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Mechanical Properties of AISI 1045 Steel Subjected to Combined Loads of

Tension and Torsion

Article in Experimental Techniques · March 2018

DOI: 10.1007/s40799-018-0236-3

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Experimental Techniques
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40799-018-0236-3

Mechanical Properties of AISI 1045 Steel Subjected to Combined Loads

of Tension and Torsion
G. Zhao 1 & L. Liu 1 & D. Wang 1 & J. Guo 1 & W. Chen 1

Received: 20 July 2017 / Accepted: 15 January 2018

# The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc 2018

Abstract
The quasi-static standard tensile, torsional, and combined tension and torsion tests were performed at room temperature to
investigate the mechanical properties of normalized AISI 1045 steel specimens. The performance of yielding, Young’s modulus,
and modulus of elasticity in shear were analyzed via two kinds of experiments with sequence-given loading paths, such as
tension-torsion (torsional response after tension) and torsion-tension (tensile response after torsion) tests, under various preloads.
Additionally, time-variant coupled effects between the shear stress and normal stress responded similarly in tension-torsion and
torsion-tension experiments. Results demonstrate that ultimate strengths of torsion and tension obtained by combined tension and
torsion tests were consistent with those strengths achieved by standard uniaxial tests. Yield strengths derived by the Von Mises
criterion and combined tension and torsion test were compared, and results showed maximum deviations of 23.01% and 43.28%
in shear and normal stress, respectively. Results indicated that the material exhibited quite different mechanical properties under
combined loads of tension and torsion from those under uniaxial loads.

Keywords Tension-torsion test . Torsion-tension test . Mechanical property . Coupled effects . Von Mises error

Introduction [1–3]. In practical application, however, the majority of

parts work generally under complex multidirectional loads
Material properties obtained via standard single axis tests which may deeply affect mechanical features and proper-
are the basis for the mechanical design of machinery parts ties of materials [4]. In order to pursue the effective utili-
zation of materials and the prediction of mechanical prop-
erties, a considerable amount of theoretical and experi-
mental research were done [5, 6]. Research on multi-
axial loading mainly fell into three methods: theoretic,
* J. Guo experiment and simulation.
jzguo@buaa.edu.cn
Combined torsion-tension studies were carried out to
G. Zhao investigate plastic behavior of beams [7], homogeneous
ghzhao@buaa.edu.cn anisotropic hardening [8], elastic strain energy density
decomposition [9] and sheet metal forming [10]. Lee
L. Liu
llb1985101@163.com et al. [11] reported the biaxial strength of carbon/epoxy
composite tubes by combined tensile and torsional load-
D. Wang
ing. Additionally, behaviors of other composites were
wangpick@163.com
investigated via tension-bending experiments [12–14].
W. Chen Besides composite materials, multiaxial failure criteria
wychen@buaa.edu.cn
for ceramic were also obtained from biaxial tests of ten-
1
School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Beihang
sion and torsion [15, 16]. Compared with the two kinds
University, 37 Xueyuan Road, Haidian District, of materials above, metallic materials were more widely
Beijing 100191, China used and therefore many more composite loading

Fig. 1 Flow chart of experiments
experiments, such as plane biaxial tension tests [17–21],
two-step uniaxial tests [22, 23], tension/torsion strain
path change tests [24–28] and proportional [29, 30] and
Fig. 2 Specimen dimensions of
different tests: (a) specimen for
standard tensile test, (b) specimen
for standard torsional test, and (c)
specimen for combined tension and
torsion test. All dimensions in mm
Exp Tech
non-proportional [31] combination of tension-torsion
loading tests were carried out. The tension/torsion strain
path change tests usually consisted of two types: with
combined loading system [24–26] and with individual
systems for each test [27–31]. Although so many kinds
of experiments were done to investigate the properties of
materials under different loading conditions, it still left
something to be desired. The main defect of the tension/
torsion strain path change tests with one loading device,
which were carried out on the fatigue machine, was the
limit of torsion angle. The maximum torsional angle of
the modernized BInstron^ machine [31] was ±22.5°. The
limited angle of the MTS servo hydraulic testing ma-
chine on which combined tension and torsion experi-
ments were performed was ±20° [27, 28]. The maximum
torsional angle used in the combined tension and torsion
experiments were 7° [27] and 5° [28], respectively.
Therefore, mechanical properties obtained in large twist
angle conditions were unable to be achieved on the fa-
tigue machine. Since studies [27–31] were established on
different testers, the specimen was inevitable to be
changed from one setup to another during the experi-
ments. Additionally, material exhibited significantly dif-
ferent mechanical properties in different constraint con-
ditions [32]. Loadings on one direction might result in
mechanical failures on other directions. Timoshenko [32]
pointed out that the internal structure of the material was
altered and its properties changed when materials were
Exp Tech

