi's designs.
Analysis of experiments
• Taguchi introduced many methods for analysing experimental results
including novel applications of the analysis of variance and minute
analysis.
 Basic concepts
1 Definition
• Taguchi has envisaged a new method of conducting the design of
experiments which are based on well defined guidelines.
• This method uses a special set of arrays called orthogonal arrays. These
standard arrays stipulates the way of conducting the minimal number of
experiments which could give the full information of all the factors that affect
the performance parameter.
• The crux of the orthogonal arrays method lies in choosing the level
combinations of the input design variables for each experiment.
2 A typical orthogonal array
• While there are many standard orthogonal arrays available, each of the
arrays is meant for a specific number of independent design variables and
levels . For example, if one wants to conduct an experiment to understand
the influence of 4 different independent variables with each variable having 3
set values ( level values), then an L9 orthogonal array might be the right
choice. The L9 orthogonal array is meant for understanding the effect of 4
independent factors each having 3 factor level values. This array assumes
that there is no interaction between any two factor. While in many cases, no
interaction model assumption is valid, there are some cases where there is a
clear evidence of interaction. A typical case of interaction would be the
interaction between the material properties and temperature.
Management of interactions
Interactions, as treated by Taguchi
• Many of the orthogonal arrays that Taguchi has advocated are saturated
arrays, allowing no scope for estimation of interactions. This is a
continuing topic of controversy.
• However, this is only true for "control factors" or factors in the "inner array".
By combining an inner array of control factors with an outer array of "noise
factors", Taguchi's approach provides "full information" on control-by-noise
interactions, it is claimed.
• Taguchi argues that such interactions have the greatest importance in
achieving a design that is robust to noise factor variation.
• The Taguchi approach provides more complete interaction information
than typical fractional factorial designs, its adherents claim.
• Followers of Taguchi argue that the designs offer rapid results and
that interactions can be eliminated by proper choice of quality
characteristics. That notwithstanding, a "confirmation experiment" offers
protection against any residual interactions. If the quality characteristic
represents the energy transformation of the system, then the "likelihood"
of control factor-by-control factor interactions is greatly reduced, since
"energy" is "additive".
The Table shows an L9 orthogonal array.There are totally 9 experiments to be
conducted and each experiment is based on the combination of level values
as shown in the table. For example, the third experiment is conducted by
keeping the independent design variable 1 at level 1, variable 2 at level 3,
variable 3 at level 3, and variable 4 at level 3.
Table: Layout of L9 orthogonal array.
L9 (34) Orthogonal array
Performance
Independent Variables
Parameter Value

Experiment # Variable 1 Variable 2 Variable 3 Variable 4

1 1 1 1 1 p1

2 1 2 2 2 p2

3 1 3 3 3 p3

4 2 1 2 3 p4

5 2 2 3 1 p5

6 2 3 1 2 p6

7 3 1 3 2 p7

8 3 2 1 3 p8

9 3 3 2 1 p9
3 Properties of an orthogonal array
The orthogonal arrays has the following special properties that reduces the
number of experiments to be conducted.
1.The vertical column under each independent variables of the above table has
a special combination of level settings. All the level settings appears an equal
number of times. For L9 array under variable 4 , level 1 , level 2 and level 3
appears thrice. This is called the balancing property of orthogonal arrays.
2.All the level values of independent variables are used for conducting the
experiments.
3.The sequence of level values for conducting the experiments shall not be
changed. This means one can not conduct experiment 1 with variable 1, level 2
setup and experiment 4 with variable 1 , level 1 setup. The reason for this is
that the array of each factor columns are mutually orthogonal to any other
column of level values. The inner product of vectors corresponding to weights is
zero. If the above 3 levels are normalized between -1 and 1, then the weighing
factors for level 1, level 2 , level 3 are -1 , 0 , 1 respectively. Hence the inner
product of weighing factors of independent variable 1 and independent variable
3 would be

(-1 * -1+-1*0+-1*1)+(0*0+0*1+0*-1)+(1*0+1*1+1*-1)=0
 Minimum number of experiments to be conducted
The design of experiments using the orthogonal array is, in most cases,
efficient when compared to many other statistical designs.
The minimum number of experiments that are required to conduct the
Taguchi method can be calculated based on the degrees of freedom
approach.
(1)

