UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES,

DHARWAD

e - Notes:

Crop Improvement II (Rabi Season)

GPB 302(1+1)

Prepared by
Dr Shobha Immadi,
Dr Nandini B,
Dr Uday G Reddy

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS AND PLANT BREEDING

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, DHARWAD
2020

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 WHEAT (Triticum sp., 2n=14, 28, 42)

 It is one of the important cereals in the world giving about 2/3 rd of the total production followed
closely by rice.
 In temperature region it is the major source of food. The wheat flour is used predominantly for
making bread.
 India is one of the few countries in the world where three types of wheat are grown.
Bread wheat (T. aestivum) 90% area
Durum wheat (T. durum) 8% area
Dicoccum/Emmer wheat (T.dicoccum) 2% area

Distribution:
 Russia, USA, India, Pakistan, France, Canada, Italy, Argentina, Persia, Greece, Egypt, Europe,
China, Japan, Mexico.
 In India, extensively cultivated in North West India, Eastern part, Central plain, to some extent
Southern peninsular zone.

ORIGIN:
 Probable origin is south west Asia because related wild species are still grown in Babylonia,
Syria, Iran, North Israel, Iraq and Eastern Turkey.
Diploid Wheat - Asia minor
Tetraploid Wheat - Abyssinia (North Africa)
Hexaploid Wheat - Central Asia
 There are about 30 species in wheat, out of which 13 are diploids, 12 are tetraploids and 5 are
hexaploids.

Progenitor:
T. monococcum 2n=2x=14 (AA), Diploid Einkorn wheat

Cultivated:
T. aestivum 2n=6x=42 (AABBDD), Allohexaploid Bread wheat/ Common wheat
T. durum 2n=4x=28 (AABB), Allotetraploid Durum wheat/ Macaroni wheat
T. dicoccum 2n=4x=28 (AABB), Allotetraploid Dicoccum/ Emmer wheat

Related Species:
- T. boeticum/ T.aegilopoides (AA) Wild Einkorn 2n=14
- T. dicoccides, (AABB) Wild Emmer 2n=28
- T. persicum/ T. carthlicum (AABB) Persian wheat 2n=28
- T. turgidum (AABB) Rivet/Poulard 2n=28
- T. polonicum (AABB) Polish wheat 2n=28
- T. compactum (AABBDD) Club wheat 2n=42
- T. sphaerococcum (AABBDD) Dwarf wheat 2n=42
- T. spelta (AABBDD) Spelt wheat 2n=42
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 - T. macha (AABBDD) Macha wheat 2n=42
- T. timopheevi Tetraploid Source of CMS 2n=42

Crop Systematics and Species Relationship

Wheat belongs to the grass family Graminae and to the tribe Triticeae. The tribe forms a
distinct natural group characterized by a compound spike, laterally compressed spikelets with two
glumes, single starch grains and fairly large chromosomes in multiples of seven. The genera
Triticum, Aegilops, Secale, Agropyron and Haynaldia are distinct and form a natural subtribe the
Triticinae, within the tribe Triticeae. The genus Triticum has a large number of species including
cultivated types (Table 1). All the species of wheats are grouped in three natural groups einkorn,
emmer and dinkel wheat that form a polyploid series with chromosome numbers n=7, 14 and 21
respectively. The first domesticated forms of wheat are considered to have evolved through selectors
of cultivable types from wild diploid species T. boeticum subsp. aegilopoides to produce T.
monococuum (einkorn wheat) and the wild tetraploid T. dicoccoides to produce T. dicoccum (emmer
wheat) simultaneously. The hexaploid wheats were the last to evolve and are the most modern.

Genetic Evolution
The genome analysis, the determination of evolutionary relationships on the basis of
chromosome pairing in hybrids to understand the evolutionary and species relationship in Triticum
has been extensively studied by Kihara and his colleagues. These studies indicated that
allopolyploidy was involved and that wheat evolution followed a system of diploid divergence and
polyploid convergence.

Evidences indicate that the tetraploid wheats (AABB genome) evolved from an allopolyploid
combining T. monococcum (AA) and an unknown, which was supposed to be the progenitor of BB
genome. Though it was believed to be Ae .spelloides, the ‘B’ genome donor, recent studies revealed
that it could not be progenitors of hexaploid wheat. Further, natural hybridization of a tetraploid with
wild grass (Ae. squarrosa L. DD genome renamed as T. tauschii) gave rise to hexaploid wheats like
T. aestivum, T. compactum etc.

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EVOLUTION OF WHEAT:
T. boeticum / T. aegilopoides wild Einkorn
Natural mutation & selection

T. monococcum Einkorn wheat x Unknown species (T. searsii)

(2n=2x=14, AA) (2n=2x=14, BB)

F1 - AB
Natural chromosomal doubling

T. turgidum Emmer wheat x T. tauschii

2n=4x=28, AABB 2n=2x=14, DD

F1 - ABD
Natural chromosomal doubling

T. aestivum Common wheat

(2n=6x =42, AABBDD)

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Triticale development:
T. turgidum x Secale cereale (Rye)
(2n=4x=28, AABB) (2n=2x=14, RR)

F1 – ABR
Chromosomal doubling

Hexaploid triticale (X. triticosecale)

(2n=6x =42, AABBRR)

T. aestivum x Secale cereale (Rye)

(2n=6x=42, AABBDD) (2n=2x=14, RR)

F1 - ABDR
Chromosomal doubling

Octaploid triticale
(2n=8x=56, AABBDDRR)

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Hexaploid wheat: A B D genomes
1A 1B 1D
2A 2B 2D
3A 3B 3D
4A 4B 4D
5A 5B 5D
6A 6B 6D
7A 7B 7D

 These homeologous chromosomes do not pair, only homologous chromosomes pairs.

 Ph gene present on Chromosome 5B, which prevents homeologous chromosome pairing.
 Hexaploid wheat contains 7 homeologous groups and each homeologous group contains 3
chromosomes eg. 1A 1B 1D.
 If one chromosome is lost in a homeologous group it is compensated by genes from other
chromosome eg. Leaf rust resistant genes - 2A (2 genes), 2B (3 genes), 2D (2 genes), they occur
at same position in chromosome no.3.
 E.R.Sears developed complete set of 21 monosomics (2n-1) in hexaploid wheat cultivar, Chinese
spring. In T. aestivum,all monosomics (2n-1) and nullisomics (2n-2) are viable.
 Monosomic analysis is used for locating
i) gene/s in chromosome/s and chromosome arm/s
ii) hemizygous ineffective genes
iii) genes via chromosome substitutions and
iv) genes by lack of expression in nullisomics
 Alien germplasm exploitation has been limited due to factors like lack of crossability, ploidy
differences, embryo abortion, hybrid sterility, useful and deleterious gene linkages, lack of
synapsis, and crossing over between wheat and alien chromosome.
 Three crossability genes kr1, kr2 and kr3 have been identified in Chinese spring which facilitates
crossing to rye.
 To overcome ploidy differences, genetic bridges and chromosome number doubling have been
beneficial. Alien tetraploids have been of significant value in overcoming persistent wheat x
diploid alien species crossability barriers.
 Embryo rescue techniques have now become routine practice in interspecific and intergeneric
hybridization.
 In wheat chromosome pairing is restricted to homologues by a diploidizing mechanism located
in the long arm of chromosome 5B, preventing normal synapsis between wheat and alien
chromosomes.
 On the 3D-beta, 3A and 4D chromosomes, minor suppressors of allosyndesis have been located.
The pairing promoting genes exist on chromosome 3D, in the long arms of 5A & 5D and short
arm of chromosome 5D.
 In the absence of the chromosome 5BL suppressor gene, formation of multivalent occur
involving homeologues and synapsis of chromosomes from related genera.

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  The activity of the Ph gene in chromosome 5BL of wheat is seemingly suppressed by genes in
rye. More than two alleles in rye that acts additively to promote homologous pairing in wheat.
The short arm of chromosome 5R may carry pairing promoters.

Features of species :
- T. boeticum (wild Einkorn) - One or two cereal spikelets, the brittle ear shatter at maturity into
individual spikelets, awns provide an effective means seed dispersal.
- T. monococcum - primitive diploid form of domesticated wheat, evolved from T. boeticum by
mutation & selection.
- T. speltoides - probable B genome donor, naturally cross pollinated crop.
- T. searsii - probable B genome donor.
- T. dicoccoides - amphidiploid resulting from hybridization b/w T. boeticum&T. searsii.
- T. dicoccum - it is the oldest of the cultivated wheat, spikes are dense, bearded and laterally
compressed. The spikelets are two grained & grains are within glumes after crushing.
- T. durum - free threshing wheat with naked grain & grain contain high gelatin.
- Aegilops squarosa/ T. squarosa - probable D genome donor with high adaptability.
- T. tauschii - probable D genome donor.
- T. spelta - an amphidiploid obtained by hybridization b/w T. dicoccoides x T. tauschii.
- T. aestivum - known as Common/ Bread wheat & grown in all parts of tropics & subtropics. It
exhibit extremely wider range of morphological, physiological variation & ecological
adaptation.

FLORAL BIOLOGY

The inflorescence of wheat is a spike bearing two opposite rows of lateral spikelets and a
single terminal spikelet on the primary axis. The unit of spike is called spikelet. Two to five florets
are born in each spikelet, subtended by a pair of glumes. Each floret contains three anthers and a
pistil bearing two styles each with feathery stigma and two ovate lodicules which are modified
perianth structure. Florets at anthesis are forced open by swelling of the lodicules. Flowering starts
several days after the wheat spike emerges from the boot. Florets on the main culm flower first and
those on the tillers flowering later. Flowering begins in the early morning and continues throughout
the day. Two to three days are required for a spike to finish blooming. A wheat grain is caryopsis, a
small dry, indehiscent, one seeded fruit with a thin pericarp consisting of a germ or embryo and an
endosperm.

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HYBRIDIZATION TECHNIQUE:

Emasculation:
The spike enclosed in leaf sheath or partially emerged is selected for emasculation. The awns and tips
of spiklets are cut off to avoid obstacle in the process of emasculation and pollination, similarly the
central sterile flower also removed with forceps. The requisite numbers of spikelet are kept on the
spike and with the half of forceps the glumes are separated and three young immature greenish
yellow anthers are removed from each flower and the flower bagged.
Pollination:
On the next morning between 9.00 to 11.00 am the pollen grain collected desired protected plant in
petridish and dusted on stigma of emasculated flower with the help of hair brush. The spike is
covered with bag after pollination and labelled again.

BREEDING OBJECTIVES:
1. Breeding for high yield–
- Components - No.of heads/unit area, No.of grains/head, grain weight.
- Yield is a function of no.of spikes x no.of grains/spike x weight of grain
Or no.of grains/ unit area x weight of grain in that unit area
- Balance between them depends on day length and heat units, which determine the flowering
and uniformity of the genotypes and is also influenced by mineral fertilizers and moisture
supplies.
- When photoperiod is long and temperature is optimum like in Western Europe & North West
of USA, yield is higher; when photoperiod length is shorter like in India & Mexico, it leads to
lesser yield.
- Ideotype for rainfed condition should be semi-dwarf, lengthy panicle, large no of spikelets per
panicle, deep root system to utilize moisture, timely earing.

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 - 1B/1R translocation (Small arm of chr.1R of rye translocated to long arm of chr.1B of wheat)
enhances genetic yield potential eg. Veery - CIMMYT.
- Harvest index was manipulated through selection for dwarf / semi-dwarf genotypes.
2. Breeding for stability and adaptability:
Breeding for stability implies that the variety developed is affected to minimal loss from vagaries
of climate, stress or destructive pest. Breeding for adaptability implies that that variety is
adaptable over a wide range of environments with consistency in performance.
For a given agro-climate, it is also necessary to develop varieties / hybrids that have high yield
with specific adaptation.
3. Breeding for earliness
4. Breeding for lodging resistance –
- Adoption of semi-dwarf varieties played significant role in world wheat production. They have
short straw, which makes the plant less prone to lodging.
- The development of short-strawed varieties probably started in Japan in the 19th century. It was
obtained from Japanese variety Norin 10 which has two dwarfing genes Rht 1&Rht 2.
- General symbol for dwarfing genes is Rht ‘n’.
- Rht 1 and Rht 2 genes were incorporated into several important cultivars through the initial
cross that used the Japanese variety, Norin 10.
- Incorporation of these genes resulted in lodging resistance and showed higher harvest index ,
increased biomass and higher rate partitioning of assimilates into grains.
- Rht 1 is located on alpha arm of chromosome 4A and is available in both aestivum and durum
wheats. Rht 2 is located in the short arm of chromosome 4D.
- Other dwarfing genes are Rht 3, Rht 5, Rht 8, Rht 9, Rht 10
- Semi-dwarf varieties - Sonara 63, Sonara 64 (from CIMMYT), Kalyansona.
- Triple gene dwarf varieties - Hira & Moti - not popular due to difficulty in manual harvesting.
5. Breeding for winter hardiness
6. Breeding for drought resistance
7. Breeding for salinity tolerance
8. Breeding for disease resistance
 Imp. diseases - Rust (leaf, stem, brown), Smuts, Powdery mildew, Leaf/ head blight
 Stem rust/ Black rust (Puccinia graminis tritici) –
- A no.of specific resistance genes have been identified and certain loci multiple allelism is
reported.
- Some resistance genes were transferred from related species to T. aestivum.
- eg. Sr21, Sr22 & Sr35 from T. monococcum; Sr2, Sr9e, Sr9g, Sr12 & Sr13 from Tetraploid
wheats; Sr32 & Sr39 from T. speltoides; Sr33 from T. tauschii; Sr34 from T. comosoa; Sr38
from T. ventricosa; Sr36 & Sr37 from T.timopheevi; Sr40 from T. aromaticum; Sr27 & Sr31
from Secale cereale; Sr24, Sr25, Sr26 from Agropyron elongatum.
- These resistance genes can be easily combined in the same variety. Most current cultivars
possess these specific resistance gens in various combinations.
- Resistance to P. graminis tritici controlled by multiple genes having small effects or non-
specific genes.
- Durable resistance to stem rust has been attributed to ‘Sr2 gene complex’.
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 - Stem rust res.var. - Vaishali
 Leaf rust/ Yellow rust (Puccinia recondita tritici) –
- Known specific genes for resistance are known and multiple allelism is known to occur at
certain loci.
- Several genes are also transferred from related species to wheat.
- Lr27/Lr31 interacts in a partly dominant complementary manner to give resistance.
- Slow rusting is also simply inherited and influenced by environmental factors.
- Durable resistance to leaf rust in CIMMYT bred varieties is due to additive interaction of Lr34
with other minor genes.
- Leaf rust res. var. - Sonalika, Sujatha, DL-802-2, DL-802-3, Girija
 Stripe rust/ Orange rust (Puccinia striformis) –
- Known specific genes for resistance are known and multiple allelism is known to occur at
certain loci.
- Both major and minor genes (Yr genes) are known to occur.
- Yr18 confer partial durable resistance in CIMMYT wheats.
- Rust res. spp – T. monococcum, T. boeticum, T. timopheevi
 Powdery mildew (Erysiphe graminis) –
- Specific genes for resistance are known (Pm genes)
- Pm4a & Pm5 derived from T. dicoccum, Pm4b from T. carthlicum, Pm6 from T. timipheevi,
and Pm7 & Pm8 from Secale cereal.
- Resistance due to non-specific genes of quantitative nature are also described.
- Powdery mildew res. spp – T. boeticum
 Bunts (Tilletia sp.) - Ten specific genes are known to confer resistance.
 Loose smut (Ustilago tritici) – Four specific genes confer resistance –Ut1, Ut2, Ut3, Ut4.
 Leaf spot - res. species Aegilops curuiflorum.
 Barley yellow dwarf virus – Quantitative in nature. A partly dominant gene Bdv1.
9. Breeding for insect resistance
- Imp. insects - Hessian fly, Green bug & leaf beetle
- Resistance to insects is governed by specific genes.
- Hessian fly (Mayetiola destructor) - 13 genes (H1 to H13) are known to confer resistance.
- Biotypes of hessian fly occur and resistance can break down because of a simple mutation.
- Hessian fly res. var. - Mosquillo, Kourale.
- Green bug – Specific gens govern resistance eg. Gb gene
-
10. This is achieved after the identification of dwarfing gene in Japanese variety Norin 10. Most of
our dwarf wheats are two gene dwarfs. E.g. Sonara 63, sonara 64, kalyan sona. Emphasis is
now on triple gene dwarfs.

11. Breeding for quality:

Wheat is cultivated primarily for its grain, which are mainly processed in to flour utilized for
numerous end products. The quality of end product is of utmost consideration to the wheat
consumers. Broadly the wheat grain quality criteria include features like physical appearance,

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processing qualities, nutritional values and biological properties each of these is composed of several
components influenced by genetic make up of the variety.
- Different wheat varieties vary in their chemical composition & considerably influenced by
environment.
- The quality of wheat is determined by quality & quantity of starch and non-enzymatic storage
proteins which constitute glutein of wheat.
- Glutein is one of the important naturally occurring protein complex.
- Wheat is the only cereal which has gluten which makes it unique in terms of processing
possibilities into different products.
Types:
i) Hard wheat – T. aestivum - high glutein content, good flour yield, water absorption & better
bread making quality.
ii) Soft wheat – T. compactum - fine, silky flour, suited for making confectionary products like
cake.
iii) Durum wheat – T. durum - greater hardiness, milled to produce granular product ‘samolin’,
used to make paratha & noodles, used for making macroni.

(i) Breeding for physical quality: The objective is to develop a variety with well accepted physical
characteristics like colour, vitreousness, texture / hardness, appearance, grain weight, test weight.
(ii) Breeding for chemical composition: Wheat grain is one of the important source of human
nutrition and is a rich source of protein, starch and minerals. Some of the objectives that determine
the chemical composition of wheat grain that has implications on higher quality include:
a. Starch composition – modification of functionality of starch and amylose and amylopectin
content as per desirable end product such as noodles, pasta, thickness, binding agents, bread etc. If
the objective is to produce starch with no amylase, then breeding for waxy type wheat would be
necessary.
b. Protein content - Wheat grain has a special significance of breeding for high protein and
low protein for bread and biscuit purposes respectively and also for different end products.
c. Protein quality: The ratio of gluten / gliadin fractions dictates the quality of end produce.
The control of expression of these two under genetic control is targeted for specific end product
quality.
(iii). Nutritional quality: Objective is to improve the amino acid balance for better nutritional
quality. Wheat grains deficient in lysine and there is a negative correlation between protein and
lysine content. Efforts to improve lysine as well as high protein content are needed to improve
nutritional quality of wheat.
(iv). Breeding for market quality: Includes physical characteristics, flour recovery milling quality,
dough quality as well as gluten content useful for specific product

12. Breeding for abiotic stresses eg. Drought, heat and aluminium toxicity.

BREEDING METHODS :

1) Introduction:

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The green revolution is successful in the world due to introduction of Norin-10 variety (dwarfing
gene) developed in Japan. The variety Norin-10 was never important variety in Japan. The seed
sample received in 1946 to Washington State University and Crosses were made in 1948 worht
Brevor – 14 and the genotype become main source of two Norin-10 dwarfing gene. Then Dr. N.E.
Borlaug ( Father of green revolution) who engineered development of semi dwarf wheat. Or his work
he was awarded a Nobel peace Prize in 1970. In India, the dwarf wheat varieties were importance
from Mexico, Sonoro-64, and Larma Rojo- 64 A in 1965-66. Latter on made green revolution
successful India.
Primary introductions - Sonara-63, Sonara-64, Mayo-64, Lerma rojo-64
Secondary introductions - Kalyan sona from Sonara-64
Choti lerma from Lerma rojo

2) Pure Line Selection:

In this method individual progenies are evaluated and promising progenies are finally selected old
Indian tall varieties E.g. N-P-4, N-P-6, N-P-12, PB-12, PB-11 were developed by pure line selection.

3) Pedigree Method:

The most common method used in self pollinated crops is pedigree method of selection. The crosses
are made between complimentary lines and records are maintained of selections made over number
of generations. The procedure provide selection opportunities generation after generations. It allow
breeder to identify bet combination with considerable uniformity. The hybrid bulk selection method
is relatively inexpensive, in which generations are advanced without selection till F5 to F6 and much
material can be handled, nut often difficulty is isolation of superior recombination. To overcome, this
difficulty single decent method of selection is used in which population remain constant over
segregation generations.

Varieties: a)

Tilmely sown: NIAW-34, NIAW-301, NIAW-2496, HD-2278, HD-2189.

b) Late Sown : HD-2501, Sonalika, HI-977, etc.

4) Hybridisation and selection

Hybridization & selection- Pedigree

Bulk
SSD
a) Inter varietal: A number of successful derivatives were developed at IARI New Delhi and
Punjab.
NP 809 - New pusa multiple cross derivative.

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 However all these varieties were lodging and poor yielder when compared to other countries.
Hence the wheat hybridization programme was changed by Dr. M.S. Swaminathan during 1963.
Borloug was invited to our country and he suggested for introduction of semi dwarf varieties from
Mexico. As a result four commercial spring wheat varieties viz., Sonara 63, Sonara 64 Mayo 64 and
Lerma Roja 64 were introduced. However they had red kernel hard wheats. These were utilised in
our breeding programme and amber colour wheat varieties like Kalyan Sona, Safed Lerma, Sharbati
Sonara were released, these are double gene dwarfs.

b) Inter specific crosses: To get Hessian fly resistance. So also for rust resistance.

c) Back cross method of breeding

This method is used when variety otherwise is good, high yielding but deficient in simply inherited
trait. The obvious effect of this method the production potential of improved variety is fixed at the
level of recurrent variety. Recently identified donors always are used in back cross breeding
programme.
Stem Rust: Resistance gene- Sr2 From variety Hope.
Leaf Rust: Resistance gene – Lr 13 from variety Sonalika
Rust resistance in Chinese spring from Thatcher.
Used for transferring disease resistance gene
- Rust res. from Chinese spring to develop varieties - HW-2004, HW-2044.
- Development of multi-lines - Norman Borlaug developed multi line against rust - MLKS 15.

5. Recurrent selection - for transfer of characters of low heritability (30-60%)

6. Hybrid Wheat Breeding:

Hybrid wheat breeding is not commercially successful through cytoplasmic genetic male sterile lines
are available due to following problems.

1) Inadequate heterosis over wide range of environment.

2) Inadequate genetically controlled fertility restoration.
3) Lack of sufficient seed set after cross pollination
4) Longer time required for production of ABR lines
5) High cost of hybrid seed production
6)
Hybrid development
- T. timopheevi - source of CMS
- Male gametocides - GA, Ethrel
- T. timopheevi x T. aestivum
- Development of hybrids in Japan
Hybrid wheat

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 At Kansas Agri. Expt. Station USA male sterile lines were identified by crossing T.timophevi
x T. aestivum Bison variety By repeated back crossing a male sterile line resembling Bison
was evolved. At present USA and Canada are doing work on this.

7. Mutation breeding:

This method is used in depleted gene pool situation. Chemical mutagenes EMS provide broad
spectrum genetic changes with lesser sterility effects, as compared to X ray or particular mutation.
Dr. M. S. Swaminathan did extensive work on this with gamma rays. Sharbati, Sonara with increased
protein content was evolved.
Gamma ray irradiation of Sonara-64 & Lerma rojo and released as Sharbati sonara, Pusa lerma
NP-11 is the examples of spontaneous mutation.

8. Multiline Breeding:

It is extension of back cross breeding and could be called Multilateral backcrossing. It consist of
spontaneous back cross programme to produce isogenic lines for resistance to disease, in back ground
of some recurrent parent. Each isogenic line will be similar to recurrent parent but they will differ for
resistance to various physiological farms of diseases. A mixture of these isogenic lines is called
multiline variety. E.g. ML-KS-11 (PAU, Ludhiana) and Bithoor developed at CSAUAT, Kanpur.

Borlaug developed multilines against rust. MLKS 15 was developed at IARI.

9. Biotechnology:

In vitro production of haploids- Anther or pollen culture is used to produce the haploid plants. The
frequency of obtaining haploids increase when anthers are treated with cold socks and heat
treatments. The haploids when treated with colchicines, the homozygous diploid line can developed
in short period and can be used in hybrid breeding programme. The plantlets can be tested in vitro for
different stresses drought, salt, disease etc. to evaluate before field screening.

Tissue culture - Gametoclonal/ Somaclonal/ Protoclonal variation

10. Genetic engineering

- Marker assisted selection (MAS) - by using MAS, 36 traits have been tagged with different
molecular marker.
- Transgenics- Biolistic/gene gun approach, Electroporation and co-cultivation with
Agrobacterium are also used.
- PCR based markers used for characterization of resistance against Common bunt (Tilletiatritici),
Powdery mildew (Erysiphe graminis), Leaf rust (Puccinia recondita), Hessian fly (Mayetida
distructor), Russian wheat aphid (Diraphis noxia)
- SSR’s/ Microsatellites are the markers of choice in MAS because of high level of polymorphism
and ease of handling.
-
Germplasm/ PGR’s: Four lakh accessions in wheat. Major collection is at

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 - N.I.Vavilov All Union Institute of Plant Industry, St.Peterburg, Russia
- National Seed storage laboratory, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
- CIMMYT, Mexico
For rice > 85,000 accessions are maintained at IRRI, Phillipines and Raipur, Chattisgarh.
Institutes:
International – International Centre for Maize and Wheat Improvement (CIMMYT), Mexico
National – Directorate of Wheat Research (DWR), Karnal.

Allien addition lines: Alien addition lines are those in which one or more pairs of chromosomes are
added additionally from related species or genera.