Fig. 4 (a) Customized TTTM, (b) Clamping and measure diagram of

TTTM

were used as references in analyzing the mechanical be-

haviors achieved by combined tension and torsion experi-
ments, such as yielding, Young’s modulus, modulus of
Fig. 3 (a) The standard tensile test frame, (b) The standard torsional elasticity in shear, and ultimate strength. Meanwhile, the
test frame time-variant coupled effects between the shear and normal
stress were investigated by two kinds of combined tension
and torsion experiments. Particularly, errors of Von Mises
loaded into the plastic range. Furthermore, few machin- criterion were analyzed and results indicated that maxi-
ery parts’ clamping constraint conditions changed during mum true yield tensile strength errors calculated by Von
the practical work process. Non-proportional loading Mises criterion was up to 43.28% compared with results of
condition is a typical complex multidirectional loads in
practical application. Consequently, tension/torsion ex-
periments conducted on fatigue machine [24–26] and
on different test frames [27–31] could hardly meet those
requirements in practical applications. Understanding of
the mechanical properties under the non-proportional
loading conditions enables the effective utilization of ma-
terials and the prediction of mechanical properties.
In this work, AISI 1045 steel was chosen because such
steels are typical candidate materials for a variety of engi-
neering components ranging from small scale to mass pro-
ductions. Two kinds of sequence-given combined tension
and torsion experiments, such as tension-torsion and
torsion-tension tests were performed. Standard tensile and
torsional experiments were conducted, and their results Fig. 5 Five repeated fitting curves of Young’s modulus E
 Exp Tech

Table 2 Mechanical properties of AISI 1045 steel obtained via standard

torsional experiments

Experiment Maximum Yield Breaking Yield Modulus of

No. Torque Tm Torque angle angle elasticity in
(Nm) Ts (Nm) Φm (°) Φs (°) shear G (GPa)

1 16.96 8.81 1742 10.88 78.1

2 16.54 8.49 1995 10.55 77.8
3 16.64 8.46 1888 11.83 78.0
4 16.73 8.57 1831 10.81 81.0
5 16.60 8.40 1839 8.77 78.5
Average 16.69 8.55 1859 10.57 78.7