For example, in case of 8 independent variables study having 1

independent variable with 2 levels and remaining 7 independent variables
with 3 levels ( L18 orthogonal array) , the minimum number of experiments
required based on the above equation is 16. Because of the balancing
property of the orthogonal arrays, the total number of experiments shall be
multiple of 2 and 3. Hence the number of experiments for the above case is
18.
Assumptions of the Taguchi method
• The additive assumption implies that the individual or main effects of
the independent variables on performance parameter are separable.
• Under this assumption, the effect of each factor can be linear,
quadratic or of higher order, but the model assumes that there exists
no cross product effects (interactions) among the individual factors.
That means the effect of independent variable 1 on performance
parameter does not depend on the different level settings of any other
independent variables and vice versa.
• If at anytime, this assumption is violated, then the additivity of the
main effects does not hold, and the variables interact.
 Three noises:

It is useful to make parameter design in order to assure product reliability

demanded characteristics

demanded characteristics
demanded characteristics

Noise between products External noise Noise due to deterioration

(Environmental used conditions (Deterioration and wear due
(Variation of parts and material
such as temperature, humidity, to usage)
for making the same products)
voltage and use condition)

Variation of items Given conditions Specified period

A1,B1 and C1, are stable design parameters to meet demanded characteristics.
43
 Functional Quality Engineering Activities
Quality Variation
control Product External Internal among units
activities phase Steps noise noise (tolerances)
Product System design * * *
design Parameter * * *
design + * *
Tolerance design
Off-line
Production System design ++ ++ *
engineering Parameter ++ ++ *
design ++ ++ *
Tolerance design
On-line Production Process control ++ ++ *
operation Feedback ++ ++ *
Inspection, etc. ++ ++ *
key:
* = possible
+ = not preferable Taguchi methods
++ = impossible
Robust Design
• A main cause of poor yield in manufacturing processes is the
manufacturing variation.
• These manufacturing variations include variation in temperature or
humidity, variation in raw materials, and drift of process parameters.
• These source of noise / variation are the variables that are impossible or
expensive to control.
• The objective of the robust design is to find the controllable process
parameter settings for which noise or variation has a minimal effect on the
product's or process's functional characteristics.
• It is to be noted that the aim is not to find the parameter settings for the
uncontrollable noise variables, but the controllable design variables.
• To attain this objective, the control parameters, also known as inner array
variables, are systematically varied as stipulated by the inner orthogonal
array.
• For each experiment of the inner array, a series of new experiments are
conducted by varying the level settings of the uncontrollable noise
variables.
• The level combinations of noise variables are done using the outer
orthogonal array.
• The influence of noise on the performance characteristics can be found
using the S/N ratio where S is the standard deviation of the performance
parameters for each inner array experiment and N is the total number of
experiment in the outer orthogonal array.
• This ratio indicates the functional variation due to noise.
• Using this result, it is possible to predict which control parameter settings
will make the process insensitive to noise.
• However, when the functional characteristics are not affected by the
external noises, there is no need to conduct the experiments using the
outer orthogonal arrays.
• This is true in case of experiments which are conducted using the
computer simulation as the repeatability of a computer simulated
experiments is very high.
Designing an experiment
The design of an experiment involves the following steps:

1.Selection of independent variables

2.Selection of number of level settings for each independent variable
3.Selection of orthogonal array
4.Assigning the independent variables to each column
5.Conducting the experiments
6.Analyzing the data
7.Inference
The details of the above steps are given below.
1 Selection of the independent variables
• Before conducting the experiment, the knowledge of the product/process
under investigation is of prime importance for identifying the factors likely to
influence the outcome.
• In order to compile a comprehensive list of factors, the input to the
experiment is generally obtained from all the people involved in the project.
2 Deciding the number of levels
• Once the independent variables are decided, the number of levels for each
variable is decided.
• The selection of number of levels depends on how the performance
parameter is affected due to different level settings.
• If the performance parameter is a linear function of the independent
variable, then the number of level setting shall be 2. However, if the
independent variable is not linearly related, then one could go for 3, 4 or
higher levels depending on whether the relationship is quadratic, cubic or
higher order.
• In the absence of exact nature of relationship between the independent
variable and the performance parameter, one could choose 2 level settings.
After analyzing the experimental data, one can decide whether the
assumption of level setting is right or not based on the percent contribution
and the error calculations.
3 Selection of an orthogonal array
• Before selecting the orthogonal array, the minimum number of experiments
to be conducted shall be fixed based on the total number of degrees of
freedom present in the study.
• The minimum number of experiments that must be run to study the factors
shall be more than the total degrees of freedom available.
• In counting the total degrees of freedom the investigator commits 1 degree
of freedom to the overall mean of the response under study. The number of
degrees of freedom associated with each factor under study equals one
less than the number of levels available for that factor.
• Hence the total degrees of freedom without interaction effect is 1 + as
already given by the above equation 1. For example, in case of 11
independent variables, each having 2 levels, the total degrees of freedom is
12. Hence the selected orthogonal array shall have at least 12 experiments.
An L12 orthogonal satisfies this requirement.
• Once the minimum number of experiments is decided, the further selection
of orthogonal array is based on the number of independent variables and
number of factor levels for each independent variable.
4 Assigning the independent variables to columns
• The order in which the independent variables are assigned to the
vertical column is very essential. In case of mixed level variables and
interaction between variables, the variables are to be assigned at right
columns as stipulated by the orthogonal array .
• Finally, before conducting the experiment, the actual level values of
each design variable shall be decided.
• It shall be noted that the significance and the percent contribution of the
independent variables changes depending on the level values assigned.
It is the designers responsibility to set proper level values.
5 Conducting the experiment
• Once the orthogonal array is selected, the experiments are conducted
as per the level combinations.
• It is necessary that all the experiments be conducted.
• The interaction columns and dummy variable columns shall not be
considered for conducting the experiment, but are needed while
analyzing the data to understand the interaction effect.
• The performance parameter under study is noted down for each
experiment to conduct the sensitivity analysis.
6 Analysis of the data
• Since each experiment is the combination of different factor levels, it is
essential to segregate the individual effect of independent variables.
• This can be done by summing up the performance parameter values for the
corresponding level settings.
• For example, in order to find out the main effect of level 1 setting of the
independent variable 2 (refer Table 2.1), sum the performance parameter
values of the experiments 1, 4 and 7.
• Similarly for level 2, sum the experimental results of 2, 5 and 7 and so on.
• Once the mean value of each level of a particular independent variable is
calculated, the sum of square of deviation of each of the mean value from the
grand mean value is calculated.
• This sum of square deviation of a particular variable indicates whether the
performance parameter is sensitive to the change in level setting.
• If the sum of square deviation is close to zero or insignificant, one may
conclude that the design variables is not influencing the performance of the
process.
• In other words, by conducting the sensitivity analysis, and performing
analysis of variance (ANOVA), one can decide which independent factor
dominates over other and the percentage contribution of that particular
independent variable.
7 Inference
• From the above experimental analysis, it is clear that the higher the
value of sum of square of an independent variable, the more it has
influence on the performance parameter.
• One can also calculate the ratio of individual sum of square of a
particular independent variable to the total sum of squares of all the
variables.
• This ratio gives the percent contribution of the independent variable on
the performance parameter.
• In addition to above, one could find the near optimal solution to the
problem.
• This near optimum value may not be the global optimal solution.
• However, the solution can be used as an initial / starting value for the
standard optimization technique.
 7-Steps of Taguchi methodology (WCM way):
Step-1: Identify the main function, side effects, and failure mode
Step-2: Identify the objective function to be optimized
Step-3: Identify the control factors and their levels. Identify the noise factors,
testing conditions, and quality characteristics.
Step-4: Select the orthogonal array matrix experiment
Step-5: Conduct the matrix experiment
Step-6: Analyze the data, check the contribution rate of each parameter and
whether the error covers the minor part. If this is not the case re-choose
parameters. If the noise contribution is minor then predict the optimum
levels and performance.
Step-7: Perform the verification experiment. Understand why the selected
parameters with their levels offer the best performance and visualize
the phenomenon to create proper knowhow.
 2. Why Taguchi?
Necessary Activities for Quality Assurance

a) Quality Control of Design

Reliable quality function・・・ Quality function deployment(QFD)

Reliable product design ・・・ Specifications of parameters
(Taguchi method),
Specifications of tolerances
Reliable quality assurance ・・・ Design review, FMEA ,FTA,
Ｃontrol of important points
Reliable quality confirmation ・・・ Reliability testing
( support technology)