Wheat x Rye
AA, 2n=42 2n=14, RR

Triticale x Wheat
AARR 2n = 42
2n = 56
2n = 42 to 49
AA, A+rI, A+rII, A+rIII, A+rIV, A+rIV, A+rV, A+rVI, A+rVII
7 possible Alien addition lines

Alien substitution lines: Alien substitution lines are those in which one or more pairs of
chromosomes are replaced by an equal no of pairs of chromosomes from another related species.

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WHEAT VARIETIES :

Variety Year Variety Year

CPAN 3004 1992 Sonalika 1967
Dh803-3 1994 Sujatha 1983
DWR-162 1993 Raj laxmi 1994
GW-173 1993 Sonali 1992
HD-2189 1979 NDW-1014 1991
HD-2329 1985 HP-266 1971
HD-2380 1989 VC-616 1986
HI-971 1988 WP 2425 1999
HWW-234 1984 WP 2338 1993
PBW-343 1995 HW 2004 1991
Raj-3077 1990 K 9465 1997
WH-542 1992
WH-147 1977

POPULAR WHEAT VARIETIES IN INDIA:

Sonora 64 NP-845 Janaka
Lerma rojo 64 NP-824 Deshratna
Kalyansona HD -2009 ARJUN
Sonalika Bithur UP-262
Shrabati sonora Malvia-12 UP-115
LOK-1 Girija DWR-162

UAS, DHARWAD RELEASED VARIETIES:

Karnataka is unique in cultivation of three species, namely, Triticum aestivum (Bread wheat),
Triticum durum (Durum or soji wheat), and Triticum dicoccum (Dicocum or diabitics wheat). Totally
nine varieties have been developed by the University.
Bread wheat varieties:
1. DWR-162 (bread wheat) which has occupied 80 % of wheat area in Karnataka and about 2.5 lakh
ha in the entire Peninsular India.
2. DWR-225 with an yield potential of 40 q/ha and resistance to all existing races of leaf rust.
3. UAS-304 - high yielding and resistant to diseases.
Durum wheat varieties:
1. DWR-185 for irrigated conditions (occupies an area of 30,000 ha) and
2. DWR-2006 resistant to leaf blight for rainfed conditions.
3. UAS-415

16
Karnataka is the only State where Dicoccum wheat is grown commercially. UASD is a pioneer
Institute in the world to develop and release these varieties. Dicocum wheat have greater future due to
their therapeutic value in diabetes management and higher profitability.
Dicoccum wheat varieties:
1. DDK-1001 - a semi-dwarf dicoccum wheat variety.
2. DDK-1009 - resistant to leaf blight has been released recently.
3. DDK-1025 - high yielding and resistant to diseases.
4. DDK-1029 - high yielding and resistant to diseases.

17
 Barley (Hordeum vulgare .L) 2n=2x=14
Introduction
Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) is a member of the grass family. It is a self-pollinating. It is an
important cereal crop in the world ranking next to maize, wheat and rice. It is one of the earliest
domesticated food crops since the start of civilization. In India, barley is an important cereal in winter
after wheat in both area and production. Due to its very hardy nature, barley is successfully cultivated
in adverse agro-environments like drought, salinity, alkalinity etc. in varied topographical conditions
like plains and hilly areas under rainfed and irrigated conditions.

Barley is generally considered as a poor man’s crop because of its input requirement and
better adaptability to harsh environments. In India about 90% of the barley produced is used for
human consumption. Malt sprouts from malting as well as brewers’ grain, byproducts of brewing,
are also valuable livestock feeds. Barley crop is also used for malting purposes. Malted barley is
mostly used for beer, distilled alcohol products and for malt syrup, malted milk and breakfast
foods. Consuming barley might have benefits for the heart, blood pressure, and bones. Barley
provides a high percentage of an individual's daily requirement of manganese and selenium.
Selenium is a mineral that is not present in most foods, but it can be found in barley. It plays a role
in liver enzyme function and helps detoxify some cancer-causing compounds in the body.Choline
is an important and versatile nutrient in barley that helps with sleep, muscle movement, learning,
and memory.

Distribution: Area under this crop is mainly concentrated in the states of U.P, Punjab, Rajasthan,
Haryana, M.P., Bihar and also in the plains of H.P., Uttranchal and J&K.

Centers of origin: Barley is botanically known as Hordeum vulgare, and is believed to originate in
western Asia or Ethiopia.Nevski in 1941 suggested several ways in which the cultivated six and two
rowed forms could have evolved, all originating from Central Asia and later spreading westward,
where they came into contact with H.spontaneum.Progenitor of cultivated barley- Hordeum
spontaneum

Taxonomy and Crop systematics: Together with wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), rye (Secale cereale
L.), and several important cereals barley belongs to the tribe Triticeae. Traditionally morphological
differences have led to different forms of barley being classified into two rowed and six rowed
barley.

 Two rowed barley with shattering spikes (wild barley): Hordeum spontaneum
 Two rowed barley with non-shattering spikes: H. distichum.
 Six rowed barley with non-shattering spikes: H. vulgare L.
 Six rowed with shattering spikes: H. agriocrithon
 Ear may be two rowed or six rowed: H. irregulare

18
Two rowed barley: Generally in barley spikelets are arranged in triplets and these triplets alternate
along the rachis. In case of two rowed barley only the central spikelet of the triplet is fertile, while the
other two are reduced. The row type is basically controlled by the gene vrs1.
Ex.H. distichum.

Six rowed barley: All the three spikelets are fertile. This is because of one dominant and one
recessive mutation in barley. Recent genetic studies have revealed a mutation in one gene, vrs1, is
responsible for the transition from two rowed to six rowed barley. Ex. H. vulgare L.

Hulled and naked barley: Hulled barley is generally known as barley groats. It is the whole grain
form of barley in which only the outermost hull is removed. Hulless or "naked" barley is a form of
domesticated barley which is having an easily removable hull. It is scientifically known as Hordeum
vulgare var. nudum.

Species Chromosome number Life form

H. vulgare L. 14 Annual
H. bulbosum L. 14, 28 Perennial
H. murinum L. 14, 28, 42 Annual
H. pusillum Nutt. 14 Annual
H. brevisubulatum 14, 28, 42 Perennial

Perennials with a self-incompatibility system: H. bulbosum L. and H. brevisubulatum

Autoploidy is found in two species: H. bulbosum and H. brevisubulatum.
Primary gene pool: varieties, landraces and the progenitor of domesticatedbarley, H. vulgare ssp.
Spontaneum
Secondary gene pool: includes only a single species, H. bulbosum, sharing the basic H genome with
cultivated barley H. vulgare L.

Breeding objectives:
Barley for feed and food: Majority of barley produced in India is utilized for cattle and poultry feed.
Major emphasis of barley breeding programmes is on improvement for grain/feed purposes. A large
number of varieties have been released for areas addressing different production conditions. In some
parts of the country barley is also sued as a fodder for cattle. Thus breeding for dual purpose barley
with higher grain yield and more foliage is one of the objectives of the barley improvement
programmes.

Malt barley improvement: Research efforts on malt barley improvement in the country did not
receive much attention due to low demand from the industry. Also the demand for malt products in
the country was low. Recently this aspect of barley improvement has become important in the wake
of industrial demand. The Indian barley varieties were never bred for malting purpose and thus there
is a huge need to develop varieties with better malting characteristics.

Ex. Amber, RS-6, Clipper etc.,- good for malting and brewing

Breeding barley for abiotic stress tolerance: Barley is known for its inherent tolerance to salinity
and alkalinity as compared to other cereals. It has a good potential for problematic soils where
otherwise its difficulty to grow crop in winter season. There is a lot of area under such conditions in
19
the country. However, it’s a higher challenging task to screen materials for such conditions due to
very high variability in the field conditions affected by salinity and alkalinity. As a result the field
screening for salinity tolerance sometimes cannot be fully reliable, because of non-repetitive
performance due to soil heterogeneity. To have more efficient evaluation, there Breeding Indian Field
crops – (Hordeum vulgare L.) is a need for in-vitro screening for salinity/alkalinity tolerance to
supplement the regular research efforts.

Ex., Ratna is highly tolerant to salinity

Resistance to insect pests and diseases: Barley is exposed to various diseases and insect pests
responsible for heavy reduction in yield and quality. Among the major diseases of barley, rusts and
blight are of significant importance. Crop losses due to these diseases especially blight are huge.
Since both of these diseases are multiple cycle diseases, the use of chemical control measure may not
be sufficient. The use of resistant varieties is highly recommended. Other than these diseases, loose
smut and covered smut also cause yield loss in barley. These diseases being spread via seed are easily
controlled by seed treatments. Ex. Azad (K.125) and Dolma - res. To yellow rust,

Aphid is also a major problem in barley. This insect causes heavy loss to the crop as well as
the grain quality. Also the cereal cyst nematodes are known to infest the barley crop. They cause
heavy losses by reducing the tillering and ear head formation. Use of resistant varieties is generally
encouraged to control the damage by nematodes.

Ex. Kedar –res. To insect pest

Breeding methods: Barley is a highly self pollinated cereal crop, so most of the breeding
methods used in self pollinated crops are used in barley breeding programmes. The usual procedure
of selecting the parents, their hybridization and advancing the segregating generations is followed.
Production of homozygous lines using doubled haploidy techniques is common in barley.

1.Introduction: Clipper is a var of barley introduced from Australia. Other varieties: LSB-2, Alfa
93, Rekha (BCU 73).

2. Hybridization and selection:

Bulk method: At the end point of bulk breeding systems, selections are made and tested as individual
lines. Bulk breeding systems are well adapted to mass selection. For example, screening for winter
hardiness and kernel plumpness can be done by mass selecting bulk materials.

Pedigree breeding method: Pedigree breeding with various modifications has been widely used in
barley breeding programmes. The yield test can be carried out as early as in F5 or delayed until the
F7 or later, depending on breeding performance and the genetic variability present in the cross.
Optimum F2 and F3 population sizes will vary and should be adjusted based on the objective and the
nature of the particular cross.

Backcross breeding: The backcross breeding method as first suggested by Harlan and Pope (1922)
involves repeated back crossing to one parent after an initial cross, with the intent of recovering the

20
recurrent parent with the feature added from the donor parent. This breeding system is well suited to
simply inherited traits controlled by one or two major genes.

Single Seed Descent: The single seed descent (SSD) breeding method was proposed by Goulden
(1939) as a procedure for obtaining a high level of homozygosity while maintaining maximum
genetic variation in self pollinating species.

Ex. Karan 16, Ratna, Type 4 & 5, K-251, NP-100, Barley local, BR-32, K-12, Ballia barley etc.,

3. Haploid breeding method: The production of a high frequency of viable haploids that can
subsequently be doubled with colchicine is an important development in barley breeding because it
allows the recovery of homozygous inbred lines in single generation.

Bulbosum method/chromosome elimination method: Khasa and Kao (1970)

Haploids of H. vulgare are produced as a result of gradual elimination of H. bulbosum

chromosomes from young hybrid embryos few days after fertilization. This technique, known as the
bulbosum method, is the most efficient and used one in barley for the development of homozygous
lines. The mechanism of elimination may involve failure of chromosome congression at metaphase
leading to chromosome lagging at anaphase and formation of micronuclei. The chromosomes of H.
bulbosum are eliminated irrespective of its use as female or male parent. About 95% of the progeny
are haploid. The factors influencing the elimination of H. bulbosum chromosomes are located on
chromosomes 2 and 3 of H. vulgare.

4. Mutation: RDB-1 ( mutant of RS 17), PL-56 (mutant of C 164), HBL-316 ( mitant of HBL-96)
etc.,

Varieties of barley in india

Varieties Characteristics
Ratna Developed at IARI, New Delhi and released for rainfed areas. It is highly
tolerant to saline, alkaline soil conditions.
Azad developed at C.S.A. University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur. It is
(K.125) highly responsive to improved management practices. It has a fair degree of
resistance to yellow rust disease. It does well under irrigated conditions. It is
good for dual purpose like fodder and grain.
Vijaya developed at C.S.A University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur and
21
 released for rainfed areas. Plants of this variety are shorter in height as compared
to other varieties. It does well in rainfed areas of Haryana and Punjab also.
Amber This variety has also been developed at C.S.A. University of Agriculture and
Technology, Kanpur. It is suitable for growing in rainfed areas of eastern Uttar
Pradesh. It is good for the production of malt for brewing.
RS-6 Developed in Rajasthan. It is suitable for cultivation under both rainfed as well
as irrigated conditions. It has been recommended for central and eastern
Rajasthan. It is very good for production of malt for brewing.
Jyoti Jyoti is a Six-row hulled variety. It has been developed at the C.S.A. University
of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur. It is suitable for growing in irrigated
areas of Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh. Delhi, north-western Rajasthan, Bihar
and West Bengal.
Clipper Introduced from Australia. It is especially suitable for malt production and
brewing.
Karan-201, Evolved under the All India Coordinated Barley Improvement Project. These are
231 and 264 high yielding varieties and good for chappati making. All of them are huskless
varieties. These varieties fit in well in the multiple and relay cropping systems.
These can be grown in problem soils too, like dry lands, alkaline and saline soils,
etc.
Dolma Suitable for growing in rainfed areas of medium to high elevation of Himachal
Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh hills.It is fairly resistant to yellow rust. Huskless var.
Kedar Evolved by IARI, New Delhi, high yielding variety, suitable for late sown
conditions. Kedar is a dwarf variety with profuse tillering and resistant
against yellow rust and insects.
Neelam Evolved by IARI, New Delhi. Its grains are hulled and amber in colour,
recommended for cultivation in both irrigated and rainfed conditions of Punjab,
Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar. This variety has higher contents of protein
and lysine.
BG-25 Developed at Haryana Agricultural University, Hissar. It is suitable for normal
sowing conditions in Haryana. It is resistant to yellow rust.
RDB-1 Developed by mutation. It is suitable for growing under irrigated conditions in
Rajasthan, susceptible to yellow rust and is suitable for rust free areas of
Rajasthan.
Himani Himani variety was developed at Simla. It is suitable for growing in the medium
to lower hill-valley of Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh.

Other varieties: RD-2035, RD-2503, RD-2552, BH-902, Narendra barley-2, K-409, K-560,
Getanjali (K-1149), BH-75, C- l64, LSB-2, BG-108.

Major crop improvement research stations:

1. ICARDA, Syria: International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas is the
international institute under CGIAR which is dealing with barley.
22
2. Directorate of Wheat Research (DWR), Karnal, Haryana: The ICAR institution in India which is
working on barley research and coordination. Renamed as IIWBR, Indian Institute of Wheat and
Barley Research

23
 Oat (Avena sativa) 2n=6x=42
Hexaploid: AACCDD Family: Poaceae or Graminae

Oat is grown as both fodder crop and as grain crop. Oat (Avena sativa L.) is generally grown
in India for fodder purposes. But of late, its importance as grain has been felt and efforts are now
being made to develop oat varieties which could give high fodder yield as well as grain yield from
the same crop. Oats are more palatable than wheat and yield more than double the amount of green
fodder, and are a multicut crop.
Oats are the only cereal containing a globulin or legume-like protein, avenalin, as the major
(80%) storage protein. Globulins are characterised by solubility in dilute saline solution. The minor
protein of oat is a prolamine, avenin.
Oats are generally considered healthy due to their rich content of several essential nutrients .
In a 100 gram serving, oats provide 389 calories and are an excellent source (20% or more of
the Daily Value, DV) of protein (34% DV), dietary fiber (44% DV), several B vitamins and
numerous dietary minerals, especially manganese (233% DV). Oats are 66% carbohydrates,
including 11% dietary fiber and 4% beta-glucans, 7% fat and 17% protein.
Oats make up a large part of the diet of horses and are regularly fed to cattle as well. Oats are
also used in some brands of dog and chicken feed.
Distribution: European Union(highest producer), Russia, Canada. Other substantial producers
were Poland, Australia, and Finland.

Origin: Asia minor / Mediterranean origin

One species, Avena sativa is widely cultivated elsewhere, and several have become
naturalized in many parts of the world. Proginator: of Avena sativa (common oat) and A.
byzantina (red oat) is the hexaploid wild oat Avena sterilis.

Different species of oats:

 Cultivated oats
 Avena sativa: common oat/tree oat. It is distinguished from A. byzantina, the red oat, by its
spikelets separating from the pedicel by fracture, leaving no basal scar, while in red oats and
some other species the separation takes place by abscission, leaving a definite scar.

 Avena byzantine/red oat: Avena byzantina has stems that are usually slender, reddish in color,
and the panicles are narrow, small, and erect with relatively few spikelets.

 Avena abyssinica/Ethiopian oat: is a half-weed, half-crop confined to the highlands of

Ethiopia.

 Avena nuda/hulless oat: Avena nuda has the caryopsis or kernal that is loose within the palea.
This species is species in Europe.

 Wild oats

24
 These species, called wild oats or oat-grasses, are nuisance weeds in cereal crops, as, being grasses
like the crop, they cannot be chemically removed; any herbicide that would kill them would also
damage the crop.
 Avena barbata: slender wild oat, or slender oat.
 Avena fatua: wild oat or common wild oat. Avena fatua resembles A. sativa but is of greater
vigor.
 Avena sterilis: winter wild oat or wild red oat. Avena sterilis is believed to be the ancestor of
the cultivated oats and red oats.
 Avena brevis: short oat.

 A genome donor: Avena strigosa, Avena longiglumis, A. insularis

 AC genome donor: A. insularis
 All diploid species contain either the AA or CC genome Ex. A. ventricosa, A. canariensis, A.
longiglumis
 Tetraploid: AACC ex. A. insularis, A. agadiriana, Avena barbata, Avena abyssinica
 Hexaploid species: AACCDD Ex. Avena sativa

Oats as a fodder: Mainly grown in N-W, Central & hilly parts of India- Punjab, Haryana, UP, Orissa,
Bihar, WB. Crops like berseem, clover and alfalfa remain dormant in hilly areas during winter but oats
can be grown easily during this period, because of its drought and cold tolerance ability. It has
excellent growth habit, quick re-growth and high nutritive value for both milch as well as draft
animals. It is a multi cut fodder. A. fatua and A. ludoviciana, the winter wild oat, are excellent for
natural grazing, but they are very serious weeds of wheat and barley.

Oats as a grain: β- glucan, minerals, antioxidants, hormone analogs in oat groats are unique in
composition and quality among the cereal grains. Groats are the hulled kernels of cereal grains such as
oat, wheat, rye, barley. These are whole grains that include the cereal germ and fiber rich bran portion
of the grain as well as the endosperm.

The traditional preparation of oats for human consumption is more laborious than that of
wheat, since the grain has to be milled to remove the glumes, after kiln drying, then winnowed to
obtain the groats, which are edible husk less grain. Oat meal and oat flour are not suitable for bread
making but are consumed as porridge, flat cakes or added to other dishes as a thickening. Now a days
used as breakfast cereal.

25
Breeding objectives:

1) Breeding for Higher yield: yield components: † 1) spikes per unit † 2) kernels per spike † 3)
1000-grain weight

Oat ideotype: early maturation, high phytomass production, high panicle weight, large number of
grains/panicle, short straw length (high resistance to lodging), and reduced tillering.

2) Breeding for High quality:

a) Grain quality: rain contains hull, which averages 25-30% of the total grain weight. While
processing oats, the hull is removed, leaving only the kernel or groat.

Whole grain protein – 12-13%

Groats protein – 17-18%

Nutritionally superior to other cereal grains in amino acids. New high protein strains have been
identified in wild species A. sterilis, A. magna and A. murphyi

b) Market quality: Kernel plumpness and weight are important, which are reduced by premature
ripening and diseases. In milling oats, groat percentage is important in determining market quality
and price. Earlier, milling companies purchased oats based on test weight, but now based on groat
percentage. The oats hull is largely composed of fiber and has little nutritive value. Varieties differ
both in thickness and in weight of the hull. Varieties with short plum grains, will have higher groat
percentage and higher feed value per pound of grain.

c) Fodder quality: Diploid species, A. weistii has highest percentage of crude protein and lowest
percentage of NDF (Neutral detergent fiber) and ADF (Acid detergent fiber). Tetraploid species, A.
Abyssinia has highest dry matter percentage.

d) Nutritional value: A. sterilis has high protein content, but when used in breeding programme,
results in poor seed yields, shattering habit and other undesirable features. Efforts are being made for
breeding for high oil content to increase the energy value of oat feed and food products.

3) Breeding forResistance to pest and diseases: Smut, Rust, BYDV and Aphids are major pest and
diseases in oats. Resistance in oat is durable and governed by multiple allelism.

4) Breeding forResistance to drought: Plants must posses well-developed root systems

5) Breeding for adaptability: Salinity, water stress and temperature

Salinity resistant variety: NDO 1 – ND University of Agriculture and Technology, Faizabad, India.
Optimum temperature: 350 c
26
6) Breeding for winter hardiness: The main problem is, parents with winter hardiness are tall and
relatively weak.

7) Lodging and shattering resistance

8) Breeding hulleless varieties: Because of their potential as a high energy feed. But the problem
lies in the difficulty of getting varieties with high yield and the problem of storing the grain without
spoilage. Among the cereal crops, oats are characterized by an extremely soft endosperm texture
compared with wheat, rye and barley. This character in the naked seeded types is an disadvantage, as
the damage to the embryo during mechanical harvesting and threshing significantly reduces
germination percentage.

Breeding methods:

1) Introduction: Ex. Kent (released in 1975 and is introduced from USA), Weston 11

2) Pure line selection: Ex. FO - 114 (Haryana Javi - 114)- pure line selection method from
germplasm line 37/14, Palampur-1: selection from variety Algerian.
3) Hybridization and Selection:

Ex. OS-6- released in 1981 for cultivation in entire country and was developed by CCS HAU, Hisar
from selection of the cross between HFO 10 × HFO 55 P2.

OS-7: as a progeny of the cross between HFO 10 × HFO 55 P2.

 Intervarietal hybridization and pedigree method of selection: 1) Bundel Jai-822 A multi-

cut variety developed at IGFRI, Jhansi from a cross between IGO-4268 × Indio-6-5-1, 2)
UPO–212: The variety was been developed by GBPUA&T, Pantnagar by intervarietal
hybridization (VS-1492 × Kent) followed by pedigree breeding and selection, 3) OL-
125: The variety was developed by PAU, Ludhiana by intervarietal hybridization using
Appler and IPC-163 followed by pedigree breeding and selection, 4) Bundel Jai 2004 (JHO
2000-4): The variety was developed by IGFRI, Jhansi- A. sativa- JHO-851 × A. maroccana -
16/30

4) Mutation Breeding: Gamma rays are mainly used as irradiation agent.

27
Varieties:

Varieties Description
FO - 114 (Haryana Javi - It is notified for cultivation in the entire country, early sown
114) variety which provides two cuts, resistant to lodging and
diseases,
Algerian suitable for irrigated areas,
Brunker-10 It is suitable for growing in Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and Uttar
Pradesh. It is resistant to drought and can be raised under
rainfed conditions.
Kent Is introduction from USA
Bundel Jai 992 (JHO 99-2) The variety was developed at IGFRI, Jhansi using intervarietal
hybridization followed by pedigree method of selection.
JO-1 The variety was developed by JNKVV, Jabalpur and released
in 2004. The variety is suitable for cultivation in central zone of
the country.

Harita (RO -19): notified for the Maharashtra. This is a multicut variety
developed by selection from base population of Kent
Bundel Jai- 851 notified for cultivation in entire country. The variety was
developed by IGFRI, Jhansi through selection from exotic
Japanese germplasm “Hiugo Karyokuro”

Other varieties: Bundel Jai 2001-3 (JHO 2001-3), Harita (RO -19), Bundel Jai 2004 (JHO 2000-
4), JO-1, Sabzaar (SKO-7), Haryana Javi-8 (HJ -8), UPO–212 etc.,

Major crop improvement research stations:

USDA

Working collection – Beltsville, Maryland

NBPGR, New Delhi

IGFRI, Jhansi

CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hissar

28
 COW PEA

Scientific name:Vigna ungiculata

Chromosome number: 2n = 2x = 22
It is also called as southern Pea or Black eyed pea
Taxonomy
Cowpeas belong to the botanical species Vigna ungiculata. These are more than 20 synonyms
for Vigna ungiculata.
Verdcousd subdivided Vigna ungiculata 5 sub – species as
1) Unguiculata
2) Cylindrica Cultivated
3) Sesquipedalis
4) Dekindtiana
5) Mensensis Wild

Importance of crop
1. It is a multipurpose crop grown for its green pods, for use as vegetable, for grain as pulse and
for forage.
2. It is also used as green manure crop and cover crop.
3. The dry seeds may be used whole or ground into a meal or paste or split before preparation
into a variety of ways
4. In USA cowpeas are used mostly for fodder and as a cover crop though black eye types are
grown for dry seeds.
5. In Africa, the young leaves are eaten as a spinach or dried for use in soups while the fawn are
fed to livestock.
6. In South East Asia, cowpeas are grown for leaf and pod vegetable.
7. In Brazil cowpeas are used as both pulse and as fresh immature seed.

Area, Production and Productivity

The crop is grown on about 7 million ha in warm to hot regions of the world. About 2/3 rd of
the production and more than 3/4th of the area of production is in Africa.
The major cowpea growing countries are Nigeria, Niger, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Kenya,
Uganda, Malawi, Tanzania and also India, Srilanka, Burma, Bangladesh, Philippines, Indonesia,
Thailand etc.
In India, the estimated area is about 5, 00,000 ha. In Karnataka area is 75,770 ha.

Geographic origin
All the evidences indicate that cowpea is originated in Africa may be in Ethiopia, Central
Africa, Central and South Africa, and West Africa. However, Dance noted that out of 188 species of
Vigna, 10 are epidemic to India and rest are distributed in Africa. The crop appears to have spread
from India to China and other South East Asian counties.
Vavilov recognized India as the main centre of origin of this crop. Africa and China are
considered as secondary centers of origin.