Fig. 6 Five repeated fitting curves of modulus of elasticity in shear G customized tension and torsion testing machine (TTTM) char-
acterized the effect of the axial stress which was caused by the
torsion-tension tests under pre-torque of 7 Nm. Results TTTM grip as the grip limited the axial movement of the
derived in this paper indicated that yield strength of tension specimen during torsion. The flow chart of experiments in this
and torsion decreased with the increasing of pre-stretching paper was depicted in Fig. 1. All samples of 5 mm in diameter,
force or pre-torsional torque, and these properties might be 60 mm of parallel length and 50 mm of gauge length used here
used in material forming. had a circular cross section and were manufactured using the
same batch of AISI 1045 steel with normalizing treatment in
the same furnace, reaching hardness of 210 HB, shown in
Material and Experimental Methods Fig. 2. The specimen geometry used for the experiments de-
scribed in this paper were referenced to the Chinese national
Quasi-static standard tensile and torsional tests were conduct- standard GB/T 10128–2007. The chemical composition of the
ed on the tension testing machine Zwick Z100 (Zwick Roell AISI 1045 steel was 97.2Fe, 0.46C, 0.24Si, 0.45Mn, 0.015Cr,
Group, Germany) and torsion testing machine QBN500-L200 0.008P, 0.003S, ≥0.01Co, and 0.01Ni (in wt%). Additionally,
(Qian Bang, China) respectively. Firstly, these standard exper- one of the specimen was selected randomly; and the specimen
iments were used to verify the feasibility and accuracy of the hardness measured on three different points were 210.1HB,
TTTM’s uniaxial loading capability as the TTTM used in this 209.4HB, and 208.0HB, respectively.
paper was a non-standard test frame. Additionally, pre-tensile Five repeated experiments of standard tensile and torsional
forces of tension-torsion tests and pre-torsional torques of tests were conducted by referencing to the Chinese national
torsion-tension tests mentioned bellow were determined by standard GB/T 10128–2007. The standard tensile test frame,
the results achieved from the standard tensile and torsional shown in Fig. 3(a), used a local 20 mm gauge length tensile
tests. Pure torsional test, tension-torsion, and torsion-tension extensometer and the standard torsional test frame with a local
tests were performed at room temperature via the customized torsion troptometer was shown in Fig. 3(b). The standard tensile
tension and torsion testing machine QBD50-N500 (Qian tests were performed with a constant strain rate of 2.5 ×
Bang, China). Pure torsional tests conducted on the 10−4 s−1. A constant torsional speed of 10°/min was used during
the first stage of the standard torsional experiments before strain
hardening phase and the subsequent speed of 100°/min was
Table 1 Mechanical properties of AISI 1045 steel obtained via standard
tensile experiments
applied until failure occurred. Combined tension and torsion
tests consisting of tension-torsion and torsion-tension tests were
Experiment Maximum Yield Ultimate Elongation Young’s conducted without unloading on the TTTM, shown in Fig. 4(a).
No. force Fm strength strength δ (%) modulus Figure 4(b) shows the clamping and measure diagram of the
(kN) σs (MPa) σb (MPa) E (GPa)
TTTM. According to the tensile force corresponding to the
1 14.13 504 723 20.0 235 yield stress of standard tensile tests, six levels of pre-tensile
2 14.09 501 718 19.4 230 forces i.e. 3kN, 5kN, 8kN, 10kN, 11.5kN, and 13.7kN were
3 13.96 498 717 16.3 215 assigned for the tension-torsion tests. Three repeated tests were
4 14.58 519 742 20.2 228 carried out respectively for each group above. Similar to
5 14.67 513 747 18.6 208 tension-torsion tests, torsion-tension tests contained five sets
Average 14.29 507 729 18.9 223 of experiments with pre-torsional torques of 2 Nm, 4 Nm,
7 Nm, 9 Nm and 11 Nm, each group with three repeated tests.
Exp Tech