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b) Quality Control of Manufacturing
Design of reliable manufacturing processes
・・・ Specification of parameters (Taguchi methods),
specification of tolerances, investigation of process
capability
Reliable quality assurance
・・・ Process QFD, process FMEA, quality assurance over the
entire process, control of important points, reliability
testing during production preparations
100% inspection at the critical processes
・・・ Automatic testing, fool proof devices, screening system,
debugging system
 Reliable workforce・・・ QC circles, evaluation of skills

59
c) Evaluation of quality control activities

 Evaluation of product quality QA meeting

(Evaluation of the result)
 Evaluation of the quality Quality auditing
system
assurance organization
(Evaluation of the quality QC diagnosis
assurance process)

60
 Quality Control
System Of Design
・QFD Assurance of
・Parameter design Design

Planning
・Tolerance design Quality
・D.R.
・FMEA, FTA
・Reliability testing
・Control of important
points Design of the
Optimal Design
Quality to Meet
Quality Control Customer Needs
System of
Manufacture
Development of Design

・Parameter design
Tolerance design
・Investigation of
process capability
Assurance of
Production Techniques

・Process FMEA Manufacturing

・Automatic inspection, Quality
Manufacture

fool proof devices

・QA network
Screening,
Debugging
Promotion of Consistent Quality Assurance Activities

・Reliability testing

Fig. : Overview Of Quality Assurance Activities

・Control of important
points Build-in Optimal
・QC circles Design Quality
Built-in Quality to Meet Customer’s Needs

・Evaluation of skills

Quality Control
Evaluation System
・QC diagnosis
・Quality assurance
meeting
Assurance of
After Service

・Quality auditing
61

improvement Service
meeting Quality
Difference between safety factor and robust factor

Strength

Safety
factor Robust
Design strength

factor
Stress

Parameter
Safety factor and robust factor

Strength

Stress/strength Stress

Parameter
Design range

A/B Safety factor

C/D or E/F Robust factor
In order to reduce breakdown rate in terms of ppm order,
the mean value of strength must be bigger by 5 σ from the
mean value of stress (σ : standard deviation of the stress)

Stress Strength
 Does the strength vary linearly up to 5 sigma ?
Strength

Parameter related to strength (eg. dimension)

 Which X or Y is more robust?

x
Y
Quality characteristics

Parameter (use condition)

 Worrying about unexpected strength reduction,
safety factor may be raised!

Strength

Unexpected rapid
strength reduction

Stress

Unexpected breakdown mode

Parameter
Although the strength was increased, the stable range was
shrunk.
Safety
factor
Although the
strength was
increased
The stable
range was
shrunk
Design strength

Robust
factor

Parameter
When the new standard becomes too severe, the
quality characteristics tend to be unstable

The new standard is too

severe and as a result only at
Y
C, the quality characteristics
New standard
can be met.
Quality characteristics

Move X to the new

X standard in such a way that
the problem won’t appear
Old standard between A and B.

Parameter (use condition)

 SUMMARY :
• Every experimenter develops a nominal process/product that has the desired
functionality as demanded by users. Beginning with these nominal processes, he
wishes to optimize the processes/products by varying the control factors at his
disposal, such that the results are reliable and repeatable (i.e. show less variations).
• In Taguchi Method, the word "optimization" implies "determination of BEST levels of
control factors". In turn, the BEST levels of control factors are those that maximize
the Signal-to-Noise ratios. The Signal-to-Noise ratios are log functions of desired
output characteristics. The experiments, that are conducted to determine the BEST
levels, are based on "Orthogonal Arrays", are balanced with respect to all control
factors and yet are minimum in number. This in turn implies that the resources
(materials and time) required for the experiments are also minimum.
• Taguchi method divides all problems into 2 categories - STATIC or DYNAMIC. While
the Dynamic problems have a SIGNAL factor, the Static problems do not have any
signal factor.
• In Static problems, the optimization is achieved by using 3 Signal-to-Noise ratios -
smaller-the-better, LARGER-THE-BETTER and nominal-the-best.
• In Dynamic problems, the optimization is achieved by using 2 Signal-to-Noise ratios
- Slope and Linearity.
• Taguchi Method is a process/product optimization method that is based on 8-steps
of planning, conducting and evaluating results of matrix experiments to determine
the best levels of control factors. The primary goal is to keep the variance in the
output very low even in the presence of noise inputs. Thus, the processes/products
are made ROBUST against all variations.