29
Botanical origin
It has been suggested that the wild subspecies dekintiana is more likely to have been the
progenitor of modern cowpea than the other wild sub species. Domestication has been associated
with changes in pod structure and seed coat as well as with an increase in the rate in breeding. Sigh
reported as wild cowpeas from Tanzania. The characters of wild cowpea are similar to those of Vigna
ungiculata Ssp. dekindtiana.

Classification
Three distinct subspp of cowpea
• Vigna unguiculata ssp unguiculata (cowpea)
• Vigna unguiculata ssp catjang (climbing , smaller pods, catjang)
• Vigna unguiculata ssp sesquipedalis (asparagus, bean, vegetable type)

Distinguishing feature of three subspp

1. Vigna unguiculata ssp unguiculata

• Neither flabby nor inflated
• Becoming pendent early
• Closely packed and sub reniform to subglobose seeds
• Pod length 20 –30 cm
• 6-9 seeds per pod
• Subreniform to subglobose seeds
Seeds are closely packed in the pod

2. Vigna unguiculata spp catjang

• Neither flabby nor inflated
• Erect pods reflex at maturity
• Closely packed oblong to cylindrical seeds
• 75 – 12.5 cm length pods
• Pods are erect or ascending when green
• Spreading or reflexed when dry
• 5-6 seeds per pod
• Seeds are oblong or cylindrical
Seeds are closely packed

3.Vigna unguiculata spp sesquipedalis

• Inflated flabby
• Shrinking between seeds before drying
• Pendent and brittle pods
• Seeds widely spaced elongated kidney shaped seeds
• 3- 100 cm pods
• Pendent and flashy pods
• Brittle
• 8-12 seeds per pod
• Seeds are elongate kidney
Genetics of certain important traits
I. Qualitative traits
1. Growth habit:

30
 A single dominant gene designated by “T” governs the climbing habit. Intermediate or vining
characteristics is conditioned by two duplicate genes designated as V – 1 and V – 2.
Trailing growth habit is conditioned by two complementary genes T – 1 and
T – 2 and a third gene, T – 3, which is expressed only when both complementary genes are present in
homozygous recessive form.
2. Swollen stem:
Swollen stem is monogenically dominant (Sw) over normal stem.
3. Leaf shape and size:
Small leaf (Ls) is recessive to large leaf (Ls) and uni-foliate leaf (Un) is recessive to a normal
trifoliate leaf and was governed by a single gene.
4. Male sterility:
Male sterility / female fertile plants did not produce hybrid seeds. Male sterile / female fertile
mutations showed that each was determined by single pairs of non – allelic recessive genes
tentatively designated ms5, ms6, ms7 and ms8.
5. Compound inflorescence:
The simple inflorescence (C) is dominant over compound (c) and was governed by single
gene.
6. Photo sensitivity:
In a cross between photo insensitive photosensitive type, the F1 was intermediate and is the F2
generations, and ratio of 3 (spring flowering): 1(fall flowering) Short day response is simple
dominant to day neutrality.
7. Pigmentation:
Anthocyanin pigmentation in flower
Dusk LLdd Anthocyanin pigmentation in dense.
Pale LLDD Anthocyanin pigmentation is comparatively less.
White lldd No anthocyanin pigmentation.
8. Position of the pod:
Erect pod attachment is dominant to drooping pod attachment and conditioned by single gene
“E”.
9. Pod coat colour:
In the crosses of smooth and wrinkled surface smooth surface is dominant over wrinkled. Two
complementary genes Pa1 and Pa1 were responsible for the smooth pods.
10. Seed coat colour:
The testa colour is conditioned by three major genes and a host of modifiers. White coat
colour is controlled by a single recessive gene.
11. Seed size:
Seed size is quantitatively inherited. Seed size in F1 of a cross between large seeded and small
seeded parent exceeded that of the large seeded parent and F2 generation, seed size in many parents
exceeded even that F1, while in the rest it approached the small seeded parents.
12. Cotyledon colour:
Purple colour of the cotyledon is simple dominant to white dry colour.

Breeding Objectives:
1. High green pod yield (vegetable type varieties)
2. High seed yield (dry – seed type varieties)
3. High fodder yield (fodder type varieties)
4. Dual purpose (seed and vegetable type and seed and fodder)
5. Earliness
6. Appropriate plant type

31
 7. Resistant to diseases such as anthracnose, cercospora, leaf spot, powdery mildew,
fusarium wilt, bacterial blight, cowpea yellow mosaic virus etc.
8. Resistance to insects such as hairy caterpillar, leaf hopper, aphid, thrips, pod, borer,
pod sucking insects etc.
9. Better seed quality
10. Development of elite, high yielding ‘plant type’ as a composite of following
 Tall vigour plant.
 Deeply penetrating taproot.
 Lodging and shattering resistance.
 Low branching and or short branching.
 Narrow leaves.
 Short peduncles.
 Profusion of peduncles at nodes.
 Long pod with many seeds.
 Withering resistant pods and seeds.
 Medium or medium small seeds of good quality etc.

Breeding Methods
1. Selection:
Breeding of cowpea has largely been followed on conventional lines. A promising cowpea
variety (EC 455) from the Philippines was introduced. It did well in India. It bears pod very early in
the season and continues to give high yield for two months.
2. Hybridization:
Anthesis and pollination
A high rate of flower abortion occurs in the cowpea plant which normally produced 100 – 500
flower buds, of which 78 – 96 % are shed before Anthesis and of the remaining about half abort
prematurely and rest produce nature fruits. 43 % reduction i9n seed yield is observed per plant by
removing all flowers for 12 days after meiosis.
Krishnaswami et al under Coimbatore conditions found that, it took 11 – 15 days for the
flower initial to develop and bloom. They also reported that flowers open between 07.00 to 09.00 h.
The time of dehiscence of anthers may vary from 10 to 12.45 h and environmental factors.
Due to early de3hiscence of anthers, before the opening of flowers, there is greater tendency
for self-pollination, though a higher percentage of cross-pollination is also observed. Out crossing
may range from 1 to 10 % depending on season and activities of pollen vectors.
Hybridizationtechnique
Since, the dehiscence of anthers is much in advance of the blooming, the emasculation is to be
carried out in the proceeding evening. Flower bud likely to bloom the next day can be recognized by
their large size, yellowing colour of the back of the standard petal.
Bud is herd between the thumb and the forefinger with the keeled side uppermost. Then a
needle is run along t6he ridge where the two edges of the standard unite. One side of the standard is
brought down, securing it in position with the thumb. The same is done with one of the wings which
leaves the keel exposed, which must be silt on the exposed side, about 1/16 inch from stigma. The
section of the keel is brought down and secured under the end of the thumb. The exposes the
immature stamens that are taken out by sizing the filaments with the forceps. As soon as the petal are
in original position, a detached leaflet from the plant is folded once and placed over emasculated
flower bud and secured in that position with a pin or tooth – pick to prevent drying. Pollinations done
on the next morning from a protected fleshy opened. The standard and wings are removed. By
slightly depressing the keel, the stigma covered fully with large quantities of pollen will protrude out.
This itself is used as a brush for the transfer of pollen to the emasculated flower.
32
Varietal hybridization
In on – going programme of varietal improvement of the objective are to recombine the
several desirable characters. The donors for various characters including the disease and insect pest
resistance are available. Some of these lines can be crossed with the cultivated varieties. Source of
multiple genetic stock of spp. cylindrica indicated that Rituraj, Red seeded, Sel 24/8 – 2, EC 42712,
EC 43128, and EC 30040 offered a combination of these desirable attributes viz: photo –
insensitivity, pod length and earliness.
The Segregation generation can be handled as pedigree or bulk or single seed descent method.
Recurrent selection using male sterile (ms2, ms2) cowpea and natural cross-pollination by bees may be
used.
In the vegetable cowpea improvement programme selection should focus on clusters per plant
and average pod weight in the early generations, while selection for dry pod yield could be delayed to
later generations. Pods per plant may be useful selection criterion in multiplication trials aimed at
selecting for stability of field.
Widehybridization
Ballon and Yark attempted intergeneric crosses between the cowpea and the scarlet runner
bean (Phascolus coccineous) and common bean (Phascolus vulgaris) but were unable to obtain any
hybrid plants. Rachie and Roberts noted that wide crossing with wild or other cultivated species of
Vigna has been largely unsuccessful as either pollen germination fails or union of gametes does not
occur. Sometimes when apparent fertilization takes place the embryos collapse soon afterward.

Mutation Breeding
The variation in cowpea, following ionizing radiations (X – rays and neutrons) was reported
for yields, pods cultivars in the M3 generations. The genetic variances in irradiated populations were
1 – 2 to 8 times higher than in control. Local brown had higher variation than wet bred following
irradiation. Suggesting a more primitive evolutionary status of local brown. The means of irradiated
and control populations were not significantly different except for the yield in west bred and time of
flowering in local brown. Where means of irradiated populations were lower and higher than similar
selection from the control population.
Lawhale (1982) irradiated the seeds of C – 152 variety of cowpea to 9, 15, 22 and 77 KR
doses of gamma rays. An increase in genetic co – efficient of variation was observed in 15 and 22 KR
doses in M3 generations for yield per plant. High estimates of heritability and genetic advance were
noticed at these doses for yield per plant.
A dwarf macro – mutant with very long pods having bold seeds, more seeds per pod and with
increased yield were selected in 409 KR gamma ray irradiated M2 population of V16 variety. The
mutant was about 10 – 12 days early as compared to its base variety V16.

In vitro selection
Gomathinayagam et al (1998) culture immature embryos resulting from the cross V. vexillata
X V. ungiculata on MS medium supplemented with 2 mg, 2,4 – D / litre and resulted in embryonic
calli. 13 hybrid regenerants were obtained via organogenesis by sub culturing the calli on MS
medium supplemented with 2 mg benzyl – adenine + 40 mg adenine sulphate + 500 g casein
hydrolysate / litre + cowpea tender pod extract (10 %). The interspecific regenerants should
intermediate morphological traits between the parents for leaf shape, pod colour and seed cost colour.
The hybrid regenerants exhibited high enzyme activity for three enzyme viz; peroxidases, phenol
oxidase and phenylalanine ammonialyase over the cultivated parent which may be useful in
resistance against viral pathogen.

33
Ideal plant type
Early ripening varieties tend to be restricted in growth habit and are frequently determinate
types. These types are coming into ever greater favour for mechanized harvesting. These types are
more suited for multiple cropping than the less restricted growth habit an intermediate branching
pattern which have a greater duration of flowering and pod setting.
Some observations revealed that bushy plants were better yielders in cowpea and these are
also early maturing type.
Sources of resistance to fungal and bacterial diseases in cowpeas
Diseases Sources of resistance
Cercospora leaf spot AK – 963 – 8, CR 17 – 1 – 34
Fusarium wilt Iron, Victor, Brapham
Charcoal rot Iron, Victor, Brapham
Powdery mildew Chinito, No. 0199
Phytopthora stem rot Ku 235, TV 3861
Collar rot PLB – 1,Calicut 78, Selection 1475C57
Rust Pusa Barsati
Scab VITA – 4, ID 82D – 3850 – 1
Brown blotch VITA – 4
Septeria leaf spot VITA – 4
Bacterial blight TVu 580, TVu 726, TVu 4540

Sources of resistance to viral diseases in cowpeas

Diseases / Line Sources of resistance
Cowpea yellow mosaic virus TVu – 39, - 45, - 99, - 103, - 106
Cowpea severe mosaic virus TVu – 612, - 1460 – 2, - 1948, - 2480
Cucumber mosaic virus Garbancita, Azul Granete, Chinito
Cowpea banding mosaic virus Folden type, Grey, Em - 2543
Cowpea aphid borne mosaic virus TVu – 134, - 222, - 1185, - 1258 - 1

Sources of resistance to different insect – pest in cowpeas

Insect - pest / Line Sources of resistance
Leaf hopper TVu 59, TVu 123, TVu 190, TVu 662
Aphids TVu 108P2, TVu 410, TVu 2740
Pea aphids TVu 408, TVu 410
Thrips TVu 1509, TVx 2869 – P2 – 2
Pod borer TVu 946, TVu 4557, TVu 946
Cowpea curculio Fla. 453 – 01
Pod sucking bug TVu 1977, TVu 7274
Cowpea storage weevil TVu 2027, RS 9, JC 5
Root knot nematode Iron, Victor, Brabham
Bruchis sp. T2

International Programme / Centre

Cowpea improvement programme forms a major part of research programme of International
Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), located at Ibadan, Nigeria. IITA came into existence in the
year 1967. There are about 12,000 accessions of cowpea and about 200 accessions pf wild Vigna at

34
IITA. Cowpea improvement programme at IITA in the initial stages concentrated primarily on
germplasm collection, evaluation, and maintenance and breeding resistance. In subsequent years the
emphasis shifted on breeding for insect resistance, early maturity, improved plant type and desired
seed quality. An International Cowpea Disease Nursery (ICDN) programme was started by IITA in
1974. The promising lines developed are VITA 1, 3, 4 and 5. Extra early varieties developed in this
programme are IT 82 E – 32, - 9, - 56, - 5, - 60, and bush type varieties are IT 81 D – 1228 – 13, - 14
and – 15.
Improved cowpea lines from IITA released for seed multiplication in inside are TVu 1977 –
01D, TVu 1502, TV x 1843 – 01C.

National Programme
Breeding for grain type cowpea was of All India Coordinated Pulses Improvement Project,
which has been upgraded to “Directorate of Pulses Research” in 1984. Now, it has been included in
the ICAR Coordinated Project on “Underutilized and Unexplored Crops”. The programme of
breeding vegetables type varieties comes under All India Vegetable Improvement Project which too
has been upgraded to “Project Directorate level. Now it has head quarter at Varanasi as Indian
Institute of Vegetable Research. The project-coordinating unit located at Indian Grass land and
fodder Research Institute, Jhansi, coordinates the fodder cowpea programme.

Varieties

Vegetables type varieties

Pusa Palguni, Pusa Barsati, Pusa Do Fasali, K – 1552

Fodder type varieties

Russian Giant, T2, EC 4216, K397, Chinegra, HFC 42 – 1, FOS 1, Cowpea 4

Varieties developed at Pantnagar

UPC5286, UPC 5287, UPC 287, UPC 4200

UAS, Bangalore varieties

1. C – 152 high yielding, rust susceptible
2. KBC – 1 high yielding
3. KBC – 2 KBC (Karnataka Bangalore Cowpea)

Future Prospects
Looking to present area under cowpea cultivation and research efforts in India, cowpea does
not appear to be a major pulse crop or vegetable crop. As a fodder crop, it appears to be a potential
crop. On varietal development front, spectacular contributions have been made in India and at IITA
in terms of breeding and release of multiple disease and pest resistant, high yielding and short
duration varieties.
Cowpea (grain / vegetable types) will have a promising future in India in intensive cropping
system as spring / summer crops and as rainy season crop in stress environment particularly under
drought, water logging and pH extreme situations. Breeding efforts will have to continue to improve
varieties in the above aspects. More research is needed to define ideotypes for different situations. An
effective transformation system is needed. Cowpea is likely to heard “Green revolution” in Africa.

35
 CHICKPEA/ BENGAL GRAM (Cicer arietinum) (2n=2x=16)
 Chickpea is the second most important pulse crop occupying >10 m.ha at world level.
 Leading chickpea growing countries are India, Pakistan, Mexico, Turkey, Ethiopia, Myanmar,
Bangladesh, Nepal, Spain.
 It is the most important pulse crop in India. It occupies >7 m.ha area.
 Main chickpea producing areas are the upper Ganga and Yamuna viz., Punjab, Haryana, UP and
Bihar and the adjoining tracts of Central India viz., Rajasthan, MP, Maharashtra, and
Karnataka.
 Productivity goes down as the cultivation moves from north to south. It is partly attributed to
shorter growing season in southern India. On an average crop matures from 90 days in
Karnataka to 160 days in Punjab.
 Chickpea is predominantly consumed in the form of whole grains or dhal. Sizeable portion of
chickpea is converted into flour and used in preparation of variety of snack foods, sweets and
condiments.
 Chickpea is relatively free from anti-nutritional factors, has a high protein digestibility, and is
rich in phosphorous and calcium compared to other pulses.
 Because of diverse uses and ability to grow better with low inputs under harsh edaphic and arid
environments than many crops, it is important component of subsistence farmers in the Indian
sub-continents, West Asia and North Africa.
 Fixes >70% of its nitrogen requirement from symbiotic nitrogen fixation.
Origin: South east Turkey and adjoining Syria
 There are three wild species which are found in this region.
i) Cicer bijugum
ii) Cicer reticulatum
iii) Cicer echinospemum - considered as progenitor of cultivated species.
 Tribe: Earlier - Vicieae, Present – Cicereae
 Harlan and de Wet’s (1971) gene pools;
i) Primary gene pool – C. arietinum (domesticated), C. reticulatum (wild)
ii) Secondary gene pool – C. echinospermum
iii) Tertiary gene pool –Remaining species
 There are 4 sections based on habit and size of the flower.
1. Cicer- cultivated, annual, small flowered species with firm, erect to inclined or prostrate
stems.
36
 2. Chamaecicer - wild, annual/ perennial, shrubby species with thin & creeping branches.
3. Polycicer - wild, perennial, large flowered species with rachis ending in a tendril.
4. Acanthocicer - wild, perennial, large flowers, persistent spiny leaf rachis and spiny calyx
teeth.
Wild species with desirable characters:
i) C. bijugum – Resistant to Ascochyta blight, wilt, leaf miner, seed beetle, cyst nematode, cold
ii) C. echinospermum - Resistant to wilt, leaf miner, seed beetle, cold
iii) C. judaicum - Resistant to Ascochyta blight, Fusarium wilt, Gray mold, leaf miner, seed beetle,
cold
iv) C. reticulatum - Resistant to wilt, leaf miner, seed beetle, cyst nematode, cold
 Segregants from crosses between C. arietinum and wild species may suffer from pod dehiscence,
reticulate and hard seed coat, unattractive and unacceptable seed colour, prostrate growth habit,
non-uniform maturity, and/or unpalatable seed.

Chickpea is classified into two groups:

1. Macrosperma (Kabuli type/ Chana): Seeds are large (>25g), round or ramhead and cream
coloured. Plant is medium to tall height, with large leaflets and white flowers and contain no
anthocyanin.
2. Microsperma (Desi type/ Local): Seeds are small and angular in shape, seed colour varies from
cream black, brown, yellow to green. There are 2-3 ovules/pod but 1-2 seeds/pod produced.
Plants are short with small leaflets and purplish flowers, and contain anthocyanin.

BREEDING OBJECTIVES:
1. Breeding for increased seed yield with favorable partitioning
 2 types – i) Desi – smaller seeds, local type ii) Kabuli- bigger seeds, channa
 Yield components - No.of pods per plant
No.of branches per plant
No.of seeds per pod (normally2)
Grain weight
2. Breeding for increased biomass with tall, erect & compact cultivars.
3. Breeding for drought tolerance
 Chickpea is often exposed to end-of-season drought in semiarid tropics. Terminal drought
coincides with the pod filling stage of the crop. Early maturing cultivars provide means to
escape from terminal drought.
37
  Genetic mechanisms of drought resistance includes root traits, small leaf area, proline
accumulation in the cytosol and osmotic adjustment.
 Ability to maximally utilize water during pod filling stage under receding moisture conditions is
needed for post-rainy season crop.
 Drought resistant sources – ICC4958, 10448, C214, H208, G24, FLIP 87-59C
4. Breeding for heat tolerance - Heat tolerant sources – Annigeri, 850-3/27, H208
5. Breeding for cold and frost tolerance
 Cold tolerance is extremely important for winter sowing in Mediterranean region.
 Cold tolerant sources – ILC666, 668, 1071, 2487, 2505, 3081, 3287,
 Cold tolerant lines ILC 8262, ILC 8617, FLIP 87-82C tolerate up to -100C and 60 days in a
year.
 Frost tolerant source – C214
6. Breeding for response to higher dosage of fertilizer and irrigation
7. Breeding for tolerance to salinity and alkalinity
 Salinity adversely affect chickpea productivity in many parts of India, Pakistan, WANA and
Australia. Soil salinity affects germination resulting in poor plant stand.
 Under saline conditions there is high anthocyanin pigmentation of foliage in desi type and
yellowing of foliage in kabuli type accompanied with reduction in biomass, seed size and grain
yield.
 Salt tolerant lines – Karnal Chana 1 (India), ICGV 96836 (Australia)
8. Breeding for resistance to diseases like blight, Fusarium wilt, root rot, Botrytis grey mold.
Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri) – Most devastating disease in Asia, Africa and
south America where chickpea is grown during dry and warm season. Most of the resistant sources
are desi type. Six races have been reported. Several desi and kabuli chickpea cultivars with durable
and stable resistance to FW have been released in India. WR315 and JG74 are resistant to several
races. High yielding and wilt resistant cultivars – Pusa 212, Pusa 244, WR315, Avrodhi, ICCV-2 &
ICCV-10.
Ascochyta blight (Ascochyta rabiei) is highly devastating disease in West & Central Asia. It is
prevalent in North-west India and Pakistan. Cool, cloudy and humid weather favours onset of the
disease. In India, C235 and G543 are reported to be resistant. AB resistant varieties in India are
Pusa261, PBG1, GNG469 and Gaurav in India.

38
 Botrytis gray mold (Botrytis cineria) is important foliar disease in northern India. The BGM
fungus is necrotrophic, has extreme host range, high variability and wide adapatibility. IIPR has
released moderately resistant variety Avarodhi (ICC14344).
Resistance is found in three accessions (ICCW 41, 42 & 91) of C. bijugum.
Root rot diseases: 3 types - Dry root rot, Phytophthora root rot, Collar rot
i) Dry root rot (Rhizoctonia bataticola) is of economic importance in dry areas with temp. >30 0C.
Resistant lines RSG130, 132, Arid 191, ICC1696, 4709 & 14391.
ii) Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora medicaginis) is a major disease in northern new south
Wales & Queensland. Field resistance has been reported for accession from Tajikistan.
iii) Collar rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) is common in areas where soil moisture is high and temperatures
are warm (>300C) at the time of sowing. Disease is favoured by undecomposed organic matter near
the soil surface and low soil pH. There are no specific breeding for collar rot resistance.
Multiple disease resistant sources:
Fusarium wilt, Dry root rot, Black root rot – ICC12337, 11269
Fusarium wilt, Ascochyta blight, Botrytis grey mold – ICC1069
Fusarium wilt, Dry root rot, Stunt – ICC10466
Fusarium wilt, Sclerotinia stem rot – ICC858, 959, 4918, 8933, 9001
8. Breeding for resistance to insects like pod borer, leaf miner, bruchids, root knot nematode.
Pod borer (Helicoverpa armigera) is the most important pest globally. Perennial wild species C.
microphyllum and C. canariense are the best source of pod borer resistance. ICC 506, 6663, 10619,
10667 & ICCV 7 showed low pod borer damage.
ICCL86111 – resistant to pod borer and fusarium wilt.
Insect resistant sources:
Pod borer – ICC506, 1381, 4856, 5264, 6663, 7510, 7559, 7966, 10667, 10761, 10870
Leaf miner – ILC 726, 1776, 2319, 2618, 3800, 5901, 7738
Bruchids – G109-1
Root knot nematode – P636, H208, PGM442, BG305, L550, BG405
9. Breeding for ideotype – Erect plant type with shorter internodes is suitable.
 Reduced internodal distance and increasing the no.of podded nodes may be useful to improve
harvest index in chickpea.
 Doubled podded and multi-seeded pod characters useful under specific conditions.
10. Breeding for adaptation to late sown situation in north India & early sown situation in south India.
11. Breeding for increased nodulation with respect to size, number and weight of nodules.