Fig. 7 Pure torsional experiment

based on TTTM

Fig. 8 Three repeated

experiments of pre-stretching
force of 3kN

Fig. 9 Pre-stretching force of

5kN
 Exp Tech

Fig. 10 Three repeated

experiments of pre-stretching
force of 8kN

Fig. 11 Three repeated

experiments of pre-stretching
force of 10kN

Fig. 12 Pre-stretching force of

11.5kN
Exp Tech
Fig. 13 Three repeated
experiments of pre-stretching
force of 13.7kN
During tensile loadings, specimens were extended at a constant
axial strain rate of 2.5 × 10−4 s−1, while during the torsion pe-
riods, specimens were twisted at a constant torsional speed of
10°/min before the strain hardening phase under tension-torsion
tests. To reduce the time of tension-torsion tests, the torsional
speed was gradually increased to 100°/min after the material
steps into the strain hardening phase. In torsion-tension tests, a
constant torsion speed of 10°/min during twisting and a strain
rate of 2.5 × 10−4 s−1 in stretching period were selected.
Transition from tension to torsion or from torsion to tension
were controlled via manual operation and a pre-stretch force
of 2kN was conducted in the initial stage of each tension-
torsion tests. Additionally, axial displacements and torsional
angles remained unchanged during the torsional and stretching
phases, respectively.
Experimental Result and Analysis
Standard Tensile and Torsional Experiments
Normal stress-strain curves were plotted based on the axial
force and displacement measured in standard tensile tests.
The slopes in the proportional phases of these curves were
Table 3 Comparison of σs and E obtained via standard tensile tester and TTTM
Mechanical properties Standard tensile average Different Pre-stretching forces on TTTM average
10kN
Yield strength σs (MPa) 507 504.9
Young’s modulus E(GPa) 223 240.3
fitted by the linear least squares method and they were
determined as the Young’s modulus E of the specimens.
Similarly, modulus of elasticity in shear G was also
achieved based on the torque and torsional angle. Fitting
results of E and G were plotted in Figs. 5 and 6, respec-
tively. Markers in these two Figures and other Figures in
this paper were merely used to denote different curves.
Other mechanical parameters as well as E and G were pre-
sented in Tables 1 and 2.
Pure Torsional Experiment Based on TTTM
The torsional speed in this test was exactly the same to that in
the standard tensile experiments. Figure 7 shows the result of
time-variant shear stress and normal stress and it indicated that
the torsional yield and ultimate strength were 327 MPa and
680 MPa, respectively. The relative errors of the yield and
ultimate strength achieved in the pure torsional test based on
TTTM were merely 6.57% and 0.62% of those in standard
torsional test, and the axial compression stress and deforma-
tion were 33 MPa and 0.007 mm in the pure torsional test
based on TTTM; therefore, the effect of the additional axial
stress could be ignored.
Error (%)
11.5kN 13.5kN Average value
496.3 526.9 509.4 0.47
255.0 230.4 241.9 8.48

Table 4 The average of G under different levels of pre-stretching forces
based on TTTM
Pre-stretching force (kN) 3 5 8 10 11.5 13.7
Average modulus of elasticity 73 70 68 44 43 41
in shear G (GPa)
Combined Tension and Torsion Experiments
Tension-torsion experiments
In order to investigate the interaction effects between tension
and torsion, tension-torsion experiments under different levels
of pre-stretching forces were performed. Time-variant shear
and normal stress curves were presented in Figs. 8, 9, 10, 11,
12 and 13. Based on these results, following points could be
observed:
a). For the groups whose pre-stretching forces were less
than 9.54kN (minimum value of the yield strength
achieved form the standard tensile tests), the normal
stresses remained unchanged before torsional yield-
ing, but then declined sharply from the torsional yield
vertex until they reached a relatively low value of
around −30 MPa. For test groups with pre-stretching
forces which were not less than 10kN, the normal
stresses reduced drastically at the beginning of the
torsion.
b). The yielding might exhibit three phenomena based on
the pre-stretching force. An apparent yielding was man-
ifested in Figs. 8, 9 and 10 while Figs. 12 and 13 dem-
onstrated no yielding. Whether or not shear yielding
would take place was uncertain when pre-stretching
forces were between forces corresponding to the upper
and lower yield strength.
Fig. 14 Three repeated
experiments of pre-torsional
torque of 2 Nm
Exp Tech
c). Phenomena described in a) and b) could be explanted by
the Von Mises criterion.
d). The yield shear strength decreased with the increasing of
pre-stretching force.
e). The ultimate shear strength was same to that in standard
torsional experiments and was not affected by the effect
of tension.
The yield strength σs and Young’s modulus E obtained
from tension-torsion tests and standard torsional tests
were compared and summarized in Table 3. Young’s
modulus E achieved here were obtained by using the
same method in standard tensile tests. The errors of σs
and E were 0.47% and 8.48% between tension-torsion
tests and standard torsional tests. E had a relatively con-
siderable error of 8.48%, however, this might be resulted
from the difference of material itself and manufacturing
errors of specimens.
Table 4 presented the average value of G under different
levels of pre-stretching forces on TTTM via the least squares
linear fitting about the torsional proportional phase of the
curves in Figs. 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13. Results demonstrated
that G reduced significantly with the increasing of pre-
stretching force.
Torsion-tension experiments
Similar to tension-torsion tests, the shear and normal stresses
versus time curves under different levels of pre-torsion torques
were plotted in Figs. 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18. Different from the
axial stresses in standard torsional tests, the axial stresses were
unable to return zero due to the TTTM’s grip but this didn’t
affect the mechanical properties very much. Phenomena could
be observed as follows:
Exp Tech
Fig. 15 Three repeated
experiments of pre-torsional
torque of 4 Nm
a). Figures 14, 15 and 16, in which pre-torsion torques
were no more than 8.57 Nm (minimum value of the
yield shear strength obtained via the standard torsion-
al tests) manifested that the shear stress values
remained unchanged until normal stresses reached
the critical value called the yield tensile strength.
However, shear stresses declined drastically after nor-
mal stresses arrived at the yield vertex and then sta-
bilized at a low level of around 32 MPa. Unlike
Figs. 14, 15 and 16, the shear stresses decreased rap-
idly and simultaneously with normal stresses’ in-
creasing (see Figs. 17 and 18)
b). Phenomena described in a) were consistent with Von
Mises criterion.
c). Similar to tension-torsion tests, the analysis of the yield
phenomenon could be split into three parts. Figures 14,
15 and 16 showed a typical yield phenomenon while
Figs. 17 and 18 proved no yielding.
d). It was essential to be noted here that the yield tensile
strength decreased slightly with the increasing of pre-
torsion torque.
Fig. 16 Three repeated
experiments of pre-torsional
torque of 7 Nm
e). After pre-torsion, ultimate tensile strength values of all
the groups were consistent with that in the standard ten-
sile experiment.
Yield phenomenon could hardly be observed when mate-
rial just stepped into yield stage during torsional experiments.
Therefore, yield torsional strength τs was usually calculated
from the value of general yield torque Ts, which hardly
changed with the increasing of torsional angle during the yield
phase. τs in torsion and combined tension-torsion experiments
were calculated by equations (1) and (2) [33].
3T s R
τs ¼ ð1Þ
4I p
πd 4
Ip ¼ ð2Þ
32
where, Ip was the second-area moment of the cross section
relative to longitudinal z axis, and d denoted the diameter of
specimen.
 Exp Tech

Fig. 17 Three repeated

experiments of pre-torsional
torque of 9 Nm

Shear stress data, in Table 5, were calculated in equation (3). torques (see Table 6). E declined dramatically with the in-
creasing of pre-torsional torque, especially in relatively large
T sR
τ es ¼ ð3Þ pre-torsional torques.
Ip

Error Analysis of Von Mises Criterion via Combined

Therefore, final results of τs, in Table 5, could be derived from
Figs. 17 and 18, respectively, and could be described as below
3 e
τs ¼ τ ð4Þ
4 s
The yield tensile strength and G under torsion-tension tests
were determined using the method similar to pure torsional
tests conducted on the standard torsional test frame.
Meanwhile, τs and G achieved via standard torsional tests
and torsion-tension tests were compared and summarized in
Table 5. Errors of τs and G were merely 3.45% and 1.27% of
those in standard torsional tests. Additionally, the average of E
was attained as well under different levels of pre-torsional
Tension and Torsion Experiments
To analyze Von Mises criterion error under combined tension
and torsion experiments, principal stresses achieved from the
experimental yield data, which were under different levels of
per-loads and under different kinds of combined tension and
torsion experiments, were plotted together with the Von
Mises yield trajectory in the σ1-σ3 coordinate system, shown
in Fig. 19.
where the first three markers in the legend denoted the
principal stresses under different pre-stretching forces when
specimen’s surface yielded during twisting phase. The last
three markers in the legend were principal stresses under

Fig. 18 Three repeated

experiments of pre-torsional
torque of 11 Nm
Exp Tech

Table 5 Comparison of τs and G achieved via the standard torsional tester and TTTM

Mechanical properties Standard torsional average Different Pre-torsional Torques on TTTM average Error (%)