39
12. Breeding cultivars for high input conditions
13. Breeding cultivars for paddy fallows
14. Breeding cultivars with multiple stress resistance

BREEDING METHODS:
1. Germplasm utilization & introduction – Germplasm maintained at ICRISAT (Desi & kabuli,
12,000 accessions), ICARDA (Kabuli)
2. Pure line selection
3. Hybridization & selection: Pedigree, Bulk, SSD, Back cross
Crossing is difficult and time consuming like most of the legumes.
Introgression between desi & kabuli -
Kabuli - higher no. of primary branches, large seed size, erect habit, tall stature, cold tolerance,
resistance to blight. These characters are transferred into desi type.
Desi - higher no. of secondary branches, more no. of pods per plant, more no. of seeds per pod,
drought tolerance, resistance to fusarium. These characters transferred to kabuli type.
Back cross for introgression
Kabuli × Desi Desi × Kabuli
↓ ↓
F1× Kabuli F1 × Desi
↓ ↓
BC1 BC1
↓ ↓
BC5-6 BC5-6
Selection of Kabuli type with Selection of Desi type with
desirable characters from Desi type desirable characters from Kabuli type

 Improvement for yield and other characters was more easily achieved by having one back cross
in the desired direction where improvement is needed.
Eg. (kabuli x desi) x desi for improvement of desi type.
 Pedigree method – for resistance breeding (disease, insect, nematode, Orobanche spp.)
 Modified bulk method for stress situations (drought, cold, heat, iron deficiency)
 Back cross method – for interspecific hybridization
 Limited back cross (1 or 2) for Desi x Kabuli introgression and also for resistance breeding.
 Several high yielding and widely adapted varieties developed are L-104, 144, 550, Pusa267
among Kabuli types; Pusa 244, 256, 261 among Desi.
5. Mutation breeding – twin-podded type, short bushy mutant, giant pod mutant

40
6. Biotechnology – Embryo rescue & ovule culture, Transgenics
Institute: International
1. International Crop Research Institute for SemiArid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru, Hyderabad.
(Desi and Kabuli improvement)
2. International Centre for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA), Aleppo, Syria (kabuli
improvement)
National - Indian Institute of Pulses Research (IIPR), Kanpur.
All India Coordinated Chickpea Improvement Project (AICCIP) at IIPR, Kanpur.
Improved varieties for Peninsular zone:
 Desi – Annigeri (UAS, Dharwad), BDN9-3, Chaffa, Co1, Co2, ICCC4, JG 74, Jyothi, Radhey
 Kabuli - Phule G 95311
Varieties from ICRISAT:
 ICCV 10 (Bharati) – Resistant to wilt and root rot
 ICCV 2 (Sweta) (kabuli) - Wilt resistant, bold seed, white
 JG 11 (JG-Jawahar Gram)– bold seeded, resistant to wilt, dry root rot and stunt.
Disease resistant varieties:
Wilt resistant – JG315, JG355, Pusa 212,244,256,261,408,413,417, G543, ICCC32, ICCC37,
Phule G 5, BG 244, Avrodhi, ICCV 2 (Swetha)
Ascochyta blight resistant – Gaurav, C 235, GNG 146, BG 261
Varieties recommended for Karnataka:
Annigeri-1, ICCV 10, GBS 964, JG 11, BGD 103, BG 1105, ICCV 2 (Kabuli)

41
 Field pea
Scientific name: Pisum sativum L, 2n = 2x = 14 (Diploid), Family: Fabaceae (Leguminaceae)

Introduction

 Important rabi crop, grown for food, feed and vegetable

 Anti-nutritional factors in pea seed include trypsin inhibitors, haemaglutins (lectins), tannins,
oligosaccharides and phytates.
 Cultivars with a darker seed coat contain more tannin, which tends to decrease their
digestibility.
 Two types of pea grown in India 1. Vegetable type
2. Grain type

Vegetable type Grain type

Grains are very sweet when green or
become wrinkled on drying
Usage fresh, Frozen and canned veggies
Compare to round seed there have less
startch (27-37 g), more fat(5g) of sugar
Grains generally white and round. Not sweet
as in the case of vegetable type
Chat, Chhola dal, vegetable
More startch (47.6 g), less fat (2.4 g) and
sugar
Cultivation confined to northern and central
parts of the country

Distribution

In India: Uttar Pradesh, is leading in production mainly cultivated in UP, MP, Bihar, Assam and
Jharkhand

In world: USA, China, France, UK, Holland, Russia, Egypt and Australia.

Production constraints

1. Cultivation more in rain fed area or marginal and sub marginal land with poor soil fertility.
2. Biotic (Powdery mildew, rust, root rot and pod borer) and abiotic stress (terminal drought,
susceptibility to waterlogging)
3. Non availability of improved and high yielding varieties
4. Non adoption of improved crop production technologies
5. Poor processing and marketing facilities
Centers of origin (not well known)

1. Mediterranean basin and the Near east

2. South west asia and North east Africa
Early archeological studies say- Neaolithic Syria, Turkey and Jordan

According to L.I. Govorov (1973) – pea originated from mountainous region of South west asia
(Afghanistan, India and Ethiopia). He has presumed that the secondary center of variability of
cultivated forms of these crops is located in the Mediterranean region.
42
According to Gorov

Pisum elatius Stev X Pisum fulvum Subt

(Mediterranean pea) (Red yellow pea)

Pisum sativum

He presumed that P. elatius and P. fulvum exited together in adjacent area of region. As a
result of mutation and natural hybridization, populations were created in different zones and gave this
to cultivated forms of P. abyssinium and P. syriacum.

Wild relatives

Depending on taxonomic interpretations, the ILDIS (International Legume database) accepts 3

species, one with 2 subspecies

1. P. abyssinicum (Syn. P. sativum subsp. Abyssiniaum)

2. P. fulvum (Red yellow pea)
3. P. sativum (Pea)
a) P. sativum subsp. Elatius
b) P. sativum subsp. Sativum
Other wild spp.

1. P. arvense
2. P. elatius (Mediterranean pea)
3. P. formosum
4. P. hunile
5. P. jomardii
6. P. maritimum
7. P. ochrus
8. P. transcaucasicum
Floral biology

 Flowering begins after 40-50 days of sowing

 Inflorescence is an axillary, 1-3 flowered receme, flowers are bisexual, papilionaceous,
corolla white to purple, stamens 10 (9+1, 9 United, 1 Free), ovary superior
 Self-pollinated crop with less than 1% out crossing
 Slightly susceptible to day length, with long days promoting flowering. In most tropical
circumstances. It can be considered day neutral.

Breeding Objectives:
1. Broadening of genetic base: Primitive and wild type exists in many regions of
Africa, middle east & North East- need to be explored& preserved.

43
 2. Higher Yield: Varieties which are responsive to better management practices are to
be developed. Variety with higher harvest index need to be developed. Yield
supportive traits are- Plant height, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod,
seed weight.
3. Short duration varieties: 100-110 days duration varieties required. Vegetable type is
early to maturity and may be used as donors in hybridization.
4. Resistance to disease and pest: Powdery mildew is the major problem in this.
Intercrop with mustard, linseed, wheat and barley are reported to delay buildup of
powdery mildew. Rust is sever in area where high humidity with moderate
temperature occurs. Powdery mildew resistant verity in dwrf group- Aparna, Uttara,
Jayanthi, Sapna, Malviya matar-15, Swati, Pusa prabhat, IPFD 1-10, IPFD 99-13, HFP
9907B. Among tall group- Rachana, Pant P5, Malviya matar-2, JP 885 etc. Rust
resistant/tolerant- PJ-207508, C-12, DMR-3, HUDP-15. Major insects are pea & bean
weevil, pea moth, pea aphid & pod borer.
5. Breeding for processing quality: Like dehydration, canning, suitable to processing
of large sized seed.
6. Breeding for abiotic stress- Like water logging, freezing temperatures, water stress.
Cold tolerance is important in subtropical and Mediterranean region
7. Increased nitrogen fixation: Recessive gene syn 2 and syn 3 are responsible for non-
nodulating and non-fixing. Therefore, care should be taken while breeding including
this kind of wild genotype.
8. Increased Shelling percentage: Genotypes should have high shelling percentage.

Breeding methods

1. Introduction: Introduced variety from USA and UK are – Alaska (smooth seed), Early
Superb (smooth seeded), Meteors (S.S) Arkel (wrinkle type), Early badger (WS), little marvel
etc.
2. Selection: From natural variability (land race/local germplasm) based on MLT/genotype.
Yield potential/adaptability were selected and released for cultivation. Several local cultivars
of pea grown in country Ex: Boni, local yellow batri, Hara boniya, Asavji, Hoshiyarpuri, Kap,
Kanawasi, Khaparkheda and few others.
3. Pureline selection
4. Mass selection
5. Pedigree
6. SSD
7. Bulk
8. Mutation breeding – Extensive work done in India by JNKVV Jabalpur. The 2 useful
recessive genes resulting from induced mutation research were utilized to produce the
“leafless” pea genotype af, af st st at Jabalpur. P-166 – mutation of P-166, give rise to Hans
(L-11) an early maturing (100-110 days) with semi erect plants, wider adaptability and
average yield of 15 – 20 q/ha.
9. Hybridization: In type-163 line PM resistant genes were incorporated. The first Powdery
mildew resistant variety ‘Rachana’ with plant type similar to that of type 163 was released in
1980.
Type 163 X Type 10
44
 Rachana, Pant P-5

Resistant genotypes Resistant to Source/Developed by

1. Jawahar Pea 83 Powdery mildew JNKV, Jabalpur
2. Kalanagini, JP179 F. wilt JNKV, Jabalpur and IARI
3. JP Batsi Brown-3 Rust JNKV, Jabalpur
4. JP Batsi Brown-4
5. Bean yellow mosaic Bonneville IARI, New Delhi
virus

Multiple disease resistance

1. JP 179 Resistant to PM, tolerant to JNKV, Jabalpur

Rust, Resistant to Fusarium
wilt, Bruchids and leaf minor
2. JP-9 PM + Bruchids JNKV, Jabalpur
3. JP 501 PM + Wilt + Bruchids JNKV, Jabalpur
4. Arka kartik Rust + PM IIHR, Bangalore
5. Arka samparna

Germplasm maintained at NBPGR, ICRISAT and IIPR, Kanpur.

45
 Rapeseed and mustard
Rapeseed and mustard are important oil yielding crops of the Indian sub continent. The
important species of oilseed Brassicas that are extensively cultivated commercially are Brassica
campestris, B.juncea, B.napus,
Mustard – rai- Brassica juncea
Black mustard – Banarasi rai – B.nigra
Rape (turnip rape) – yellow sarson – Brassica campestris var yellow sarson
Rape –turnip rape – brown sarson – B.campestris var. brown sarson
Rape (Indian rape) toria- Brassica campestris var toria
Rocket (rocket cress) – taramira – Eruca sativa

Origin:
Rapeseed: B. campestris → near Himalayan region
Secondary centers of diversity → European & Mediterranean region
Brownmustard: B. juncea → Middle East
Secondary centers of diversity → China, North East India, Caucasus

Classification:-
1. Rapeseed(2n=20) - Brassica campestris ssp. oleifera / B. rapa
3 Types: 1.Yellow sarson
2. Brown sarson - Lotni & Tora
3. Toria
 Oil content 35-40%, Protein content 38-40%
 Seed & oil is used flavoring of vegetables & pickles.
2. Mustard/ Brown mustard/ Rai(2n=36) – Brassicajuncea
 Oil content 30-40%
 Related crop is Taramira (grown in Assam).
Extensively cultivated commercially are B. campestris, B. juncea & B. napus.
 B. campestris & B. juncea – largely cultivated in Asia
 B. napus & B. campestris – largely cultivated in Sweden, Germany, France, Canada &
Australia

46
The major distinguishing features of rapeseed (B.campestris) and mustard (B.juncea)
Characteristics Rapeseed (toria , sarson) Mustard (rai or raya)
Leaves Leaf blade encircles the Leaf blade does not encircle
stem the stem
Plant height Short to medium Medium to tall
Days to maturity (1-1.5 m) 1.5 to 2.5 m)
Surface of siliqua Uniform and smooth Beaded or waxy
Seed surface Smooth Reticulate
Somatic chromosome 20 36
number
Reaction to leaf spot disease Susceptible Tolerant

The yellow seeded types have low fibre content and relatively more oil content. Brassica seed meal is
a good source of protein
There is a range of cross pollination in this group of oilseed crops. Toria, taramira, and lotni
brown sarson are self incompatible and cross pollinated. Mustard yellow, sarson , and tora brown
sarson are self compatible. Self fertile forms are largely self pollinated. However, due to insects, the
extent of cross pollination in this group varies from 4-16.6 per cent . in toria the pollen form the same
plant usually requires 24-48 hours for fertilization whereas alien pollen takes 5-6 hours to reach the
ovules. Self incompatibity is of sporophytic type and the gene action is dominant . Atleast four
multiple alleles are involved in governing self incompatibility . The self incompatible flowers bright
yellow well opened attractive and sucrose content nectarines varies from 42-61 per cent while the
compatible types are light yellow , less opened and 10-12 per sucrose in nectar.
Evolution of brassica spp.
The evolution of mating system in genus Brassica is interesting. It appears that there is strong
intergenomic interaction affecting the mode of pollination. The three primary species, B.campestris,
B.nigra, and B.oleracea, with A,B, C genomes are cross pollinated, while their amphidiploid
products B.juncea AABB and B.napus AACC and B.carinata BBCC are predominantly self
pollinated . the evolution of Brassica is explained with famous “U” triangle. The commercially
cultivated B.campestris however contains both self compatible and self incompatible forms.
B.campestris consists of yellow sarson and toria brown and lotni brown sarson types

47
“U triangle”

B.nigra
BB
Black mustard
N=8

BBCC AABB
B.carinata B.juncea
Abyssinian mustard N=18
N=17 Brown, leaf mustard

CC AA
B.oleraceae B.campestris
Cabbage Turnip rape
N=9 N=10

AABB
B.napus
Rape
N=19

Genic male sterility and fertility restoration

The presence of male sterility was first observed in B.oleracea (braccoli) the male sterile plants in
B.juncea and fertility restoration form B.napus. by substituting in the wild radish the genome of
B.campestris in the cytoplasm of Diplotaxis muralis. Male sterility has been transferred in the
agronomic background of mustard varieties Pusa bold, Varuna, RLM 198 and Prakash through
recurrent back crossing.
Interspecific hybridization

48
 Amphidiploids in Brassicas have been experimentally produced by crossing two parental
species and then inducing polyploidy or by crossing the tetraploids of the two parental species. In
this way the synthetic B.junceae closely resemble the natural B.juncea forms and hybridizes easily
with each other. The synthesised B.juncea has larger cell size than natural forms, but this difference
is eliminated after it is grown for few generations.
BREEDING OBJECTIVES:
1. Breeding for high seed yield
 Protein content at seedling stage → high seed yield at later stages
 Dry matter accumulation at rosette → seed yield
 Stage & leaf area index (LAI)
2. Breeding for higher oil content - In rapeseed, high oil content is associated with bold seed size.
3. Breeding for ideal plant type
 More no. of siliqua/plant
 More no. of seeds/ siliqua
 Bolder seeds
 High LAI
 Shorter plant height
 More no. of branches
 Dwarfing gene have been found in toria which could be used in toria & sarson.
4. Breeding for early maturity
5. Breeding for resistance to Alternaria blight, downy mildew and white rust.
 Brassica carinata shows better resistance to Alternaria leaf blight compared to Brassica
juncea.
6. Breeding for resistance to insects parts like sawfly and mustard aphids.
 Brassica juncea varieties show better tolerance to mustard aphid than B. campestris.
7. Breeding for tolerance drought and frost
 This is desirable in western parts of India including Punjab, Haryana, MP and Rajasthan.
8. Breeding for resistance to siliqua shattering.
9. Breeding for high responsiveness to fertilizers.
10. Breeding for better oil quality
 Mustard seed oil contains higher amount of erusic acid which is bad for poultry and pig feeds.
It is an undesirable margarin (butter) made from traditionally varieties.

49
  The pungent odor and bitter taste is due to glucosinolate which reduces the palatability of
feeds to animals.
 Therefore, for better oilseed meal quality, it should have low or zero erusic acid and low or
zero glucosilonates which will be suitable for human & livestock consumption.
BREEDING METHODS:
 Highly cross pollinated are toria, brown sarson & taramira due to sporophytic self
incompatibility, entomophillic. Very high sucrose content (40-61%) in their nectars to attract
honey bees and the dextrose (outward) other arrangement.
 In the other group including Brassica juncea&Brassica napus show high self pollination (85-
95%), because of self compatibility indorse another arrangement & low sucrose content in
their nectaries (5-12%).
1. Germplasm utilization & introduction - >6000 accessions at NRC on Rapeseed & Mustard.
- Regina from Sweeden
2. Pure line selection
3. Mass selection → Alarge number of mustard varieties viz., Durgamani, seets, Shekhar, Krishna
and Kranti have been developed through mass selection
4. Hybridization & Selection - pedigree, bulk, back cross & mass pedigree
Inter specific – at the inter specific level, hybrids are obtained with relative case with B. rapa.
5. Development of commercial hybrid –
 Single cross hybrid or three way cross hybrid using CMS & GMS.
6. Production of synthesis & composites
In India composites and synthetics of toria and brown sarson have beed developed and released for
commercial cultivation
Ex- Synthetics variety: Brown sarson: Pusa Kalyani
Toria : Sangam
Composite variety: Toria – TLC 1 (Toria Ludhiana composit 1)
7. Back cross: This was successfully used to transfer simply inherited traits such as disease resistance,
low erucic acid and glucosinolate into agronomically superior genotypes.
8. Recurrent selection: In B. rapa whereself-incompatibility ensures a high degree of heterogeneity,
recurrent selection is the most effective method for increasing seed yield as well as oil content.
Bhavani variety is an example toria variety developed through this method

50
8. Polyploidy breeding
 Autotetraploids of B. campestris&B. oleracea are important for forage / vegetable type.
 But autotetraploids of B. juncea&B. nigra usually have thicker leaves, larger buds, flowers
and seeds but poor seed setting.
9. Mutation breeding - for characters like earliness, more no. of branches, yellow seed colour,
compact type, very bold seed, dwarfness and long siliquae etc.
Ex: Regina, RLM 198
10. Tissue & Biotechnology - genetically engineered male sterility by using barnase-barstar system.
First somaclonal variety Pusa Jai Kisan (Bio-902) developed through tissue culture.
Haploid breeding _ In Canada and several European countries anther derived double haploids of
B.napus one at various stages of development for release
Somoclonal variation
eg. somaclonal variation was obtained in 269 R3 lines of B.juncea for high yield protoplast
culture of hypocotyls cells is possible

51
11. Heterosis breeding: Available CMS in oilseed brassia are polima, ogura, tournefortii, siifolia,
trachystoma, moricandia and lyratus. Hybrids in B. napus like, PGSH 51 and Chinese hybrid Qinyou
No.2 have been released for commercial exploitation. Success has been achieved in transferring the
cytoplasm of ogura, tournefortii, siifolia, trachystoma and moricandia into B. juncea. Hybrids based
on mori system are under evaluation at PAU, Ludhiana.
By using genic male sterility in yellow sarson a hybrid viz., BCH 16 has been developed.

Institute:
National: National Research Centre on Rapeseed and Mustard, Bharatpur (Rajasthan)

Varieties:
 172 varieties of rapeseed and mustard released.
 First ‘00’ hybrid of B. napus (Gobhi sarson), Hyolla 401 developed.
 First hybrid variety PGSH-51 of Gobhi sarson developed.
 Frost resistant variety RH-781 released.
 White rust resistant varieties RH 813 & JM-1 released.
 Hybrid of Indian mustard ‘NRC Sankar sarson’ (NRCHB 506) developed at NRCR&M using
moricandia CGMS system.

52
Varieties of Rapeseed & Mustard:
Type Varieties
Toria BR 23, M 27, T 9, ITSA, T 36, DK 1, Sangam, TD 15, Agrani (B54), TS 29, PT
(B. campestris) 303, Bhawani, TH 63, PT 30, TCL 1, Panchali, Rauts 17, TH 68 (Suman), PT 507
Brown sarson BS 65, BS 2, BS 70, BSH 1, Pusa Kalyani, KOS 1, KBS 1
(B. campestris)
Yellow sarson T 151, Patan sarson 66, YSP G-24, T 42, K 88, Benoy (B 9), 66-197-3, Subinoy,
(B. campestris) Jhumka, Raudys 89-115
Mustard Laha 101, Varuna, Durga mani, Patan mustard 67, RLM 198, Shekhar, Seeta (B
(B. juncea) 85), Pusa Bold, RLM 154, Kranti, RLM 619, RH 30, RLM 185, RH 785, KRV 74,
RK 9, RK 14, Vaibhav, Vardan, Rohini, RH 781, Sarma, Bhagirathi, TM 2, TM 4,
Sanjucta Asech, RH 8113, Pusa Bahar, Pusa Basant, RH 819, GM 1, RL 1359,
Rajat (PCR 7), Pusa Jai Kisan, PBR 91, Laxmi (RH 8812), GM 2, PBR 97
Taramira ITSA, T 27, TMC 1, TMLC 2
(Eruca sativa)
Gobhi sarson GSL 1, GSL 2, PBGH 51, Sheetal, Hyolla 401
(B. napus)
Karan sarson DLSC 1, PC 5, Kiran
(B. carinata)

Oil quality
Rapeseed and mustard oil which is a triglyceride of saturated and unsaturated fatty acid
contain a very high (45-60%) level of erucic acid. The oil has high glucosinolates content. Reduction
or elimination of erucic acid would increase the proportion of Oleic and linoleic acid which are
usually desirable in human nutrition. The high amount of gluosinolates make the seed meal or cake
unfit for feeding animals . However, the genes controlling glucosinolate content in rapeseed are either
pleiotropic or in linkage with the second filing stage and have a positive correlation with 1000 seed
weight. The polish varieties Bronowski has only 10% of the normal content and used in world wide
backcross programme to glucosinolate content. Several zero erucic acid commercial rapeseed
varieties viz, Mida and Torch in Canada , Span or Brink in Sweden Quintaing Germany Jet Neuf in
France have been identified. Yellow seeded types produce pale yellow colored oil and light colored
protein products that have consumers preference.

53
Canola refers to the nutritionally improved cultivars ofoilseed Brassicaspossessing less than 2per
cent erucic acid in seed oil and less than 30µ moles glucosinolates per gram defatted meal. The
cultivars possessing such as a level of erucic acid and glucosinolate are also called “00” (Double
zero) types. For developing canola quality B. juncea possessing additional trait like yellow seed
colour or white rust resistance, a three way crossing programme is suggested.
To develop aphid resistance mustard, a line T 6342 has been commonly used as donor parent.

Improved plant type

A desirable and high yielding plant type of toria requires a strong stem and compact branching habit.
The new source of dwarfing genes could be used to develop optimum height varieties.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

54
 Berseem

Trifolium alexandrium L. , 2n = 16, Family: Fabaceae

Common name: Berseem clover, Egyptian clover

 Berseem is an legume forage crop grows to an height of 30-80cm. can be used as green
manure crop (N fixing in soil).
 Fast growing, high quality forage mainlycut & fed as green chopped forage. It is often
compared to alfa alfa, it has never been reported to cause ‘Bloat’.
 Crop is cultivated primarily for animal feed and rich in crude protein and minerals (like
fodder cowpea).
 The fiber of fodder crop consists of fiber cellulose which is a complex polysaccharide that is
indigestible in human but is a good source of energy for animals, especially for ruminant
animals.
 In India, its an important Rabi fodder with a remarkable feature of regeneration, yielding four
to eight cuts, making continuous supply of feed to animals.
 It can be grown in wider range of soil types, slightly tolerant to salinity and frost. But
susceptible to higher temperature.
Distribution:

Probably originated in Syria, it was introduced into Egypt in the 6th Century, into India in
the 19th century and into Pakistan, South Africa, USA and Australia in the 20 th century and
grows in some parts of Europe also.
In India it is cultivated in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana to
the maximum extent.

Origin:

Berseem doesn’t have original wild forms. It’s probable origin is in “South west Asia” and was
naturalized in Northern Africa and Western Asia.
About the origin there are several claims by several authors. As per Frame (2005) it is eastern
Mediterranean, whereas, Knight (1985) says Syria, Turkey also claims with its availability in wild
forms.
(T. solmoneum seem to be the probable progenitor of T. alexandrinum)

55
Classsification/Types of Berseem:

Based on regeneration capacity and branching pattern: Three different ecotypes are present

Mescavi Fahli Saidi

Good regeneration potential Stem branching type with low Moderate regeneration
and capable of 5-6 cut with regeneration potential and capacity allowing 2-3 cuts and
basal/ crown branching suitable for single cut only possess both basal and stem
pattern. branching
Most popular in India with
many varieties belongs to this
group

Floral biology:

It is a cross pollinated diploid legume having capacity to grow under diverse agro climatic
conditions. It has simple valver mechanism in which both the stamen and stigma are forced out of
keel petal due to pressure exerted by insect and returns to original position later.
1 Yellowish white colored flowers are produced in cluster, which are hermaphrodite, in nature
with 5 fused sepals & 5 free petals (2) + 2+1, 2 standard (fused), 2 wing (free), 1 keel ,
modified papilionaceous flower.
2 Stamens are always ten in number and their filaments are fused in a group 9 (9+1)
3 Cross poliinated plant and it is entomophilous in nature
4 Anthesis occurs in the morning hours which coincides with maximum pollinator activity,
leads to seed setting
5 The typical structure of flower in berseem requires ‘tripping’ for the pollination to commence.
Tripping by honey bee is the most common method in nature. This again is varies with
genotypes, locations abundance of pollinators and weather parameters.
Primary gene pool:

All landraces, wild//naturaizied botanical varieties and cultivars multifoliate polyploids and ecotypes
like Fahil & saidi.
Secondary gene pool: T. berytherm, T. Salmoneum, T. operatum and T. meironense.

Genus trifolium includes 237 annual & perennial spp, commonly called ‘Clovers’, includes both
diploid & tetraploid. Example tetraploid is T. repens
(Apis indica, A. dorsata, A. florata required for pollination)

56
Breeding objectives:

1. Breeding for high yield: Increased foliage growth, plant height, number of branches, and
increased vigour in growth, number of leaves/plant, leaf length and width.
2. Breeding for adaptability: Salinity, water stress and temperature
3. Resistance breeding for insect, pests and diseases. Insects like thrips, H. armigera, etc.,
diseases like BYMV(bean yellow mosaic virus), leaf scorch disease (Elite –II is resistant
variety), Root rot complex
4. Quality breeding for physical, chemical, nutritional and marketing value. Crop is ready in
55-60 days after sowing for the 1st cutting subsequent cuttings are taken @ 30 day interval
during winter & spring. Nutritive value: It contains 17% crude protein, 25.9% crude fiber.
The total digestible nutrients content is 600-65%. Berseem contains saponins, if fed in high
quantity to ruminants leads to bloat.
5. Breeding for high seed yield: Plots are left uncut after February and in that case 4 – 5 Q
seeds/ ha will be obtained. Tetraploid varieties of berseem considered as high yielding (800 –
1000 q/hq fodder).
Breeding methods:

1. Introduction: Introduced ones are either utilized directly as variety or can be used as parent
into the crossing program. Eg: Meskavi and Fahil during 1904
2. Selection:
a) Mass selection: selection of single plants based on first cut for characters like green
fodder yield, plant height and number of tillers.
b) Recurrent selection: ‘Nile’ was developed as a result of recurrent selection and
showed better performance over Meskavi variety. Elite – II, also develop from
recurrent selection which is resistant to leaf scorch and gives better seed yield.
Bottlenecks to exploit recurrent selection in berseem:
1. Variation in pollination behavior: Self and cross pollination, self incompatibility
influenced by environment.
2. Exploitable genetic variability for agronomic traits not available
3. Small flower size poses problem in manual crossing.
3. Polyploid Breeding: High competitive cultivars for production of vegetative matter may be
bred from auto tetraploids
*Major breakthrough in berseem was obtained at IARI in 1965 through introduction of
polyploids which resulted in release of variety called ‘Pusa giant Berseem’. Its an
auto tetraploid variety bred from diploid variety C – 10.
4. Mutation Breeding: Use of physical mutagens, help in getting variability for the number of
leaves, plant height, number of flower heads. ‘Pentafoliate’ mutant also observed. HFB – 700
used as base material for mutation breeding.
5. Wide hybridization:T. alexandrium had a good crossability with T. berytheum, T.
salmoneum, T. apertum and T. meironense.

57
 Wild sources for important traits: Examples:
Late flowering, profuse branching & disease
resistance
Mositure & temperature stress, lateness,
disease resistance, winter hardiness
T. apertum, T. constantinopolitanum & T.
echinatum
T. purpureum, T. repens, T. pretense

Important achievements:

1. Wafir - resistant to salinity

2. Jawhar berseem – 5 – From JNKV, Jabalpur, is resistant to root and stem rot
3. HFB – 600 - From CCS, Hisar, Resistant to stem rot
4. Elite – II is from Australia, resistant to leaf scorch
Other important varieties:

Wardan, JB – 1, JB – 2, JB – 5, BL – 1, BL -2, BL – 10, BL – 22, UPB – 110, UPB – 103, Pusa giant
berseem – 3 (JHTB 96 – 4) Bundel berseem – 2 (JHB -146)
Stations working on Berseem at India (National level)

1. Indian Grassland & Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi.

2. PAU, Ludhiana, Punjab
3. JNKV, Jabalpur (MP)
4. GB Pant Agricultural science and Technology
International level:

1. ASSIUT University, ASSIUT, Egypt

2. Research Institute of Forests & Rangelands, Tehran, Iran and many more

Notes:

 Trifolium sps are predominantly diploid

 White clover (T. repens) is a tetraploid sp.
 Seeds are small and egg shaped.

58
 Lentil (Masura)
SN: Lens culinaris M, 2n=14, Family: Fabaceae

About Crop:

 It is a legume grown for its lens shaped seed. Majorly cultivated in India and its subcontinents
like Ethiopia. At global level: North America, to lesser extent in southern Europe, USA,
Australia & Canada India ranks 1st in area & production.
 Rich source of protein (24-28%) & Iron. Abundant source for lysine which makes it a good
dietry supplement with cereal for balanced diet.
 Very good feed to animal & able to fix atmospheric Nitrogen.
 Seed color vary from black/brown/tan and classified as microsperma type (small seed) which
is particularly found in southern Asia and macrosperma type (large seeded) which is
particularly found/native to WANA(West Asia and North Africa) and southern europe.
 In country like USA & Canada it is popular as green lentil.
 Dificient with methionine and cystine (But sprouted lentil contain along with essential amino
acid methionine and cystine).
 Anti nutritional factors- Trypsin is an enzyme involved in high phytate content.

Centers of Origin: South west Asia (Turkey-Syria-Iraq)

According to Harlan (1992): it is oldest crop & adopted to most difficult environment of
Mediterranean region.
In India it is important pulse crop before 1st century A.D during the mid 19th century lentil was
introduced into England from France during 15th century, and by the middle of the 19th century
Britain had four varieties that were briefly described as big, small red and yellow.

Lentil belong to subfamily papilionoidae of legume which has four clades (According to Doyle &
Lucknow, 2003: Gepts et al, 2005) these are as follows,
1. Haseoloids/Millettioide Both have common ancestor & comprises the world most
tropical and temperate food legume. This clade further
2. Galegoids/Hologalegina split into Loteae

3. Dalbergioid: Basic type and mostly tropical

4. Genistoid

Crop Biology:
 German botanist and physician was 1st who described lentil scientifically as lens culinaris in
1787 (Cubero, 1981).
 All the species belong the lens genus have a wide variataion in chromosomal rearrangements
affecting both intra specific and inter specific recombination (Ladizinsky, 1979).
 L culinaris ssp Orientalis is probably gives L culinaris ssp culinaris
59
  L odemensis , L culinaris ssp orientalis &L culinaris ssp culinaris are cross compatible but
incompatible with L nigricans ssp nigricas and ssp ervoides. However pollen & pistil
morphology establishes close relationship between L odemenses&L culinaris ssp orientalis, L
ervoides in closely related to all these taxa.
 Based on cross ability between group : 3 group is made
Group I: L culinaris ssp orientalis Similar WRT morphology & cross compatible
L culinaris ssp culinaris each other but inter specific hybrids are only
partial fertile.

Group II: Includes spp likeL nigricans , L ervoides&L lamottei. Crossing with group I spp
with L nigricans produces non-viable seed in the F1 generation due to irregular meiosis.

Group III: L tomentosus - which is not going to produce viable seed with either group I or
group II.

Breeding Objectives:

1 Breeding for high yield: Yield supportive traits are- Plant height, secondary branches/plant,
number of pods/plant, high harvest index and increased seed weight.
2 Breeding against biotic and abiotic stress: Disease- Wilt ( Talia-2 from ICARDA is
resistant genotype), Asochyta blight( ILL-5588, ILL-7537 are resistant source for asochyta
blight), stem phylum, blight and rust. Insect: Black aphids. Abiotic stress- drought tolerance,
heat resistance, frost, chilling/cold, salinity and mineral toxicity.
3 Early maturity: To develop varieties suitable for rice fallows and helps in avoiding terminal
stress condition. Extra early combined with rust and root diseases are more required in India
and Nepal.
4 Seed quality: Consumer prefer differed kind of lentil on the basis of seed size, shape and
colour of cotyledon. Large seeded lentil is preferred in central India, while in northern India
small seeded lentil is preferred.

Breeding Methods: (Similar to self pollinated crops)

1. Introduction: Precoz( early maturing and bold seeded) from Argentine
2. Selection: Pureline selection is most used in earlier days. Pedigree method is now the most
adopted method to develop new cultivar.
3. Mutation breeding: Induced mutation are highly useful to create variability when a) desired
trait may not be available in existing germplasm b) when suitable screening methods are
available that can be adopted to evaluate large mutagenised population. Example: In India-
Ranjan, Arun &HUL, In Bangladesh- Biri masur-1, Biri Masur-2 In Pakistan- Masoor-2006
4. Molecular breeding: Markers can be used in cultivar fingerprinting, diversity analysis for
selection of diverseparents identification of F1 plants mapping of genes/QTLs and selection of
desirable recombinants in early segregating generation.
5. Hybridization and selection:

Examples of improved varieties:

60
During early phase: L-9-12 in Punjab, Haryana and North Rajastan. T-36 & T81 in UP, BR-25 in
Bihar and C-31 in WB becomes very popular.
K-75 (Large seeded) VL-1 & VL-4 for Uttarakhand.
Wilt tolerant & large seeded verities- JL-3(developed through selection). Besides IPL 81 & IPL 406
for central zone and VL-507 for North West hills were developed during the last decade.
Major Crop Improvement Centers:
1. ICARDA- International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Aleppo, Syria
2. UASD at USA
3. IIPR
4. BARI at Bangladesh
5. National Agricultural Research Centre, Pakistan
6. Centre for Legumes in Mediterranean Agriculture, Australia

61
 SUNFLOWER (Helianthus annuus) (2n=2x=34)

Introduction:

• After soybean and palm, sunflower is third most important edible oil (30-50% oil content) in
the world and accounts for about 12.8% of edible oil.
• Largest producers are USSR and European Union.
• Major growing countries are USSR, Bulgaria, Romania, Canada, USA, France, Brazil,
Zimbabwe, South Africa, Kenya, China, Turkey, India and Australia.
• Extensively grown in Karnataka, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh and is
spreading fast in Punjab, Haryana and other northern states as a spring-summer crop.
• Sunflower was first introduced to India from Russia in1969 from USSR and four promising
introductions (EC 68413, 68414, 68415 & 69874) were evaluated along with Canadian
introduction, Sunrise. The trials highlighted several desirable features of this crop
• like, short growth period (85-110 days), photoinsensitivity, higher oil production/unit
area/unit time, drought tolerance, easy crushing and oil extraction, high seed multiplication
ratio (1:100) and wider adaptability over a range of soil and climatic conditions.
• Sunflower show heliotropic movement (head facing east). It is the result of bending of the
stem during rapid growth. Nutation stops when plant reaches anthesis and there after head
faces eastwards.
• Oil is of high quality, having non-cholesterol properties, increased O/L ratio is essential as
oleic acid is good for health and storability of oil.

Origin: Central America

 Sunflower was first domesticated in the central part of USA.
 There are about 67 species in sunflower which are native to USA. Only 2 species are
cultivated as food plants and several species are grown as ornamental types.
 2 cultivated types - Helianthus annuus&Helianthus tuberosus.
 Helianthus annuus - cultivated for oil, diploid (2n=34)
 Helianthus tuberosus – cultivated for tubers, hexaploid (2n=102)
 H. petiolaris - wild species & source of CMS.

Botany:
 Cultivated sunflower is distinguished from all other cultivated plants by its single stem and
conspicuous large inflorescence.
 Stem of cultivated sunflower is typically unbranched, although branched types frequently
occur in commercial fields and are often used as male parents in production of hybrids.
 Inflorescence in head or capitulum, characteristic of Compositae family.
 Flowers of outer whorls of the head are ray florets, they have vestigial styles and stigmas and
no anthers. Other flowers are arranged in concentric rings over the remainder of heads called
disc florets, which are bisexual.
62
  Achene or fruit of the sunflower consists of a seed often called kernel.
 Sunflower is highly cross pollinated crop mainly through insects and to a limited extent by
wind.
 Flower opening starts from outer side of the head and proceeds towards centre of the head.

BOTANY:
The stem is typically unbranched have strong tap root system. Leaves are arranged in opposite pairs,
inflorescence is capitulum or head numbers of flower vary from 700 to 3000. The flowers of outer
whorl are called ray florets which are male and sterile. They have five elongated patels that are united
to strap like structure. They vestigial style and stigmas and no anthers. Other flowers arranged in
concentric rings over the remainder of the head are called disc florets which are hermaphrodites and
fertile. Each disc floret consists of sharp pointed chaffy bract, a basal inferior ovary a tabular corolla
of five patels that are united except for the tips. Five anthers are united to farm a tube inside the
anther. There is style terminating in the stigams, which is divided. Anthesis takes place in morning
hours between 6 to 8 am, stigma remains receptive for 2-3 days.
Sunflower to some extent is protandrus, as anthesis occurs first its accompined by a time lag of 10 to
12 hrs in the maturation of male and female elements, Thus, bees play an importance in pollination
and fertilization. Pollen is moved by wind. The seed consist of seed coat endosperm and embryo.
Sunflower shows the phenomenon of heliotropism. In which the developing head face east and west
in morning and evening respectively.
 Achene or fruit of the sunflower consists of a seed often called kernel.

Floral Biology and Hybridization Technique:

Sunflower is highly cross-pollinated crop mainly through insect and to a limited extent by wind. The
flower opening starts from outer side of the head and proceed towards the centre of the head bloom
with in 5 to 10 days, depending upon size and season. Anthers occur 5 to 8 a.m. the pollen remain
viable for 12 hours and stigma remain receptive for 2 to 3 days.
Emasculation:

63
A) Hand Emasculation:
Remaining the anther tube with forceps early in the morning does it. Unemascualted flower are
removed.
B) Without Emasculation:
Some times the crossing is done with out emasculation hybrid plants are distinguished from selfed
one on the basis of vigor or presence of some market genes.
C) Chemical Emasculation:
Application of Gibberlic acid (100ppm) after bud ignition for three days in the morning gives better
results of emasculation.
Pollination:
Collecting pollen head that are bagged before flowering does it. It is done in the same morning after
emasculation. Pollen can be applied small piece of cotton or camel hairbrush and is bagged again to
protect it from cross-pollination with insect and wind.

BREEDING OBJECTIVES:
1. Breeding for high seed yield
Yield parameters - Diameter of head
No.of seeds/ head
Seed weight
Less hollowness at the centre of head
2. Breeding for higher oil content & oil quality (O/L ratio).
3. Breeding for early maturity to suit for multiple cropping & rainfed situation.
4. Breeding for lodging resistant dwarf plant type - Morden variety is resistant to lodging.
5. Breeding for uniformity of plant height - it suits for mechanical harvesting.
6. Breeding for tolerance to abiotic stresses like drought, salinity etc.
7. Breeding for resistance to bird damage - Thick hull, compactly arranged seeds on the head & bent
head give resistance to bird damage.
8. Breeding for ideal plant type:
 Medium plant height
 Good stalk strength
 Head shape – convex (preferred – more no.of seeds, favours seed development) type
 Inclination of head - drooping head, to prevent bird damage.
 Bigger head diameter
 High self fertility
 More no. of seeds per head
 Higher seed wt.
 Higher oil content
9. Breeding for resistance to disease like leaf spots, rust, root rot & damping off, stem rot, head rot,
necrosis, stem gall, powdery mildew and downy mildew etc.
 Several wild species resistant to several diseases have been reported – H. debilis, H.
lenticularis, H. argophyllus, H. petiolaris, H. mollis, H. gigantheus, H. grosseserateus, H.
64
 maximiliani, H. nutolli, H. tracheliflorus, H. californicus, H. multiflorus, H. argialis, H.
divaricatus (all with 2n=34).
10. Breeding for resistance to insect pests like Helicoverpa (head borer), Bihar hairy caterpillar, grass
hoppers, jassids and leaf eating caterpillars.
11. Breeding for confectionery type
Seed color: There are variety of colours in seeds. Presence or absence of pigments in three different
layers of pericarp determine the final layer of achene.
White color > dark brown/ black color
Fatty acids: Sunflower oil primarily consists of palmitic, stearic, oleic & linoleic acid. Oleic and
linoleic acid account for 90% of total fatty acids.
High oleic trait is governed by single dominant gene with embryo genotype control. Modifier gene is
also reported. The inheritance seems to be more complex.
Seed yield is directly proportional to maturity length.
Branching: governed by single dominant gene “Br” which determines branching on entire stem.
Gene ‘b’ induces profuse branching. This character is incorporated in fertility restorer line for
abundant pollen production.
Cross pollination: Sunflower is obligate out-breeder due to protoandrousnature of disc florets and
presence of various degree of self compatibility (sporophytic self incompatibility).
Male sterility: Genetic male sterility was first reported by Kupstov (1964). GMS appears to be
spontaneously & can be induced as well. Single recessive gene controls this character. However,
duplicate and polygenes controlling GMS have also been reported.
CMS & fertility restoration: CMS was discovered in sunflower by Leclercq (1969). Subsequently,
genes for fertility restoration were identified. This resulted in widespread production of sunflower
hybrids. Presence of restorer genes is not common among cultivated sunflower but more common in
wild sunflower.

BREEDING METHODS:
Sunflower is essentially cross pollinated crop and breeding approaches for cross pollination species
are employed. Sunflower has perfect flower & insects play an important role in pollination &
fertilization. Besides, sunflower shows a wide range of self incompatibility and many plants do not
set seeds on enforced self pollination. In sunflower improvement there will be two distinct options:
1. Development of superior population (Composites & Synthetics)
2. Development of hybrids
1. Germplasm utilization & Introduction: Morden, EC68413, 68414, 68415, 69874 were
introduced from Russia.
2. Mass selection: It is effective method for improving cultivars for certain specific traits. Characters
having high heritability are more easily amenable for improvement through mass selection. It has
been adapted in cultivar improvement in USSR. The characters improved through mass selection
include early maturity, low hull content, resistant to broom rape, higher oil content and seed size.
Pustovoit method:
 Proposed by V.S Pustovoit in USSR.
 Highly successful in improving oil content from 30% (earlier) to 50% (present varieties).

65
 This is a form of recurrent selection in which selection is based on progeny performance and
subsequent cross pollination is allowed only among superior progenies.
 It emphasizes on progeny evaluation, subsequent intermating among selected progenies. It is
essentially a modified recurrent selection.


 10,000-15,000 plants are

phenotypically selected & selfed.
 From selfed seeds of these plants,
1000 to 1200 are selected based on
hull & oil % in laboratory.
 These are taken to 1st year nursery
where in half of the seeds are
retained as a reserve.

 Evaluation of 1000 to 1200

progenies for agronomic attributes,
disease resistance and oil content.
 About 150-200 plants are forwarded
for second year nursery for which
reserved seeds of original selected
plants are used.
 Normally the check will be an OPV.

 More critical evaluation for diseases,

insect pests, oil content & yield is
done.
 Again best progenies are selected.

 Reserved seeds of first year selected

plants are used for planting.
 20-50 best plants within the
progenies are selected after field &
lab studies.
 The seeds are mixed & divided into
two parts. One part is used for next
breeding cycle &other part is used as
a new strain.
↓

66
 Station trial
- New strain will be evaluated only
with check.

Multi-location trial

↓
Varietal release It is like OPV

67
Pustovoit method procedure:

Sindagi’s varietal renovation method (1977):

 It is used for improving old varieties.
 Population mean is calculated for all the characters.
 Statistically background is given for selection joint scoring for background is done &
progenies with high scores are selected.
Characters:-
Plant height 60-70 cm 70-80 cm 80-90 cm 90-100 cm
Score 1 2 3 4
Head diameter 5-10 cm 10-15 cm 15-20 cm 20-25 cm
Score 1 2 3 4

68
Joint scoring:
Plant no. Plant wt Head diameter Oil content Hull content Total score
1 3 4 3 2 12
2 1 2 1 4 8
Plants with high plant score are selected.

Procedure:
Base population - OPV
↓
progeny test in nursery
↓ ± 2σ are selected.
 10,000-15,000 plants are phenotypically selected &
analyzed for hull content & oil content etc.
 Finally 1000-1200 plants are selected based on criteria like
mean (𝜇 ) ± 2σ (Standard deviation)
 1000-1200 plants are grown as progeny rows in replicated
design
 Evaluation of progeny is done for various agronomic traits
including disease resistance
 Finally 200-300 superior progenies with values of mean (𝜇 )

 Bulking of remnant seed of individual which progenies are

superior in a quality to produce super seeds.

Cross pollination block

3. Heterosis Breeding: CGMS

69
Hybrids released for cultivation:
BSH-1 - CMS234A x RHA274 (released in 1980)
KBSH-1 - CMS274A x 6 D-1
KBSH-44
KBSH-53
DSH-1
 Hybrids have more production stability, well suited to high input agriculture resulting in higher
seed set even in areas where pollinations are not abundant & shows uniform growth &
maturity. Hybrids have superior seed filling stability, crop is uniform and facilitates harvesting,
more tolerant to diseases and pests, perform relatively better under water stress also.
 CMS source is Helianthus petiolaris.
 Seetharam & Sindagi are sunflower breeders at UAS Bangalore responsible for development of
sunflower hybrids.
 Male sterility can also be induced by spraying gibberellic acid (100 ppm) during bud initiation.
4. Production of synthetics & composites
5. Population improvement method: half sib current selection, recurrent selection, full sib reciprocal
recurrent selection.
6. Hybridization & selection: Pedigree, bulk, SSD & back cross.
7. Tissue culture & Biotechnology.

Institutes:
Directorate of Oilseeds Research (DOR), Hyderabad (IIOR presently).
Varieties:
 Morden – early maturity, suitable for multiple & mixed cropping.
 NSP 90E, Surya, Co 1, S 55
Hybrids:
 BSH 1 – first hybrid released by UAS Bangalore, resistant to rust & downy mildew, tolerant to
Alternaria leaf spot.
 DSH-1 – released by UAS Dharwad
 Others - KBSH-1, KBSH-44, KBSH-53.

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 SAFFLOWER (Carthamus tinctories) (2n=24)

Introduction:
• Safflower is an important oil seed crop of India. The oil is edible but best used in industry
particularly in the manufacture of paints and varnishes.
• It is also used for its reddish dye called carethamine extracted from florets. Oil is excellent source
of unsaturated fatty acid.
• Oil content is 32 per cent of which above 72 per cent is Linoleic the factor which reduces the blood
cholesterol.

Family - compositeae
Origin: Africa and Afghanistan
Distribution: Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, USA, Egypt Middle East in India, Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka together accounts for more than 90 per cent of country’s area

Progenitor:Carthamus oxycantha, C. lunatus

Related species: The wild species Carthamus oxycanthus is found in many parts of Punjab. It is a
dwarf bushy plant, very spiny, forming small achenes. The oil content is 15 to 16 per cent

Classification of safflower:
Safflower can be grouped in to two broad categories.

1. The outer involucral bracts spinose, lanceolate, mainly cultivated for oil. Flowers yellow in colour.
2. Involucral bracts moderately spined or spineless which are cultivated mostly for the dye than the
spiny types. Flowers orange in colour

Reclassification of Carthamus

Lopez-Gonzalez (1990) proposed a new classification system for genus

Carthamus that is based on anatomizcal characteristics, biogeographic distribution, and biosystematic

information. In the new classification system genera Carthamus and Carduncellus are grouped along
with two new genera, Phonus and Lamottea. The corresponding species of Phonus, Lamottea,
Carthamus, and Carduncellus are Carthamus arborescens L., Carthamus caeruleus L., Carthamus
tinctorius L., and Carduncellus monspelienium All. The species of Phonus, Lamottea, and
Carduncellus are of perennial nature, and all have 24 chromosomes in them; however, the genus
Carthamus is annual and has species with 2n = 20, 22, 24, 44, and 64 chromosomes, including various
putative allopolyploid species.

71
The geographical distribution of the reclassified genera indicated that Phonus occurs in Spain,
Portugal, and northern Africa; Lamottea is distributed in the western Mediterranean regions;
Carthamus is found in west and central Asia, as well as in the Mediterranean region; and Carduncellus
is grown in the western European region of the Mediterranean, northern Africa, Egypt, and
Israel/Palestine. The new genus Carthamus is further subdivided into three sections.

1. Section Carthamus, having 24 chromosomes, is composed of species C. curdicus Hanelt, C.

gypsicola Ilj, C. oxyacanthus Bieb, C. palaestinus Eig., C. persicus Wild, and C. tinctorius L.
The grouping of C. nitidus Boiss (2n = 24) along with the above species is questionable;
therefore, the species is isolated from the rest of the genera to form a separate section.
2. Section Odontagnathius (DC.) Hanelt (including section Lepidopappus Hanelt) has 20 or 22
chromosomes and consists of the species C. boissier Halacsy, C. dentatus Vahl., C. divaricatus
Beguinot and Vace. (2n = 22 chromosomes), C. glaucus Bieb., C. leucocaulos Sm., and C.
tenuis (Boiss & Bl.) Bornm.

Breeding objectives
1. Breeding for high oil content: Normal oil content is 32% of which 72% is linoleic acid, the factor
which reduces blood cholesterol. Oil content is negatively correlated with yield. Wild species of
C.oxycanthus having 28% oil were utilised in hybridization programme to increase yield and oil
content but success was not achieved.
2. Breeding for non-spiny varieties with high oil content. A very limited success was achieved in
safflower
3. Breeding varieties having thin shell thin shelled varieties have high oil content breeding varieties for
dry land conditions
4. Under dry land conditions the spiny nature will be more pronounced. However dry land varieties
with less pronounced spines were evolved. Eg. K l.
5. Breeding varieties resistant to pest and Diseases Pests like Prodenia and Helicoverpa are important
pests. The wild species C.oxycanthus is moderately resistant to pests. This is being utilised in breeding
programme.

Breeding Methods

1. Introduction and Pure Line Selection

Introduction is the simplest method of crop improvement and has been used extensively since time
immemorial across the continents.

Selection is the most commonly used breeding method followed for cultivar development as far as
safflower improvement in India is concerned. This can be realized from the fact that 17 of the 25
varieties developed so far for commercial cultivation in the country have been evolved by resorting to
selection in the locals. The safflower varieties developed by using this method in India and abroad are

72
as follows: India: N-630, Nagpur-7, N-62-8, A-300, Manjira, S-144, JSF-1, K-1, CO-1, Type-65,
APRR-3, Bhima, HUS-305, Sharda, JSI-7, A-2, PBNS-12; U.S.: Nebraska-5, Nebraska-10 (N-10);
Canada: Saffire (Hegde et al., 2002).

The pure line selection from local cultivars of safflower resulted in the development of several
germplasm lines with many desired traits in safflower

2. Hybridization

Hybridization is practiced mainly to bring together the desirable traits of two or more varieties into
one.

1. Pedigree method: This method has been used most frequently to improve seed yield, oil
content, and other desired traits in safflower. Safflower cultivars developed by the following
pedigree method in India and other countries, along with their years of release for commercial
production, are as follows: India: A-1 (1969), Tara (1976), Nira (1986), Girna (1990), JSI-73
(1998), NARI-6 (2001), Phule Kusuma (2003); U.S.: Leed (1968), Sidwill (1977), Hartman
(1980), Rehbein (1980), Oker (1984), Girard (1986), Finch (1986); Mexico: Sahuaripa 88
(1989), Ouiriego 88 (1989), San Jose 89 (1990); Canada: AC Stirling (1991), AC Sunset
(1995) (Hegde et al., 2002).
2. Bulk population method: In the bulk method, the and following generations are harvested in
bulk to grow the next generation.
3. Single-seed descent method: This method has been used by Fernandez-Martinez and
Dominguez- Gimenez (1986) in Spain to develop five safflower cultivars: Tomejil (1986),
Rancho (1986), Merced (1986), Alameda (1986), and Rinconda (1986).
4. Backcross method: This method has been used successfully in the U.S. to breed safflower
cultivars US-10 (1959), by incorporating resistance to root rot caused by Phytophthora
drechsleri (Thomas, 1964), and UC-1 (1966) (Knowles, 1968) and Oleic Leed (1976) (Urie et
al., 1979), by transferring high oleic acid trait to both of them. This method is generally
practiced with traits controlled by oligogenes.