9 Nm 11 Nm Average values

Yield strength τs (MPa) 261 249 255 252 3.45

Modulus of elasticity in shear G (GPa) 79 81 78 80 1.27

different pre-torsional torques when specimen yielded during when specimens were subjected to the action of pure ten-
tensile phase. sion and torsion loadings, respectively.
Figure 19 denoted that principal stresses achieved form
0 0
the combined tension and torsion tests were located around σ z ¼ σt ¼ σð 1 þ ε Þ τ xy ¼ 0
0 0
the Von Mises criterion trajectory. To clearly manifest the σx ¼ 0 τ yz ¼ 0 ð5Þ
effects of tension on torsional yield strength and torsion on 0
σy ¼ 0
0
τ zx ¼ 0
tensile yield strength, experimental yield data mentioned
above were replotted in the σ-τ coordinate system, shown 00 00
in Fig. 20. σz ¼ 0 τ xy ¼ 0
00 00
where the first three markers in the legend denoted the σx ¼ 0 τ yz ¼ 0 ð6Þ
00 00 00
stresses under different pre-stretching forces when speci- σy ¼ 0 τ zx ¼ τ zx
men’s surface yielded during twisting phase. The last three
markers in the legend were stresses under different pre-
torsional torques when specimen yielded during tensile where σ and ε were engineering stress and strain, respectively,
phase. One of the yield shear strength deviations between and σt was the true stress in tension tests.
Von Mises yield criterion and experimental yield stress in According to the superposition principle, all components of
tension-torsion test was marked by Δτ. Similarly, Δσ de- the total equivalent stress in combined tension and torsional
noted the yield tensile strength deviation between Von loadings were described as equation (7).
Mises criterion and experimental yield stress under 7 Nm 0 00 0 00
σz ¼ σz þ σz ¼ σð1 þ εÞ τ xy ¼ τ xy þ τ xy ¼ 0
pre-twisted torsion-tension test. 0 00 0 00
σ x ¼ σx þ σx ¼ 0 τ yz ¼ τ yz þ τ yz ¼ 0 ð7Þ
Both yield shear stresses and normal stresses deviations 0 00 0 00 00
increased with the increasing of pre-stretching forces and σy ¼ σ y þ σy ¼ 0 τ zx ¼ τ zx þ τ zx ¼ τ zx
pre-torsional torques, respectively, shown in Fig. 20. Exact
errors of them could be calculated by the following method The theoretical torsional shear stresses τzx in tension-
and summarized in Tables 7 and 8. torsion tests during torsional phase and the tensile normal
When the cylindrical specimens mentioned in this paper
were subjected to torsion and tension, the shear stress τ
acted over the cross section and on longitudinal planes
while the normal stress σ acted along the axial direction,
as shown in Fig. 21(a). A small, thin stress element ABCD
cut out between two cross sections and between two lon-
gitudinal planes from the specimen surface was shown in
Fig. 21(a). Figure 21(b) presented the state of pure shear
and directions of the element. True normal and shear
stresses were used and described in equations (5) and (6)

Table 6 The average of E under different levels of pre-torsional torque

obtained via TTTM

Level values (Nm) 2 4 7 9 11

Average of E (GPa) 252 249 220 134 106
Fig. 19 Experimental yield principal stresses in σ1-σ3 coordinate system
 Exp Tech

Fig. 20 Experimental yield

stresses in σ-τ coordinate system

stresses σz in torsion-tension tests during the tensile stage experimental results. Similarly, Table 8 analyzed the true
based on the Von Mises criterion could be obtained by yield normal strengths and their errors based on the Von
substituting equation (7) in the component form of Von Mises criterion and experiments under torsion-tension loads.
Mises criterion equation (8) [34]. Since equation (8) defined Yield normal strengths in the third column of Table 8 were
the Von Mises yield criterion, all results calculated in Tables 7 derived from Figs. 14, 15 and 16 when specimen just ap-
and 8 were obtained under low levels of pre-load which were peared to yield. Two main results might be drawn below
less than the corresponding yield strength of the material via from Table 7 that: a) Both of the true yield shear strengths
standard experiments. obtained via Von Mises criterion and experiments decreased
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffi sharply with pre-stretching force increasing, especially when
 2  2
σx −σy þ σy −σz þ ðσz −σx Þ2 þ 6 τ 2xy þ τ 2yz þ τ 2zx the pre-stretching force exceeded 5kN; b) Errors rose up
σs ¼ pffiffiffi ð8Þ slowly with the increasing of pre-stretching force and the
2
maximum error was 23.01%. True yield tensile strengths
where σs denoted the average of the yield tensile strength of obtained via Von Mises criterion declined rapidly with the
the specimens achieved via standard tensile tests. Theoretical pre-torsional torque increasing (Table 8). However, true
and experimental torsional true yield shear strengths based on yield tensile strengths achieved from combined tension and
Von Mises criterion and experiments during the torsional torsion experiments were hardly affected by the pre-torsional
phase of tension-torsion tests were summarized in Table 7. It torque. The maximum error of true yield tensile strengths
should be noted here that yield phenomena, in torsion exper- based on Von Mises criterion was up to 43.28 compared
iment and tension experiment, could hardly be observed when with those achieved by combined torsion-tension tests.
material just stepped into yield stage during experiments. Consequently, the Von Mises criterion might result in a con-
Therefore, the yield shear strength and the yield normal siderable error and not be applicable under combined torsion
strength were determined by the corresponding stress values and tension loads when the pre-torsional torque exceed a
at the moment when normal stress curve and shear stress critical value. Another useful result drawn here was that
curves started to decline, respectively. Additionally, Table 7 the failure of AISI 1045 steel was closely related to the
showed the true yield strength errors between theoretical and loading path and its magnitude of pre-loads.