3. Heterosis Breeding:

The often cross-pollinated nature of safflower, existence of high heterosis for seed and flower yield,
presence of many traits of commercial importance, and presence of genetic male sterility (GMS) and
cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) systems make safflower a suitable candidate for exploitation of
hybrid vigor in the crop.

Development of agronomically superior genetic male-sterile lines in India have resulted in the
development and release of spiny safflower hybrids DSH-129 (1st Hybrid from IIOR) and MKH-11 in
1997, the first nonspiny hybrid safflower NARI-NH-1 in 2001 (Singh et al., 2003a), and the spiny
hybrid NARI-H-15 in 2005. These hybrids in general show a 20 to 25% increase in seed and oil yield
over the national check A-1.

73
 SUGARCANE (Saccharum officinarum) (2n=2x=80)
 Sugarcane is cultivated in almost all tropical & temperate countries of the globe.
 Major sugarcane growing & processing units are located principally in Asia, Latin America,
Caribbean, South Africa & Pacific region.
 ‘Saccharum’ term is derived from Sanskrit word ‘sharkara’ = sugar
 Other cultivated species are S. barberi and S. sinense.
 Wild species are S. spontaneum, S. robustum are utilized as source for disease resistance.
Origin:

 S. officinarum (Noble cane) - originated in New guinea

 S. barberi, S. sinense - originated in northern India/ China
 S. barberi&S. officinarum were in India at very early times as quoted from Tamil & Buddhist
literature. Therefore, India is the centre of origin. Due to red set disease in S. officinarum it
became extinct in India & migrated to New guinea as favorable conditions existed there.
Phylogeny:

 S. robustum is the wild progenitor of S. officinarum.

 S. spontaneum is the wild progenitor of S. barberi
 As per another theory, barberi originated from cross between officinarum with spontaneum.
Based on productivity and sugar recovery the sugarcane growing states are grouped as under

Productivity group States

High productivity (> 70t/ha) Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra

Pradesh

Medium productivity (50-70 t/ha0 Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Orissa, West
Bengal, Kerala

Low productivity (below 50t/ha) Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Assam

Recovery zone

High recovery (>10%) Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka

Medium recovery (9-10%) Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Madhya

Pradesh

Low recovery (<9%) West Bengal, Orissa, Assam

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Noblization of sugarcane:

 In north India, S. barberi&sinense were grown and S. officinarum was introduced in India during
green revolution period.
 Indian canes (S. barberi&sinense): poor in yield & sugar content, high fibre, medium to shorter
thickness of cane but they are hardy (cold tolerance).
 Noble cane / tropical cone (S. officnarum): thicker stem, soft rind, low fibre, high sucrose
content with much impurity. Noble cones perform badly in India due to susceptibility to lower
winter temperature.
 C.A.Barber & Venkataraman at Sugarcane Breeding Institute(SBI), Coimbatore transferred
thicker stem, high sugar content & other desirable genes from noble cones to North India canes.
Even disease resistance genes from S. spontaneum were transferred to Indian cane through
interspecific hybridization followed by back cross. This is called as Noblization of sugarcane.
S. officinarum × S. barberi S. officinarum × S. spontaneum

↓ ↓

F1 × S. officinarum F1× S. officinarum

↓ ↓

BC 1 BC 1

↓ ↓

BC 5-6 BC 5-6

 Barber crossed S. officinarum clone ‘Vellai’ with S. spontaneum clone ‘Coimbature’ & produced
F1 hybrids. Among the population, CO-205 became commercial variety at that time in sub-
tropical India. Subsequently, clones of S. barberi notably Chunnee, Saretha & Kansain were
used in noblization. Many of these interspecific hybrids became successful commercial hybrid in
sub-tropical India & other countries. They were suitable for poorer soils & marginal growth
areas of the tropics and had been widely used as parents in breeding in many countries.
 Related genera of sugarcane: Miscanthus, Erianthus, Sclerostachya, Sorghum, Zea and
Bamboosa

Saccharam complex

Mukherjee (1954) pointed out that the four genera Sachharam, Erianthus, Sclerostychya and Narenga
constituted a closely related inter breeding group concerned in the origin of sugarcane . He termed

75
Saccharam complex to indicate this large breeding pool and suggested Indo- Burma-china region as
the ‘Cetntre of origin’ and New Guinea as Center of diversity.

The five spp of saccharam are

S. officinarum, S. barberi, S. robustum, S. spontaneum, S. sinnese and S. edule and of which S.

officinarum , S. barberi and S. sinense are the cultivated spp and S. spontaneum and S. robustum are
wild spp

1. Saccharam officinarum 2n=80,

It is the most important species because it is the source of genes for sucrose accumulation and low
fibre content. S.officinarum occurs in a splendid array of stem colours from off white – dark purple
and also with stripes. It has all the requirements of a commercial sugarcane such as good source and
purity low fibre and starch content, high individual cane weight, easy trashing and moderately high
yields under optimal cultural conditions. However it is highly susceptible to biotic and abiotic stresses.
It originated from S.robustum due to natural and human selection in New guinea
2. Saccharam barberi 2n = (80-124)
This species represents cultivars used for sugar production in northern India from the earliest times.
There are indigenous subtropical forms which evolved in northern India. Barber recognized five
groups.
Sarathe – smallest and hardiest, exist in Punjab and between Assam and Bihar
Mungo – in Bihar
Nargoi – in Bihar and confined to water logged habitat
Sunnabile – Assam
Panashi – this group later on transferred to S.sinense, occurs in Bihar, Bengal and also occurring in
India- China, Southern China and Taiwan
They are hardy tolerant to environmental stresses and have fairly good sucrose content. However, they
are low yielding, many clones of this species is also tolerant to major disease
3. Saccharam sinense 2n=118
It is native of south east china. It was distributed in India under the name ‘chinea’ and became an
important commercial cultivar. Clones of S. sinense are tall, hardy and vigorous with wide adaptability
and early maturity. It has high fibre content and poor quality juice. They are resistant to serrah
mosaic, root rot and gummosis but commercially grown more. In this species uba which has been a
dominant variety in south India

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4. Saccharam robustum
This is a very robust species endemic to New guineaa and adjacent Islands in melanensis. It is
perennial growing upto 10mts. The stems are hardy, woody and pity in center with little juice. A
distinct group of S.robustum has red flesh. This species is adapted to subtropical and temperate
climates. These canes are short medium to slender in thickness. This species is tolerant to high and
low temperature saline, alkaline and water logged conditions
5. Saccharam spontaneum 2n=40-128
This is very polymorphic species found as wild from in eastern and northern Africa followed by
middle east to India, china Taiwan guinea. This is like a perennial grass with free tillering and often
hollow with aggressive rhizomes. The culms are slender hard pithy and often hollow with little juice.
S.spontaneum has imparted such desirable traits viz., tolerance to stress, diseases and pests
hardiness and ratooning ability to the present dry cultivars

6. Saccharam edule
Due to its aborted inflorescence it is of no use in sugar cane improvement programme

Merits of polyploidy in Sugarcane

 High chromosome number
 No barriers among species and related genera for transgression
 Normal meiotic behaviour in species and distinct hybrids
 Genomic buffer to function normally with addition or deletion of chromosomes
 Lack of segmented inter change within F1s due to autosyndetic pairing
 Polygenic inheritance for economically important traits
These peculiar factors make sugarcane an ideal crop for heterosis. Since being propagated clonally the
heterosis is fixed

Breeding objectives
1. Breeding for high cane yield
2. Breeding formoderate to high sucrose content & quality parameters like

 good milleability
 yield of juice
 moderate hardness of rind
 less fibre at centre
 long internodes &
 high brix value
3. Breeding for early to full season maturity
4. Breeding for resistance to diseases like red rot, smut, wilt, mosaic and grassy shoot diseases
5. Breeding for resistance to insect pests like shoot borer, cane borer, mealy bug, white fly, termites

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  Wooly aphid resistant Variety - SNK-044 (ARS Sankeshwar, UAS Dharwad)
6. Breeding for tolerance to abiotic stresses like drought, salinity, flooding and high temp
7. Breeding for tolerance to lodging
8. Breeding for increase in ratooning ability.
9. Breeding varieties for ethanol production
10. Bbreeding varieties for jaggery making
11.Bbreeding sugarcane varieties for drought and salinity

BREEDING METHODS:
1. Germplasm utilization & introduction
2. Hybridization & selection:
i) Biparental cross: A × B open pollination
↓
F1- selections are made
ii) Area crosses: several male sterile female clones are pollinated by one male parent in an isolated
area. Harvest the seeds & raise F1 seedling and practice clonal selection.
Several MS-lines × One Male
↓
Several F1’s - go for clonal selection
iii) Melting pot cross / polycross: 5-6 superior clones are grown together & allow for open
pollination under isolation. Only female parent is known & the seeds are harvested from them. These
crosses are made by bringing together arrows of large no. of superior parental class. Natural cross
pollination is allowed. This method allowed evaluation of breeding behavior of large no. clones with
minimal effort.

4. Wide hybridisation in sugarcane

The first interspecific hybrid in sugarcane in India is Co 205 (S.officinarum x S.spontaneum)
after that other spp of Saccharam viz., S.barberi, S.spontaneum and S.robustum are regularly used in
hybridization programme for biotic and abiotic stresses
Sugarcane is extensively crossed with Sorghum to develop early maturing types. Successful
hybridization has been reported with Erianthus arundinaceous.

5. Mutation breeding

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 In India, smut resistant mutants were isolated from Co 740. Some clones have been identified
for red rot resistance using both chemical and physical mutagens. The major problem in mutation
breeding is segregation in subsequent vegetative generations

Factors affecting flowering behaviour in sugarcane

 Age – older cane are likely to flower
 Leaves – trimming of old leaves favour flowering
 Photoperiod – changing short day to long day gradually under controlled condition would favour
flowering
 Temperature
 High moisture favours flowering
 High nitrogen inhibit flowering
 Flowering is more in 0 –15 north and south latitude

Varieties:

 Early varieties – CO 8336, 8337, 8338

 Commonly cultivated – CO 86032, COc 671
 Resistance to abiotic stresses – CO285, CO453, CO62125

Varieties suitable for high sugar recovery: CoC 671, Co 86032, Co 8021
Varieties for jaggery making: Co 853, CoC 671, CoG 94077
Varieties with high cane yield and sugar yield: Co Si 95071, Co 90063, Co 86249
Varieties with red rot resistance: Co 86 249, Co Si 95 071
From ARS, Sankeshwar, UASD - Co-8014, Co-86032, SNK-044 (Co 740 X CoA 7602, wooly aphid
resistant), Co 94012 (Soma clone of CoC 671, early, high sugar recovery, ratooning ability)
Sankeshwar 049 (SNK 05103), Sankeshwar 814 (SNK 05104)

Centers: Sugarcane Breeding Institute (SBI), Coimbatore

Indian Institute for Sugarcane Research (IISR), Lucknow.
National Clonal Germplasm Depository, Miami, Florida, USA.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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 POTATO: Solanum tuberosum (2n = 48)

Introduction:

• Potato is a very popular vegetable grown all over the world and important food crop of grown
more than 100 countries in world
• In India, potato has been cultivated since its introduction in early parts of 17 century.
• Potato popularly known as ‘The king of vegetables’, has emerged as fourth most important
food crop in India after rice, wheat and maize
• India is the third largest producer of Potato
• Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) are a member of the family Solanaceae
• Potatoes have long been part of the staple diet of the Irish
• The Great Famine, caused by the failure of the potato crop due to blight in the 1845 which
resulted in 1 million Irish people dying and another 1 million emigrating

Origin & Distribution:

• Thepotato is a nativeof tropical southAmerican region

• It is believed that the cultivated potato originated from its wildancestorsnear the lake Tritica
basin in Peru Bolivian region in high mountains
• The potato was introduced in India from Europe in early 17th century.
•

Flower Morphology and Biology:

 calyx:5 lobed,gamosepalous
 carolla :gamopetalous ,5 lobed
 stamens are 5,epipetalous alternate,with corolla lobes.anthers are erect longer than the filaments
with apical dehiscence
 ovary :superior, bicarpellary
 placentation : axile
 fruit :globular or oval berry with numerous small seeds .potato fruit is also called as potato ball
or potato apple or seed apple.
 Anthesis time and closing of flowers varies with varieties and species
 Cool wet weather makes flowering more while hot weather depresses flowering
 Pollen production is abundant from early morning to 10am
 Stigma receptivity and anther dehiscence are also at the same time
 Pollination takes place either by the direct method or by direct contact of the anther with the
stigma or through the insects mostly bumble bees
 Wind or gravity has no significance in the pollination
 Most of the commercial potatoes have been proved to be either pollen sterile or to possess little
pollen of low fertility
 Diploid species have abundant pollen

80
Classification of potato:

There are 3 diploid species

ž Solanum stenotomum(sexually fertile)

ž Solanum phureja(sexually fertile)
ž Solanum ajanhuiri(sexually sterile)

There are 2 cultivated triploid species

ž Solanum chaucha and

ž Solanum juzepczukii are more or less sterile

Cultivated tetraploid species

• Solanum tuberosum ssp tuberosum &

• Solanum tuberosum ssp andigena are usually fertile expect in a number of highly inbred clones of

Different species of potato are:

• Solanum demissum:2n=72(resistant tolate lblight)

• Solanum antiporizii :2n=48(resistant to late blight)
• Solanum acaula :2n=48(resistant to frost)
• Solanum curtibolium :2n =24(resistant to frost)

Potato species classification:

Solanum tuberosum Solanum andigena

1)It was originated from the 1)It was originated from the
coastal regions of south chile Andean region

2)It has thick and short stem 2)It has thin and long stem

3)Larger and wider leaflets are present 3)Small and narrow leaflets are present

4)Adapted to longer days 4)Adapted to shorter days

5)Grown in large scale 5)Not grown in large scale

6)Pedicel is thickened above 6)Pedicel is not thickened at the apex

7)Yield potential is high 7)Yield potential is low

8)Species of tuberosum has characters of 8)Species of andigena are having
early potato characters of late potato

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 1. Classification based on crop duration:
EARLY POTATO LATE POTATO
1 )Stolon length is short 1)Stolon length is long
2)Stem is hollow 2)Stem is solid
3 )Stolon number less 3) stolon number is more
4)Requires long day for tuber formation 4)Requires short day for tuber formation
5)Foliage is broader 5)Foliage is narrower
6)Tuber colour is white Varieties include kufri 6)Tuber is coloured Varieties include kufri
chandramukhi,satha,Gola kisan and kufri safed
2. Genetics of characters
Character Number of genes Type of gene action
1)skin colour Digenic Complementary d-r-red
D- rr-white
Dd r white
Dd rr white
2)position of eye Monogenic Flat eye is incompletely dominant to
deep eye
3)flesh colour Monogenic Colour is incompletely dominant to
white
4)stolon Monogenic Long stolon is dominant to short stolon
5)tuber axis - Long tuber axis dominant

Breeding objectives
1. Breeding for high yield
Yield of tubers decided by number of tubers, tuber size and distribution of tuber.
2. Breeding for varieties having better morphology of tuber
Better morphology of tuber is determined by
 Eye depth
 flesh colour
 Growth cracks
 Hollow heart
 Shape
 Skin colour
3. Breeding for better quality
Depends on many factors
 After cooking blackening
 Dry matter.
 Enzyme browning.

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  Glyco-alkaloid level
 reducing sugar content
 storage properties

4. Breeding for disease resistance

 Early blight
 late blight
 powdery scab
 verticillium wilt
 virus diseases
Resistant source
S.demissum,
S.acaule ssp. andigena

Breeding Methods:

1. Introduction:
Earlier varieties 1) Criags defence 2) Magnum bonum 3)Up-to-date

Secondaryy introductions–hybrid DN-45 (Katahdin×president)

Kufri kisan is a multiple cross involving ekishrozn from japan

2. Hybridization and selection:

Kufri kundan-selection from ekishrazan×katahn
Kufri jyothi –selection from a-3069×a-2814
3. Clonal propagation;
Useful in case of inter-specific crosses where low fertility is often seen in the progenies. Further fixing
of heterosis is easy. The disadvantage is keeping the stocks free from disease. But by following invitro
propagation this can be over come.
4. Controlled pollination:
In potato it is some what easy because the anthers do not dehisce before or soon after flower opening.
The pollen is not easily distributed by wind. If we raise crossing block in insect proof screen house use
of selfing and crossing covers not needed. Only difficulty is crossing in percentage of seed set.
Crossing is to be done at 220C. Pollen and ovule sterility occur.
5. Population breeding
This is followed to improve the base population.
6. True potato seed (TPS)

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Propagation thro' use of seed - practiced in China. By this method virus diseasescan be avoided.
7. Production of diploids and monohaploids
Originally diploid was produced by crossing tuberosum with diploid s.phurejaand allowing for
parthenogenesis. But now by anther culture it is easily produced.
6. Mutation breeding
To change the skin colour it is extensively used.

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 Plant Genetic resources:
The sum total of genes in a crop species is referred to as genetic resources.
or
Gene pool refers to a whole library of different alleles of a species
or
Germplasm may be defined as the sum total of hereditary material i.e., all the alleles of various
genes present in a crop species and its wild relatives.
Also known as gene pool or genetic stock or germplasm or genetic resources.
Germplasm or gene pool is the basic material with which a plant breeder has to initiate his
breedingprogramme.
Important features of plant genetic resources are:
1. Gene pool represents the entire genetic variability or diversity available in a crop species.
2. Germplasm consists of land races, modern cultivars, obsolete cultivars, breeding stocks, wild
forms and wild species of cultivated crops.
3. Germplasm includes both cultivated and wild species and relatives of crop plants.
4. Germplasm is collected from the centres of diversity, gene banks, gene sanctuaries,farmers
fields, markets and seed companies.
5. Germplasm is the basic material for launching a crop improvement programme.
6. Germplasm may be indigenous (collected within country) or exotic (collected from
foreigncountries)

Kinds ofGermplasm
The germplasm consists of various plant materials of a crop such as:
(1) landraces (4) advanced (homozygous), breeding materials,
(2) obsoletecultivars (5) wild forms of cultivatedspecies
(3) moderncultivars (6) wildrelatives
(7) Mutants

These are briefly discussed below:

1. Landraces
These are nothing but primitive cultivars which were selected and cultivated by thefarmers for many
generations without systematic plant breeding efforts.
- Land races were not deliberately bred like modern cultivars. They evolved under
subsistenceagriculture.
- Land races have high level of genetic diversity which provides them high degree of resistance to
biotic and abiotic stresses.
- Land races have broad genetic base which again provides them wider adoptability.
- The main drawbacks of land races are that they are less uniform and low yielders.
- Land races were first collected and studied by N.I. Vavilor in rice.

85
2. ObsoleteCultivars
These are the varieties developed by systematic breeding effort which were popular earlier and
now have been replaced by new varieties. Improved varieties of recent past are known as
obsoletecultivars.
- Obsolete varieties have several desirable characters they constitute an important part of gene
pool. Example : Wheat varieties K65, K68, pb 591 were most popular traditional tall varieties
before introduction of high yielding dwarf Mexican wheat varieties. Now these varieties are no
more cultivated. They are good genetic resources and have been widely used in wheat breeding
programmes for improvement of grain quality. Now such old varietiesare found in the
genepoolonly.
3. Moderncultivars
The currently cultivated high yielding varieties are referred to as modern cultivars. They are also
known as improved cultivars or advanced cultivars.
- These varieties have high yield potential and uniformity as compared to obsolete varieties
landraces.
- Theyconstituteamajorpartofworkingcollectionsandareextensivelyusedas
parents in the breeding programmes.

- As these are good sources of genes for yield and quality, can be introduced in a new area and
directly released.
- However, these have narrow genetic base and low adoptability as compared to landraces
4. Advanced breedinglines
These are pre -released plants which have been developed by plant breeders in modern scientific
breeding programmes. These are known as advanced lines, cultures and stocks. This group
includes, nearly homozygous lines, lines derived from biotechnology programmes
i.e. transgenic plants and mutant lines etc. These lines which are not yet ready for release to farmers.
They often contain valuable gene combinations.
5. Wild forms of cultivated species
Wild forms of cultivated species are available in many crop plants. Such plants have generally high
degree of resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses and are utilized in breeding programmes. They can
easily cross with cultivated species. Wild forms of many crop species are extinct.
6. Wild Relatives
Those naturally occurring plant species which have common ancestry with crops and can cross with
crop species are referred to as wild relatives or wild species. Wild relatives include all other species,
which are related to the crop species by descent during their evolution. Both these groups are
sources of valuable genes for biotic and abiotic stress and for quality traits andyield.
7. Mutants
Mutation breeding is used when the desired character is not found in the genetic stocks of cultivated
species and their wild relatives. Mutations do occur in nature as well as can be induced through the
use of physical and chemical mutagens. The extra variability which is created through induced
mutations constitutes important components of genepool. Mutant for various characters sometimes
may not be released as a variety, but they are added in the genepool. The germplasm includes those
carrying gene mutations, chromosomal aberrations and markers genes etc. are considered special
genetic stocks. They are useful in breeding programmes.

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 The gene pool system of classification
The pool of a crop includes all cultivars, wild species and wild relatives containing all the genes
available for breeding use.
Based on degree of relationship, the gene pool of crops can be divided into three groups (Harland and
Dewet, 1971) , viz.,
1. Primary genepool
2. Secondary Genepool
3. Tertiary genepool
These are briefly discussed below:
1. Primary gene pool (GP1):This is also known as gene pool one (GP1). The gene pool in
which intermating is easy and leads to production offertile hybrids isknown asprimary gene pool. It
includes plants of the same species or of closely related species which produce completely fertile
offspring on intermating. In such gene pool, genes can be exchanged between lines simply by making
normal crosses. This is the material of prime breeding importance.
2. Secondary gene pool (GP2) : This type of gene pool is also known as gene pool two
(GP2) . The genetic material that leads topartial fertility oncrossing with GP1 isreferred to as secondary
gene pool. It includes plants that belong to related species. Such material can be crossed with
primary gene pool, but usually the hybrids are sterile and some of the progeny to some extent are
fertile. Transfer of gene from such material to primary gene pool is possible but d i f f i c u l t .
Tertiary gene pool (GP3) : The genetic material which leads to production of sterile hybrids on
crossing with primary gene pool is termed as tertiary gene pool or gene pool three (GP3). It includes
material which can be crossed with GP1, but the hybrids are sterile. Transfer of genes from such
material to primary gene pool is possible with the help of specialtechniques.
Types of seedcollections
Based on the use and duration of conservation, seed collections are of three types
1. Basecollections
2. Activecollections
3. Workingcollections

1. Base collections: It is also known as principal collection. These consist of all

theaccessions present in the germplasm of a crop. They are stored atabout
0 0
-18 C or -20 C with 5+ 1% moisture content; they are disturbed only for regeneration.
When the germination of an accession falls below, usually, 95% of its germination at the start of
storage, the accession is regenerated. For reasons of safety, duplicates of base collections should be
conserved in other germplasm banks as well. High quality orthodox seeds can maintain good
viability upto 100 years.

2. Active collections: The accessions in an active collection are stored at temperaturesbelow

15 C (often near 00C), and the seed moisture is kept at 5%. The storage is for medium duration, i.e.,
0
10-15 years. These collections are actively utilized inbreeding
Programme. These collections are used for evaluation, multiplication and distribution of the
accessions. They are usually maintained by multiplying the seeds of their own accessions. But from

87
time to time, base collection material should be used for regeneration of these collections.
Germination test is carried out after every 5-10 years to assess the reduction in seed viability.
3. Working collections : The accessions being actively used in crop improvement
programmes constitute working collection. Their seeds are stored for 3-5 years at less than 150C
and they usually contain about 10% moisture. These collections are maintained by the breeders
using them.
Core collection
The concept of core collection was proposed by Franked it refers to a subset of base collection
which represents the large collection. Or a limited set of accessions derived from an existing
germplasm collections.

Germplasm activities
There are six important activities related to plant genetic resources.
1. Explorationandcollection 4.Documentation
2. Conservation 5. Multiplication andDistribution
3. Evaluation 6.Utilization
Exploration
Exploration refers to collection trips and collection refer to tapping of genetic diversity from
various sources and assembling the same at one place.
The exploration and collection is a highly scientific process. This process takes into account six
important items, viz, (1) sources of collection, (2) priority of collection, (3) agencies of collection,
(4) methods of collection, (5) methods of sampling and (6) sample size.
Merits and Demerits
There are several merits and demerits of exploration and collection of germplasm, some of which
are as discussed b e l o w :
Merits
1. Collectionhelpsintappingcropgeneticdiversityandassemblingthesameatoneplace.
2. It reduces the loss of genetic diversity due to genetic erosion.
3. Sometimes, we get material of special interest during explorationtrips.
4. Collection also helps in saving certain genotypes from extinction.
Demerits

1. Collection of germplasm especially from other countries, sometimes leads to entry of

new diseases, new insects and new weeds.
2. Collection is a tediousjob.
3. Collector, sometimes has encounter with wild animals like elephants, tigers etc.
4. Transportation of huge collections also poses difficulties in the exploration and
collection.

88
2. Germplasmconservation
Conservation refers to protection of genetic diversity of crop plants from genetic erosion.
There are two important methods of germplasm conservation or preservation. or
Germplasm conservation refers to maintain the collected germplasm in such a state that there is
minimum risk for its loss and that either it can be planted directly in the field or it can be prepare for
planting with relative ease whenever necessary.
There are two important methods of germplasm conservation or preservation viz.,
1. Insituconservation
2. 2. Ex situconservation

1. In situconservation
Conservation of germplasm under natural habitat is referred to as in situ conservation. This is
achieved by protecting this area from human interference: such an area is often called as natural park,
biosphere reserve or gene sanctuary. A gene sanctuary is best located within the centre of origin of
crop species concerned, preferably covering the microcenter with in the centre of origin. NBPGR,
New Delhi is making attempts to establish gene sanctuaries in Meghalaya for Citrus and in the
North-Eastern region for Musa, Citrus, Oryza, Saccharum andMegifera.
This method of preservation has following main disadvantages
1) Each protected area will cover only very small portion of total diversity of a crop species, hence
several areas will have to be conserved for a single species.
2) The management of such areas also poses several problems.
3) This is a costly method of germplasm conservation

Merits: Gene sanctuaries offer the following two advantages.

1. A gene sanctuary not only conserves the existing genetic diversity present in the population, it
also allows evolution to continue. As a result, new alleles and new gene combinations would appear
with time.
2. The risks associated with ex situ conservation are not operative.
2. Ex situconservation
Conservation of germplasm away from its natural habitat is called ex situ germplasm conservation.
This method has following three advantages.

1) Itispossibletopreserveentiregeneticdiversityofacropspeciesatoneplace.
2) Handling of germplasm is also easy
3) This is a cheap method of germplasm conservation
Preservation in the form of seed is the most common and easy method, relatively safe, requires
minimum space and easy to maintain. Glass, tin or plastic containers are used for preservation and
storage of seeds. The seed can be conserved under long term, medium term and short term storage
conditions.
Roberts in 1973 classified seeds on the basis of their storability, into two major groups.viz.,
1.Orthodoxseeds 2. Recalcitrantseeds

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 1. Orthodox Seeds : Seeds of this type can be dried to low moisture content of 5% and
stored at a low temperature without losing their viability are known as orthodox seeds. Most crop
seeds belong to this category. Such seeds can be easily stored for long periods; their longevity
increases in response to lower humidity and storage temperature. Eg. Wheat, Rice, Corn, Chickpea,
Cotton,Sunflower
2. Recalcitrant seeds: The viability of this group of seeds drops drastically if their moisture
content is reduced below 12-30%. Seeds of many forest and fruit trees and of several tropically
crops like Citrus, cocoa, coffee, rubber, oil palm, mango, jackfruit, etc. belong to this group. Such
seeds present considerable difficulties in storage. They require in situconservation.
3. Evaluation
Evaluation refers to screening of germplasm in respect of morphological, genetical, economic,
biochemical, physiological, pathological and entomological attributes.
Evaluation requires a team of specialists from the disciplines of plant breeding, physiology,
biochemistry, pathology and entomology. First of all a list of descriptors (characters) for which
evaluation has to be done is prepared. This task is completed by a team of experts from IPGRI,
Rome, Italy. The descriptors are ready for various crops. The evaluation of germplasm is down in
three different places, viz., (1) in the field, (2) in green house, and (3) in the laboratory.

4. Documentation
It refers to compilation, analysis, classification storage and dissemination of information. In plant
genetic resources, documentation means dissemination of information about various activities such as
collection, evaluation, conservation, storage and retrieval of data. Now the termdocumentation is
more appropriately known as information system. Documentation is one of the important activities of
genetic resources. Large number of accessions is available in maize, rice, wheat, sorghum, potato and
other major crops. About 7.3 million germplasm accessions are available in 200 crops species.
Handling of such huge germplasm information is only possible through electronic computers.
5. Distribution
The specific germplasm lines are supplied to the users on demand for utilization in the crop
improvementprogrammes.
1. Distribution of germplasm is the responsibility of the gene bank centres
2. The germplasm is usually supplied to the workers who are engaged in research work of a
particular cropspecies.
3. Supplied free of cost to avoid cumbersome work of book keeping.
4. The quantity of seed samples depends on the availability of seed material and demands
5. Proper records are maintained about the distribution of material.
6. It helps in acclimatization and purification of the material.

6. Utilization
It refers to use of germplasm in crop improvement programmes. The germplasm can be utilized in
various ways. The uses of cultivated and wild species of germplasm are briefly discussedbelow:

90
a) CultivatedGermplasm
It can be used in three main ways: (1) as a variety, (2) as a parent in the hybridization, and (3) as a
variant in the gene pool.
b) Wild Germplasm
It is used to transfer resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, wider adaptability and sometimes
quality such as fibre strength in cotton.
Organizations associated with germplasm
IPGRI – International Plant Genetic Resources Institute
NBPGR – National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources

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 CENTRES OF DIVERSITY AND GENE BANK

Gene Sanctuaries: The genetic diversity is sometimes conserved under natural habitat. The areas of
great genetic diversity are protected from human interference. These protected areas in natural
habitatare referred to as gene sanctuaries. Gene sanctuary is also known as natural park or biosphere
reserve. Gene sanctuary is generally established in the centre of diversity or microcenter. India has
setup its first gene sanctuary in the Garo Hills of Assam for wild relatives of citrus. Efforts are also
being made to setup gene sanctuaries for Banana, Sugarcane, Rice and Mango. In Ethiopia gene
sanctuary for conservation of wild relatives of coffee was setup in 1984.
Gene sanctuaries have two main advantages.
1. It protects theloss ofgenetic diversity caused byhumanintervention.
2. It allows natural selection and evolution to o p er a te .
3. The risks associated with ex situ conservation are not operative There are
two main drawbacks of gene sanctuary.
1. Entire variability of a crop species cannot be c o n se r ve d .
2. Its maintenance and establishment is a difficult task.
3. It is a very good method of in situ conservation.
Genetic Erosion
Genetic erosion refers to loss of genetic diversity between and within populations of the same
species over a period of time.
or
Gradual reduction in genetic diversity in the populations of a species, due to elimination of various
genotypes, is called genetic erosion.
Thus genetic erosion leads to reduction of the genetic base of a species due to human
intervension and environmental changes.
There are five main reasons of genetic erosion
1. Replacementoflandraceswithimprovedcultivars:Themainfeaturesofmodern
cultivars are high yield, uniformity, narrow genetic base and narrow adaptability. On the other hand
land races and primitive cultivars have more genetic diversity, broad genetic base, wider
adaptability and low yield potential. Thus replacement of land races with modern cultivars has
resulted in reduction in genetic diversity because land races are disappearing.
2. Modernization of agriculture : Clean and modern agriculture , Improved crop management
practices has resulted in the elimination of wild and weedy forms of many crops. These weedy
forms enhance the genetic diversity through introgression of genes from crop to weedy forms and
weedy forms to crop plants.
3. Extension of farming into wild habitats : It has resulted in destruction of wild relatives of
various crops resulting in reduction of their geneticdiversity.

4. Grazing into wild habitats : Grazing of animals in the wild habitat also reduces genetic diversity
by destroying the wild and weedy forms of crop plants.

92
5. Developmental activities like Hydroelectric projects, growth of towns, cities, roads, air ports and
industrial areas also lead to genetic erosion of crop plants, because vast areas are cleaned for
suchactivities.
Extinction
Extinction refers to permanent loss of a crop species due to various reasons.
Introgression
Transfer of few genes from one species into the full diploid chromosome complement of another
species.
Gene banks
Gene bank refers to a place or organization where germplasm can be conserved in living state. Gene
banks are also known as germplasm banks. The germplasm is stored in the form of seeds, pollen or
in vitro cultures, or in the case of a field gene banks, as plants growing in the field. Gene banks are
mainly of two types, viz.,
1. Seed genebanks
2. Plant or field genebanks
3. Meristem genebanks
4. Cell and organ gene banks and
5. DNA genebanks
These are briefly discussed below :
1. Seed gene banks:
A place where germplasm is conserved in the form of seeds is called seed gene banks. Seeds are
very convenient for storage because they occupy smaller space than whole plants. However, seeds
of all crops can not be stored at low temperature in the seed banks. The germplasm of only orthodox
species (whose seed can be dried to low moisture content without losing variability) can be
conserved in the seed banks. In the seed banks, there are three types of conservation, viz., (1) short
term, (2) medium term, and (3) long term. Base collections are conserved for long term (50 years or
more) at – 18 or – 200C. Active collections are stores for medium term (10-15 years) at zero
degree Celsius and working collection are stored for short term (3-5 years)at5-100C.
Themainadvantagesofgenebanksareasfollows.
1) Large number of germplasm samples or entire variability can be conserved in a very smallspace.
2) In seed banks, handling of germplasm is easy
3) Germplasm is conserved under pathogen and insect free environment
There are some disadvantages of germplasm conservation in the seed banks.
1) Seed of recalcitrant species can not be stored in seed banks
2) Failureofpowersupplymayleadtolossofviabilityandtherebylossofgermplasm
3) It requires periodical evaluation of seed viability. After some time multiplication is essential to
get new or fresh seeds for storage.

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2. Field Genebanks
Field gene banks also called plant gene banks are areas of land in which germplasm collections of
growing plants are assembled. This is also ex situ conservation of germplasm. Those plant species
that have recalcitrant seeds or do not produce seeds readily are conserved in Field gene banks. In
field gene banks, germplasm is maintained in the form of plants as a permanent living collection.
Field gene banks are often established to maintain working collections of living plants for
experimental purposes. Field gene banks have been established in many countries for different
crops.

Field gene banks in some countries

Nameofcountry Crop species for which field gene bank is established

Malaysia Oil palm has been conserved on 500 hectares

Indonesia
Earmarked1000hectareareaforcoconutandotherperennialcropsPhilippi
nes South East Asia germplasm of banana has been conserved
India Global collection of coconut has been conserved in Andman &Nicobar

Field gene banks have some advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages
1. It provides opportunities for continuous evaluation for various economic characters.
2. It can be directly utilized in the breeding programme
Disadvantages
1. Field gene banks can not cover the entire genetic diversity of a species. It can cover only
a
fraction of the full range of diversity of a species.
2. The germplasm in field gene banks is exposed to pathogens and insects and sometimes is
damaged by natural disasters such as bushfires, cyclones, floods, e t c .
3. Maintenance of germplasm in the field gene banks is costly affair
Meristem gene banks
Germplasm of asexually propagated species can be conserved in the form of meristems. This
method is widely used for conservation and propagation of horticultural species. In vitro method can
be used in two ways. First for storage of tissues under slow growth conditions. Second, for long
term conservation of germplasm by cryopreservation. In cryopreservation, the tissues are stored at a
very low temperature i.e. at -1960C in liquid nitrogen. At this temperature, all biological processes

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virtually come to a stop.
Shoot Tip Gene Banks
In such gene banks, germplasm is conserved as slow growth cultures of shoot-tips and nodal
segments. Their regeneration consists of sub-culturing the cultures, which may be done every 6
months to 3 years. The chief merits for the conservation of germplasm of vegetatively propagated
crops and treespecies.
1. Genotypes of the accessions can be conserved indefin itely free from diseases and pests.
2. They can be used for such crops, which either do intoproduce seeds or produce recalcitrantseeds.
3. Subculture becomes necessary only after relatively long periods (every 6-36 months).
4. Regeneration i.e., subculturing, requires a comparatively very short time.
In addition, cuttings, bulbs and tubers can be maintained under controlled humidity and temperature
conditions; however, this approach is practical for the short and medium term storage, and it
should be used in conjunction with a field gene bank.
Cell and Organ Gene Banks
A germplasm collection based on cryopreserved (at -1960C in liquid nitrogen) embryogenic cell
cultures, shoot-tips and or somatic/zygotic embryos may be called cell and organ bank. The
techniques for cryopreservation of plant cells and tissues are being rapidly refined, and some such
banks have been established, e.g., for potato in Germany.
DNA Gene Banks
In these banks, DNA segments from the genomes of germplasm accessions are maintained as
cosmid clones, phage lysates or pure DNA (the last one being for relatively short periods). These
DNA segments can be evaluated and the desired ones may be used to produce transgenic plants.
This approach is applicable to the conservation of genetic materials of already extinct species since
DNA extracted from well preserved herbarium specimens can often be cloned. However, it is very
expensive and highly sophisticated. A world -wide network of DNA banks for threatened /
endangered species has been established.

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 IDEOTYPE BREEDING

Crop ideotype refers to model plants or ideal plant type for a specific environment. In broad sense an
ideotype is a biological model which is expected to perform or behave in a predictable manner
within a defined environment. More specifically, crop ideotype is a plant model which is expected to
yield greater quantity of grains, fibre, oil or other useful product when developed as a cultivar.
The term ideotype was first proposed by Donald in 1968 working onwheat.

Ideotype Breeding
Ideotype breeding can be defined as a method of crop improvement which is use to enhance
genetic yield potential through genetic manipulation of individual plant character.
Main features of ideotype breeding are
1. Emphasis on individualtrait
In ideotype breeding, emphasis is given on individual morphological and physiological trait which
enhances the yield. The value of each character is specified before initiating the breedingwork.
2. Includes yield enhancingtraits
Various plant characters to be included in the ideotype are identified through correlations analysis.
Only those characters which exhibit positive association with yield are included in the model.
3. Exploits physiologicalvariation
Genetic differences exist for vario us physiological characters such as photosynthetic efficiency,
photo respiration, nutrient uptake, etc. Ideotype breeding makes use of genetically controlled
physiological variation in increasing crop yields, besides various agronomic traits.
4. Slowprogress
Ideotype breeding is a slow method of cultivar development, because incorporation of various
desirable characters from different sources into a single genotype takes long time. Moreover,
sometimes undesirable linkage affects the progress adversely.
5. Selection
In ideotype breeding selection is focused on individual plant character which enhance the
yield

6. Designing ofmodel
In ideotype breeding, the phenotype of new variety to be developed is specified in terms of
morphological and physiological traits in advance.

7. Interdisciplinary approach
Ideotype breeding is in true sense an interdisciplinary approach, it involves scientist from the
disciplines of genetics, breeding, physiology, pathology, entomology etc.
8. A continuousprocess
Ideotype breeding is a continuous process, because new ideotypes have to be developed to
meet changing and increasing demands.

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Differences between traditional and ideotype breeding

S. Traditional Breeding Ideotype Breeding

No.
1. The main objective is defined before The conceptual theoretical model is prepared
initiating the breeding work. before initiation of breeding work

2. Selection is focused on yield and some Selection is focused on individual

othercharacters. plant characters.

3. It usually includes various It includes various morphological,

morphological and economic characters. physiological and biochemical plant characters

4. Value of each character is not fixed in Value of each trait is defined in advance.
advance

5. This is a simple and rapid method of This is a difficult and slow method of cultivar
cultivardevelopment development.

6. The phenotypic of a new variety is not Phenotype of new variety to be developed is

specified in advance specified in advance.

Features of cropideotypes
The crop ideotype consists of several morphological and physiological traits which contribute for
enhanced yield or higher yield than currently prevalent crop cultivars. The morphological and
physiological features of crop ideotype differ from crop to crop andsometimes within the crop also
depending upon whether the ideotype is required for irrigated cultivation or rainfed cultivation.
Ideal plant types or model plants have been discussed in several crops like wheat, rice, maize,
barley, cotton and beans. The important features of ideotype from some cropsare
Wheat
The term ideotype was coined by Donald in 1968 working on wheat. He proposed ideotype of
wheat with following main features:
1. A short strong stem. It imparts lodging resistance and reduces the losses due to lodging.
2. Erect leaves. Such leaves provide better arrangement for proper light distributionresulting in
high photosynthesis or CO2 fixation.
3. Few small leaves. Leaves are the important sites of photosynthesis, respiration and
transpiration. Few and small leaves reduce water loss due to transpiration.
4. Larger ear. It will produce more grains per ear.
5. An erect ear. It will get light from all sides resulting in proper grain development.
6. Presence of awns. Awns contribute towards p h o t o s y n t h e s i s .
7. A singleculm.

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RICE
The concept of plant type was introduced in rice breeding by Jennings in 1964; through the term
ideotype was coined by Donald in1968. He suggested that inrice anideal ormodel plant type consists of

1. Semi dwarfstature
2. High tillering capacityand
3. Short, erect, thick and highly angled leaves
4. More panicles/m2,
5. High (55% or e more) harvest index.
Now emphasis is also given on physiological traits in the development of rice ideotype.

MAIZE

IN 1975, Mock and Pearce proposed ideal plant type of maize.

1. Stiff-vertically-oriented leaves above the ear.
2. Maximum photosyntheticefficiency.
3. Efficient translocation of photosynthate intograin.
4. Short interval between pollen shed and silk emergence .
5. Small tasselsize.
6. Photoperiodinsensitivity
7. Coldtolerance
8. Long Grain -fillingperiod
BARLEY
Rasmusson (1987) reviewed the work on ideotype breeding and also suggested ideal plant type of
six rowedbarley.

1. Shortstature
2. Longawns
3. High harvestindex
4. Highbiomass.
Kernel weight and kernel number were found rewarding in increasing yield.

COTTON

Ideotype for irrigated cultivation

1. Short stature (90-120cm)
2. Compact and sympodial plant habit making pyramidal shape
3. Determinate in fruiting habit with unimodal distribution of bolling
4. Short duration (150-165 days)
5. Responsive to high fertilizerdose
6. High degree of inter plant competitive ability
7. High degree of resistance to insect pests and diseases,and
8. High physiologicalefficiency.

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Rainfed conditions (Singh and Narayanan 1993)
1. Earliness (150-165days)
2. Fewer small and thickleaves
3. Compact and short stature, indeterminate habit
4. Sparsehairiness,
5. Medium to big boll size
6. Synchronousbolling
7. High response tonutrients
8. Resistance to insects and diseases.

FACTORS AFFECTING IDEOTYPES

There are several factors which affect development of ideal plant type. These are briefly discussed
below:
1. CropSpecies
Ideotype differs from crop to crop. The ideotype of monocots significantly differs from those of
dicots. In monocots, tillering is more important whereas in dicots branching is one of the important
features of ideotype.
2. Cultivation

The ideotype also differs with regard to crop cultivation. The features of irrigated crops differ from
that of rainfed crop. The rainfed crop needs drought resistance, fewer and smaller leaves to reduce
water loss through transpiration. In dicots, indeterminate types are required for rainfed conditions,
because indeterminate type can produce another flush of flowers if the first flush in affected by
drought conditions.
3. Socio -economic Condition ofFarmers
Socio-economic condition of farmers also determines crop ideotype. For example, dwarf Sorghum is
ideal for mechanical harvesting in USA, but it is not suitable for the farmers of Africa where the
stalks are used for fuelor hut constructions.
4. EconomicUse
The ideotype also differ according to the economic use of the crop, for example, dwarf types are
useful in Sorghum and pearl millet when the crop is grown for grain purpose. But when these crops
are grown for fodder purpose, tall stature is desirable one. Moreover, less leafy types are desirable for
grain purpose and more leafy genotypes for fodder purpose. The larger leaves are also desirable in
case of foddercrop.

STEPS IN IDEOTYPE BREEDING

Ideotype breeding consists of four important steps,
1. Development of ConceptualModel
The values of various morphological and physiological traits are specified to develop a conceptual
theoretical model. For example, values for plant height, maturity duration, leaf size, leaf number,
angle of leaf, photosynthetic rate etc., are specified. Then efforts are made to achieve thismodel.

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2. Selection of Base Material
Selection of base material is an important step after development of conceptual model of ideotype.
Genotypes to be used in devising a model plant type should have broad genetic base and wider
adaptability. Genotypes for plant stature, maturity duration, leaf size and angle and resistance are
selected from the global gene pool of the concerned crop species. Genotypes resistant or tolerant to
drought, soil salinity, alkalinity, diseases and insects are selected from the gene pool with the
cooperation of physiologist, soil scientist, pathologist and entomologist.

3. Incorporation of Desirable Traits

The next important step in combining of various morphological and physiological traits from
different selected genotypes into single genotype. Various breeding procedures, viz single cross,
three way cross, multiple cross, backcross, composite crossing, intermating, mutation
breeding, heterosis breeding etc., are used for the development of ideal plant types in majority of
field crops.

4. Selection of Ideal Plant Type

Plants combining desirable morphological and physiological traits are selected in segregating
populations and intermated to achieve the desired plant type. Morphological features are judged
through visual observations and physiological parameters are recorded with the help of
sophisticated instruments. Screening for resistance to drought, soil salinity, alkalinity, disease and
insects isdone under controlled conditions.

PRACTICAL ACHIEVEMENTS
Ideotype breeding has significantly contributed to enhanced yields in cereals (wheat and rice) and
millets (Sorghum and pearl millet) through the use of dwarfing genes, resulting in green revolution.
Semidwarf varieties of wheat and rice are highly responsive to water use and nitrogen application
and have wide adaptation. The Norin 10 in wheat and Dee-geo-Woo-gen in rice are the sources of
dwarfing genes. The genic cytoplasmic male sterile systems in Sorghum and pearl millet laid the
foundation of green revolution in Asia (Swaminathan, 1972). Thus ideotype breedinghas been more
successful for yield improvement in cereals and millets than in othercrops.

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 Breeding for biotic stress resistance disease resistance:

Stress: Constraining influence, force, pressure or adverse conditions for crop growth caused by
biological or environmental factors.
Biotic (living): Adverse effects due to pests and diseases abiotic stresses Abiotic
(non living): Adverse effects on host due to environmental factors eg: Drought,
water logging, heat, cold, salinity, alkalinity and air pollution etc.
Host: Plant effected by a disease or which can accommodate pathogen.
Pathogen: An organism that produces the disease
Disease: an abnormal conditions in the plant caused by an organism (pathogen)
Pathogen city: The ability of a pathogen to infect a host strain
Virulence: Capacity of a pathogen to incite a disease
Virulence: The inability of a pathogen to cause or incite a disease
Physiological race: Strains of a single pathogen species with identical orsimilar morphology but
differ in pathogeniccapabilities.

Pathotype: Strains of a pathogen classified on the basis of their virulence to known resistance
genes present in the host.
Epidemic: Severe and sudden outbreak of disease beginning from a low level of infection.

Variability in fungal pathogens:

a) Hybridization: Recombination of genes of the two parental nuclei takes place in the
zygote, and the haploid nuclei or gametes resulting after meiosis are different both from
gametesthatproducedthezygoteandfromeachother.
Thus every diploid pathogen individual is genetically different from any other pathogen even within
the same species and variability of the new individual pathogens is continued indefinitely.
e.g., Phytophthora infestans.
b) Heterokaryosis: Condition in which fungal hyphae that are genetically different come
together in the same cell to form heterokaryons.
c) Parasexualism : Parasexuality – re-assortment of genetic material both in haploid and
diploid condition, ready for natural and artificialselection.
Mixtures of races grown together on a susceptible host combine genetically to produce new races
e.g. phytophthora infestans
d) Mutation: The rate at which new variants of a pathogen are produced will depend on the
mutation rate of the genes at a particular locus. The mutation rate varies from gene to gene and
from pathogen topathogen.
e.g. Melampsora lini – new race produced with UV rays (Flor1956)

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e) Cytoplasmic adaptation: There are several examples of cytoplasmic inheritance of
important characteristics such as growth rate and virulence (Jinks 1966).
Virulence of P.graminis f. sp. Avenae, carrying gene E, is maternally inherited and may be
controlled by single plasma gene (Johnson et al1967)

Mechanisms of disease resistance:

There are different ways of disease resistance viz., disease escape, disease endurance or tolerance
disease resistance and immunity
1. Disease escape : The ability of susceptible host plants to avoid attack of disease due to
environmental conditions factors, early varieties, charge in the date of plating, change in the site of
planting; balanced application of NPK etc.
Eg. Early varietie s of groundnut and potato may escape ‘Tikka’ and ‘Late blight’ diseases
respectively since they mature before the disease epidemic occurs.
Changing planting season in sugarcane from June to October has successfully escaped leaf-rust.

Virus free seed potato is produced by sowing the crop in October in Jullundher and other places
instead of November, the normal planting time.
2. Disease endurance or tolerance : The ability of the plants to tolerate the invasion of the
pathogen without showing much damage. This endurance is brought about by theinfluence of
external characters. Generally, tolerance is difficult to measure since it is confounded with partial
resistance and disease escape. To estimate tolerance the loss in yield and some other trait of several
host varieties having the same amount of disease eg., leaf area covered by disease etc., is compared.
Eg. In Barley the variety Proctor shows 13% yield loss as compared to 20% loss in the varieties
Zephy and Sultan.
 Wheat varieties when fertilized with potash and phosphorus are more tolerant to
the rust and mildew infection.
 TheRicecropfertilizedwithsilicateisresistanttoblastinfectioninJapan.
3. Disease Resistance : The ability of plants to withstand, oppose or overcome the attack of
pathogens. Resistance is a relative term and it generally refers to any retardation in the development
of the attacking pathogen. In case of resistance, disease symptoms to develop and the rate of
reproduction is never zero i.e., r? o but it is sufficiently lower than 1 (the rate of reproduction on
the susceptible variety) to be useful. The inhibition of growth of the pathogen is believed to be
nutrional in nature and in some cases chemical growth inhibitors may beinvolved.
Resista nce is largely controlled by inherited characters i) may be controlled by single dominant gene
in Ottawa 770 B, Newland flax variety, wheat all rusts NP 809
4. Immunity: When the host does not show the symptoms of disease it is known as immune
reaction. Immunity may result from prevention of the pathogen to reach the appropriate parts of the
host e.g. exclusion of spores of ovary infecting fungi by closed flowering habit of wheat and
barley. It is more generally produced by hypersensitive reaction of the host usually immediately
after the infection was occurred. In immune reaction the rate of reproduction in zero i.e. r = 0
5. Hypersensitivity: Immediately after the infection several host cells surrounding the
point of infection are so sensitive that they will die. This leads to the death of the pathogen
because the rust mycelium cannot grow through the dead cells. This super sensitivity
(hypersensitivity) behaves as a resistant response for all practical purposes. Phytoalexins are
specific polyphenolic or terpenoid chemicals and are produced by thehost in response to the infe

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 ction by a pathogen. More than 30 different phytoalexins have been identified. Phytoalexins are
either fungicidal or fungistatic. Eg. Rust fungi and virus attack.