Table 7 Comparison of true yield shear strengths obtained via Von Table 8 Comparison of true yield tensile strengths based on Von Mises
Mises criterion and tension-torsion tests criterion and torsion-tension tests

Pre-stretching Von Mises Tension-torsion Errors (%) Pre-torsion Von Mises Torsion-tension Errors (%)
value (kN) criterion (MPa) tests (MPa) value (Nm) criterion (MPa) tests (MPa)

3 279 266 4.98 2 488 500 2.40

5 253 258 1.94 4 422 462 8.66
8 174 226 23.01 7 114 201 43.28
Exp Tech
Fig. 21 Stresses acting on an
element under combined tension
and torsion experiments: (a)
combined tension and torsion
loads on the specimen, (b) shear
stresses acting on the element
ABCD
Conclusion
Using the customized combined tension and torsion tes-
ter, the loading path effect on the mechanical behavior of
AISI 1045 steel with normalizing treatment reaching
hardness of 210 HB was investigated. Additionally, stan-
dard tensile and torsional tests were carried out as the
reference in assessing the performance of combined ten-
sion and torsion tests. Main conclusions could be drawn
as follows:
1) The average errors of Young’s modulus E and the
yield tensile strength achieved by the standard tensile
tester and the combined tension and torsion tests
were 8.48% and 0.47%, while the average errors of
modulus of elasticity in shear G and the yield tor-
sional strength are 1.27% and 3.45%. The results
above indicated that it was feasible to perform com-
bined tension and torsion experiments on the TTTM.
2) Similar coupled effects on the performance of material
between tension and torsion were demonstrated via two
kinds of combined experiments. The yield tensile phe-
nomenon and the shear stress in torsion-tension experi-
ments behave different according to the level of pre-
torsion which was determined by the critical shear stress
called yield shear strength. Additionally, tension-torsion
experiments demonstrated that the yield torsional phe-
nomenon and the normal stress behavior were affected
by the pre-tensile values.
3) Young’s modulus E and the modulus of elasticity in shear
G declined drastically with the increasing of pre-torsional
torque and pre-stretching force, respectively.
4) The yield shear strength based on Von Mises criterion
generated an error of 23.01% compared with that ob-
tained by tension-torsion experiments. Nevertheless,
the yield tensile strength of torsion-tension experi-
ments was affected greatly by the pre-torsional
torques when pre-torsional torques were lower than
the torques corresponding to the yield torsional
strength. Since the maximum error of the true yield
tensile strengths based on Von Mises criterion under
torsion-tension tests reached up to 43.28%, the Von
Mises criterion was not applicable in such situations.
5) Trends of normal stress and shear stress in combined
tension and torsion experiments were consistent with
Von Mises criterion.
6) Ultimate strengths of torsion and tension under pre-loads
in combined tension and torsion tests were consistent
with the results of standard uniaxial experiment.
Acknowledgements All of the experiments described herein was per-
formed at Beijing University of Technology and was supported by
National Natural Science Foundation of China (51305013).
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