Factors for disease resistance (Causes of Disease resistance)

The disease resistance may be caused due to
1. Morphological, structural and functional characteristics which prevents the entrance of the
pathogen i.e. Prevents the first stage ofinfection.
2. Biochemical or anatomic al properties of tissue which prevent the establishment of
parasiticrelationship.
a. Morphologicalcharacters
Certain morphological features of the host may prevent infection.
Eg. Resistance to Jassid attack in cotton has been shown to be correlated with the hariness of
varieties : hairy type resists the attack more, than glabrous types.
Failure to germinate rust spores on the leaves of the barley due to waxy coating.
Young sugarbeet leaves practically immune to attack of the circos pora because thestomata size is
verysmall.
b. Physiologicalcharacters
Protoplasmic factors or chemical interactions:
By virtues of its chemical composition the protoplasm may exert an inhibitory influence
onthepathogenbringingaboutthedesiredresistanceintheplant.
Eg. : Resistance of grape to powdery mildew is highly correlated with the acidity of cell sap.
Presence of toxic substance in the red pigment in the coloured onions. The outer scales resist the
smudge fungus attack when the scales are removed they become susceptible.

c. Anatomical: More secondary thickening of the cell walls of resistant potato varieties which
resists the mechanical puncture of the invading Pythium pathogen.
d. Nutritional factors: Reduction in growth and in spore production is generally supposed to be
due to unfavourable physiological conditions within the host. Most likely a resistant host does not
fulfill the nutritional requirements of the pathogen and thereby limits its growth andreproduction.
e. Environmental factors: In addition to the above the environmental factors have marked
effect on the pathogen attack. Temperature, moisture, humidity and soil PH and fertility status of
the soil effects the pathogen reaction greatly.

Genetic basis of disease resistance

The first study on genetics of disease resistance was done by Biffen in 1905. He reported the
inheritance of resistance to leaf rust of wheat variety Rivet in crosses with some susceptible
varieties. In F2 there were 3 susceptible: 1 resistant plants indicating that resistance wascontrolled
by a single recessive gene. Most of the earlier studies were conducted without takinginto
consideration the physiological specialization (pathotype differentiation) of the pathogen whichcan
materially influence the conclusions drawn. It is now recognized that disease resistance may be
inherited in three different ways :
Oligogenic Polygenic and Cytoplasmic inheritance

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Oligogenic inheritance:
The disease resistance is governed by one or few major genes and resistance is generally dominant
to the susceptible reaction. The action of major resistance genes may be altered by modifying genes
in many cases. Eg. bunt resistance in Wheat. Oligogenes generally produce immune reaction. The
chief characteristic of the oligogenic disease resistance is pathotype - specificity, i.e. resistant gene is
effective against some pathogens, while it is ineffective against the others. In most cases, there are
a number of major genes that determines resistance to a particular disease Eg. more than 20 different
resistance genes are known for leaf rust of wheat, while those for stem rust resistance exceed 30. The
genetics of oligoganic resistance has advanced by two eventsviz.,
1. Discovery of a resistance gene to the prevalent pathotype and
2. Evolution of a pathotype virulent to the new resistance gene.
Oligogenic resistance is synonymous to verticalresistance.

Gene for gene hypothesis:

The concept of gene for hypothesis was first developed by Flor in 1956 based on his studies of host
pathogen interaction in flax rust caused by Malampsora lini. The gene for gene hypothesis states that
for each gene controlling resistance in the host, there is a corresponding gene controlling
pathogenicity in the pathogen. The resistance ofhost is governed by dominant genes and virulence
of pathogen by recessive genes. The genotype of host and pathogen determine the disease reaction.
When genes in host and pathogen match for all the loci, then only the host will s h o w susceptible
reaction. If some gene loci remain unmatched, the host willshow resistant

reaction. Now gene-for -gene relationship has been reported in several other crops like potato,
Sorghum, wheat etc. The gene for gene hypothesis is known as “Flor Hypothesis”.

A simple scheme to explain gene for gene relationship hypothesis (Fehr, 1987)

Varieties Host genotype Pathogen Disease

1. One gene pair AA aa
genotypes Susceptible
Reaction
Aa
BB bb Susceptible
Bb AA CC
2. Two gene pair aa Resistant
Aa CC cc Resistant
Aa Cc aacc Susceptible
3. Three gene pair AA BB CC aa bb Resistant
AA BB CC aa cc aabbcc Resistant
Aa Bb Cc susceptible

Note: Dominant genes in the host are responsible for resistance and recessive genes in
thepathogen forvirulence.

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Vertifolia Effect:Vande r plank introduced the term vertifolia effect and refers to epidemic
development in a variety carrying vertical resistance genes (oligogenes) leading to heavy
economic losses. Total failure of vertical resistance leading to a disease epidemic is known as
vertioalia effect. This failure occurs because of two reasons :
1. The level of horizontal resistance in varieties carrying oligogenes is usually low and
2. The pathogen isable toevolve new virulentpathotypes.

Polygenic inheritance
In this type the disease resistance is governed by many genes with small effects and a continuous
variation for disease reaction is produced. The genes show additive and non additive effects and
the environmental effect is also observed. The polygenic resistance does not show pathotype-
specificity as against the oligogenic resistance. It is almost same as horizontal resistance. In
some cases the polygenic inheritance may have a oligogenic component, the oligogenes acting
in an additive manner eg. bacterial blight resistance in cotton
Cytoplasmic inheritance :
Resistance in some cases is determined by cytoplasmic genes or plasma gene(s).
Eg. The T-male sterilizy cytoplasm (cms-T) in maize is extreamly susceptible
to Helmin thosporium leafblight, while the non-T cytoblasms are resistant to this disease.

Vertical and Horizontal Resistance (Vander plank)

Feature Vertical resistance Horizontalresistance

1. Pathotype – specificity Specific Non specific
2. Nature of gene action Oligogenic Polygenic; rarely oligogenic
3. Response topathogen Usually, hypersensitive Resistant response
4. Phenotypic expression Qualitative Quantitative
5. Stage of expression Seedling to maturity Expression increases as plant
6. Selection andevaluation Relatively easy Difficul
matures
7. Host pathogeninteraction Present t
8. Commonly used, Major: gene, race -specific Polygenic,
Absent race nonspecific,
synonyms seedling, monogenic, pathotype-nonspecific, mature
pathotype specific plant, adult plant, field uniform
9. Efficiency Highly
resistance efficient Variable,
resistance but operates against all
against specific races races

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Sources of Disease Resistance
Resistance to diseases may be obtained from four different sources:
1. A known variety
2. Germplasm collection
3. Related species
4. Through mutations

1. A known variety: Disease reactions of most of the cultivated varieties are documented
and a breeder may find the resistance he needs in a cultivated variety. Resistant plants were also
lated from commercial varieties as in the case of cabbage yellows in cabbage curly top
resistance etc. These provide the basis for new resistance varieties.
2. Germplasm collection: When resistance to a new disease or a new pathotype of a
disease is not known in a cultivated variety germplasm collection should be screened. Several
instances disease resistance were found from the germplasm collections.
Eg. resistance to neckblotch in barley resistance to wilt in watermelon
3. Related species : Often the resistance to a disease may be found in related species and
transferred through interspecifichybridization.
Eg. Resistance to stem, leaf & stripe rusts of wheat
4. Mutation: Resistance to diseases may be obtained through mutation arising spontaneously
or induced through mutagenic t r e a t m e n t s .
Eg.
1. Resistance to Victoria blight in oats was induced by irradiation with x-rays or thermal
neutrons / also produced spontaneously
2. Resistance to stripe rust in wheat
3. Resistance to brown rust in oats
4. Resistance to mildew in barley

5. Resistance to rust in linseed

6. Resistance to tikka leaf spot and stem root in groundnut

Vertical and Horizontal Resistance (Van der plank)

Vertical Resistance is generally determined by major genes and is characterized by pathotype
specificity. Clearly immune or susceptible response in the case of vertical resistance depends on the
presence of virulent pathotype. When virulent pathotype becomes frequent, epidemics are common in
the cases of vertical resistance. Thus an avirulent pathotype will produce an immune response i.e.
r=0 or close to 0 but the virulent pathotype will lead to susceptible reaction i.e. r=1. It is also
known as race specific, pathotype specific or simplyspecificresistance.

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Horizontal Resistance
Race non-specific, pathotype -nonspecific and partial, general or field resistance. Horizontal
resistance is generally controlled by polygenes i.e. many genes with small effects and it is
pathotype nonspecific. In this case, the reproduction rate is not zero but it is less than one. Poly
genes, govern horizontalresistance.

Methods of Breeding for DiseaseResistance

The methods of breeding for disease resistance are essentially same as those used for other
agronomic traits. They are :
1. Introduction
2. Selection
3. Hybridization
4. Budding &Grafting
5. MutationBreeding
6. Biotechnologicalmethods.

1. Introduction : Resistant varieties may be introduced for cultivation in a new area. Eg.
 Early varieties of groundnut introduced from USA have been resistant to leaf spot (Tikka)
 Kalyanasona and Sonalika wheat varieties originated from segregating material introduced
from CIMMYT, Mexico, were rust resistant.
 African bajra introductions have been used in developing downy mildew resistant cmslines.
2. Selection : Selection of resistant plants from commercial varieties is easiest method.
Eg.
 Kufri Red potato is selection from Darjeeling Red round
 Pusa Sawani behind (yellow mosaic) selection from a collection obtained from Bihar
 MCU I was selection from CO4 for black arm resistance in cotton
3. Hybridization: Transfering disease resistance from one variety or species to the other.
a. Pedigree method is quite suitable forhorizontal resistance.
Artificial disease epiphytolics are produced to help in selection for disease resistance. Eg. In wheat
Kalyana Sona, Sonalaka, Malvika 12
Malvika 37, Malavika 206, Malavika 234
Laxmi in Cotton (Gadag 1 x CO2) for leaf blight resistance
b. Backcross method is used to transfer resistance genes from an undersirableagronomic variety to
a susceptible, widely adoptable and is agronomically highly desirablevariety.
If the resistant parent is a wholly unadapted variety, backcross method is a logical choice.
If resistant variety also possess some good qualities then chose pedigree method of handling
segregating material.

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3. Budding & Grafting: The disease resistance in vegetatively propogated material is transferred
by adopting either by budding or grafting. By grafting or budding the resistant material, the
resistance can be transferred.
4. Mutation Breeding : When adequate resistance is not available in the germplasm;
Mutation breeding is resorted to induce resistance. This is also us ed to break the linkages between
desirable resistant genes and other desirable genes.
Precautions
1. The donor parent must possess the required amount of resistance
2. It must be simply inherited without any linkage
3. The recovery in the recipient parent should be more
4. Proper condition for full expression of the resistant genes has to be provided

Advantages with breeding for disease resistance

1. Helps in reducing the losses caused by patogens
2. Reduces the high cost of disease control by chemical treatment
3. Helps to avoid the use of poisonousfungicides
4. Only method available to some specific diseases like viruses, wilt etc.
Limitations
1. Linkage of resistant genes with genes of inferior quality
2. Occurrence of physiological races of varying capacities
3. Self sterility in host plants
Utilization and achievements
1. Rice ADT 10 x Co4 (resistant to blast)

2. Potato Solanum tuberosum x Solanum demissum

(susceptible tolateblight) (wild resistant to lateblight)
F1 backcrossed with Sol. tuberosum

Resistant variety

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Insect resistance

Global average loss due to insect pests is 14%. Estimated losses in individual crops vary from 5% in
wheat to 26.7% in riceand still more in crops like cotton &sugarcane.
Insect Resistance:
1. The ability of a plant to withstand, oppose or overcome the attack of an insect in known as
insectresistance.
2. It is the property of a variety or a host crop due to which it is attacked by an insect pest to a
significantly lower degree than areother varieties of the samehost.

Biotypes: Strains of a species of an insect pest, differing in their ability to attack different varieties
of the same host species (syn: Physiological races)

Host Habitation:
1. Polyphagy 3. SeasonalOligophagy
2. Oligophagy 4.Monophagy

1. Polyphony: Insects feed on a vide range of hosts avoiding few plant species. Eg. Scales
&moths.
2. Oligophagy: Live on one taxonomic unit only. Eg. Hessian fly on wheat
3. Seasonal oligophagy:Insects may live onmany species in one part of the year andon few in
another part of the year. Eg:Aphids.
4. Monophony: Avoid all hosts except one particular species or variety Eg. Boll weevil on cotton.

Mechanism of Insect Resistance:

Insect resistance is grouped into four categories :
1.Nonpreference 2.Antibiosis
3. Tolerance 4.Avoidance

1. Non preference : Host Varieties exhibiting this type of resistance are unattractive or
unsuitable for colonization, oviposition or both by an insect pest. This type of resistance in also
termed as non-acceptance and anti-xenosis. Non preference involves various
morphological and biochemical features of host plants such as – color, hairness, leaf angle, taste etc.
2. Antibiosis : Ant ibiosis refers to an adverse effect of feeding on a resistant host plant on the
development and/or reproduction of the insect pest. In severe cases, it may even lead to the death
of the insect pest. Antibiosis may involve morphological, physiological or biochemical features of
the host plant; some cases of insect resistance invol ve a combination of features. Eg. Resistance to
BPT is due to antibiosis & non preference
3. Tolerance: An insect tolerant variety is attacked by the insect pest to the same degree as a
susceptible variety. But at the same level of infestation, a tolerant variety produces a higher yield
than a susceptible variety. Ability of the host plant to withstand the insect population to a certain

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extent which might have damaged a more susceptible host. Tolerance is mainly a host character and
it may be because of greater recovery from pest damage. Eg. Rice varieties tolerant to stem
borer/gall midge produce additional tillers to compensate yield losses (as in stem borer in sorghum)
or due to the ability of host to
sufferlessdamagebythepesteg.aphidtoleranceinSugarbeet&Brassicasps.And green bugs tolerance in
cereals. Inheritance of tolerance is complex in many cases and is supposed to be governed by
polygenes.
4. Avoidance : Pest avoidance isthe same as disease escape,and as such it is not a case of true
resistance mostly insect avoidance result from the host plants being at a much less susceptible
developmental stage when thepest populationis at its peak.
Eg. 1. Early maturing cotton varieties escape pink boll worm infestation, which occurs
late in the season.
Nature of Insect Resistance / Factors for insect-resistance
Insect resistance may involve :
1. Morphological
2. Physiological(or)
3. Biochemical features of the host plant

1. Morphological features : Morphological factors like, hairiness, colour, thickness and toughness
of tissues etc. are known to confer insect resistance.
a) Hairiness of leaves is associated with resistance to many insect pests leaf beetle in cereals, in
cotton to Jassids , in turnip to turnip aphid.

b) Colourofplant:Colormaycontributetononpreferenceinsomecases.
For example : Red cabbage, Red leaved brussel’s sprouts are less favored than green varieties by
butterflies and certain Lepidoptera for oviposit ion. Boll worms prefer green cotton plants to red
ones.
c) Thickness and Toughness of plant – Tissues prevent mechanical obstruction to feeding and
oviposition and thereby lead to non-preference as well as antibiosis.
Eg.
1. Thick leaf lamina in cotton contributes to Jassid resistance
2. Solid stem in wheat confers resistance to wheat stem sawfly
3. Thick and tough rind of cotton bolls makes it difficult for the boll worm larve to
bore holes and enter the bolls.
Other characters : also contribute to insect resistance.
Eg. 1. Gossypium arboretum varieties with narrow lobed and leathery leaves are more resistant to
Jassids than are those with broad lobed and succulent leaves.
2. Cotton varieties with longer pedicels are more resistant to boll worms.

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2. Physiological Factors : Osmotic concentration of cell sap, various exudates etc; may be
associated with insect resistance.
Eg.
1) Leaf hairs of some solanum sps. secrete gummy exudates. Aphids
andcoloradobeetles get trapped in these exudates.
2) Exudates from secondary trichomes of Medicago disciformis leaves have antibiotic effects on
alfalfaweevil.
3) Cotton- High osmotic concentration of cell sap is associated with Jassid resistance.
3. Biochemical Factors : Several biochemical factors are associated with insect resistance in many
crops. It is believed that biochemical factors are more important than morphological and
physiological factors in conferring non-preference and antibiosis.
Eg.
1) High concentrations of gossypol is associated with resistance in several insect pests incotton.
2) In rice – high silica content in shoots gives resistance to shoot borer
Genetics of InsectResistance
Insect resistance is governed by -
1. Oligogenes 2.Polygenes 3. Cytoplasmicgenes
1. Oligogenic Resistance : Insect resistance is governed by one or few major genes or oligogenes,
each gene having a large and identifiable individual effect on resistance. Oligogenic resistance may
be conditioned by the dominant or the recessive allele of the concerned gene. The differences
between resistant and susceptible plants are generally large and clear-cut. In several cases,
resistance is governed by a single gene (monogenic resistance)
Eg. In wheat togreenbugs In cotton toJassids
In apple towoollyaphis In rice to plant &leaf hopper
2. Polygenic Resistance : It is governed by several genes, each gene producing a small and usually
cumulative effect. Such cases of resistance.
1) Involve more than one feature of the host plant
2) Are much more durable than the cases of oligogenic resistance.
3) Difference between resistance & susceptible plants are not clear cut
4) Transfer of resistance is much more difficult Examples for
polygenicresistance
1) In wheat to cereal leaf beetle

2) In alfalfa to spotted aphid

3) In rice to stemborer
4) In maize to ear worm and leaf aphid
Evolution of resistance breaking biotypes is almost rare.

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3. Cytoplasmic Resistance : governed by plasmagenes Eg. 1.
Resistance to European corn borer in maize
2. Resistance to root aphid in lettuce
Sources of Insect Resistance
1. Acultivatedvariety 3. A related wildspecies
2. Germplasmcollections. 4. An unrelated organisms

Breeding Methods for InsectResistance

1.Introduction 2.Selection
3. Hybridization 4. GeneticEngineering

1. Introduction:
Eg. Phylloxera vertifoliae resistance grape root-stocks from U.S.A. into france.
2. Selection :
1) Resistance to potato leafhopper
2) Resistance to spotted alfalfa aphid

3. Hybridization :Pedigree oligogeniccharacters

Backcross Polygeniccharacters

4. Genetic Engineering: B.theningiensis (cry gene) resistance in maize, soybean, cotton etc.

Screening Techniques for determining resistance

The most crucial and, perhaps, the most difficult task in breeding for insect resistance is the
identification of insect resistant plant during segregation generations. There are two types of
screeings.
1. FieldScreening 2. Glass housescreening
Field Screening:
The techniques designed to promote uniform infestation by an insect pest in the field are
1. Inter planting a row of known susceptible variety between two rows of testing material.
2. Screening in highly proneareas
3. incaseSoilinsectpeststobetestedinsickplotsonly
4. Testing in a particular season when the infestation is very high.
Eg. Rice stem borer in off season.
5. Transferring manually equal number of eggs or larvae to each test plant.
Glass house screening
Result from glass house tests are much more reliable than those from field tests since both the

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environment and the initial level of infestations are more or less uniform for all the plants being
tested.
Problems in Breeding for Insect Resistance:
1. Breeding for resistance to are insect pest may leads to the susceptibility to another pest.
Eg. Glabrous strains of cotton are resistant to bollworms but susceptible to Jassids.
2. Reduction isquality ormake unfit forconsumption.
3. Linkage between desirable & undesirable genes. Inter specific varieties are generally low
yielding and their produce is often of inferiorquality.
4. Screening for resistance is the most critical and difficult step is a breeding programme it
necessitates a close co-ordination among scientists belonging to different disciplines.
5. It is a long term programme

Achievements
INDIA
1. India – cotton varieties – G 27, MCU 7, LRK 516 – resistant to boll worms.
2. Rice – variety vijaya – resistant to leaf hopper
Rice TKM 6, Ratna –Stemborer Rice – Vajram, chaitanya,
Pratibha – BPH

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 Breeding for abiotic stress resistance drought resistance
Drought: Scarcity of moisture (soil moisture) which restricts the expression of full genetic yield
potential of a plant.
Drought resistance: The ability of crop plants to grow, develop and reproduce normally under
moisture stress.
Mechanisms of drought resistance
There are 4 mechanisms of drought resistance.
1. Drought Escapes : It is due to ability of a genotype to mature early, before occurrence of
drought. Drought escape is most common is plants grown is desert region.
Eg. Early maturing varieties of sorghum, maize, bajra, wheat, rice etc; give more yield than late
maturing underdrought.
2. Drought Avoidance (Dehydration avoidance) : It is due to the ability of plants to maintain
favourable water balance even under stress. The plants which avoid drought retain high moisture
content is their tissues and lose less water. This is possible either because of:
i) Increased water uptake (due to increase in root development) plants are called
waterspenders.(or)
ii) Reduced water loss (due to reduction in growth of aerial parts are called water savers (i.e. to
avoidtranspiration)
Dehydration avoidance is interpreted as the ability of genotypes to maintain high leaf
water potential when grown under soil moisture stress: Several traits
contribute to dehydration avoidance Such as :
Leaf rolling, folding and reflectance narrow leaves, increased pubescence on aerial organs ,
presence of awns, osmatic adjustment of stomata, cuticular wax, increased water uptake;
Reduced Transpiration : Inc rease is concentration of Abscisic Acid (ABA), closure of stomata,
ABA plays role in reduction of leaf expansion, Promotion of root growth etc.
3. DroughtTolerance(Dehydrationtolerance):Abilityofplantstoproducehigheryield
even under ‘low water potential’. In cereals drought tolerance generally occur during reproductive
phase. Tolerant cultivars exhibit better germination, seedling growth and photosynthesis. Drought
tolerance may be because of

i. high prolineaccumulation
ii. maintenance of membrane integrity
4. Drought Resistance : It is the sum total of avoidance and Tolerance. It refers to the genetic
ability of plants to give good yield under moisture stress conditions.

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Various morphological, physiological and biochemical features / parameters associated
with droughtresistance
a. Morphological
1. Earliness
2. Reducedtillering
3. Leafcharacters: Leaf rolling , Leaf folding, Leaf shedding, Leaf reflectance
4. Reduced leafarea: Narrow leaf, Change in leafangle
5. Hairiness (presence of hairs on leaf and other parts, lowers leaf temperature and
reducetranspiration)
6. Colour ofleaves
7. Waxcontent
8. Awns (eg. wheat and barley)
9. Root system (rooting depth andintensity)
b. Physiological
1. Photosynthesis (efficient system like C4) under stress, photosynthetic efficiency is reduced due to
chloroplast damage.
2. Reduced Transpiration and reduced respiration losses
3. Stomatal behavior (closure of stomata, also change in size and number of stomata)
4. Osmoticadjustment
5. Leaf enlargement (increase in thickness)
6. Leaf cuticle wax(increases)
c. Biochemical
1. Accumulation of proline and betaine
2. Increase in Abscisic acid (barley) and Ethylene (maize &wheat)
3. Protein synthesis (increases understress)
4. Nitrate – reductase activity
Sources of drought resistance
1. Cultivatedvarieties
2. Land (old or desi primitive varieties)

3. Wild relatives (reported in several crops)

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For example :

S.N Crop Wild sps Resistant to

o.
i Wheat Aegilops. variabilis drought
Aegilops speltoides "
Aegilops umbellulata
"
Aegilops squarrosa "
ii Sugarcane Sacharum. spontaneam Drought & salinity

4. Transgenes:
Eg. ‘Rab’ (Responsive to abscisic acid) in rice

Screening / Evaluation
1. Field Env. Highlydesirable
2. Green house Env. More precisely controlled than field
Breeding Methods and Approaches
It is important that drought resistance be incorporate in material with high genetic potential
foryield.
1. Yield and yield components are best evaluated under non stress / optimal environments,
while
2. Drought resistance must be evaluated under water stress.

Breeding methods: Methods are same as for yield and other economic characters. Breeding for
drought resistance refers to breeding for yield under moisture stress, i.e. developing varieties which
can give high yields under stress. The common methods a r e
1. Introduction
2. Selection
3. Hybridization
4. Mutation
5. Biotechnology
Limitations:
1. Generally resistant varieties have lowyield
2. Do not have much wider adaptability (as abiotic resistant is location specific)
3. Droughtresistantgenesmayhavelinkagewithundesirablegenes.
4. Transferofresistantgenesfromwildtypesmaypostproblem.

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5. Drought resistance is a consequence of a combination of characters and single character canbe
used for selection.

6. Measurement of many drought resistant traits is difficult and problematic, since virtually all the
useful drought resistant traits are under polygenic control. (So pedigree method most common).
But if resistant genes are from agronomically inferior race then 1-2 backcrossing with cultivated
type in made. If resistance gene is from wild species-go for backcrossingbreeding.
Generally selection is performed on individual plant progenies instead of individual plants (i.e.
similar to line breeding)
7. Creation of controlled moisture stress Environments
8. Selection require considerableresources

WATERLOGGING
As per Levitt (1980 b) flooding (i.e. water logging) is the presence of water in soil excess of field
capacity. It leads to deficiency of O2 and build up of Co2, Ethylene and other toxic gases and this
leads to reduction in aerobicrespiration.
Effects of water logging:
1. Once soil becomes water logged, air space in soil is displaced with water, the O 2 in the soil in
dissolved in water. i.e. O2 decreases; Co2 ethylene and other toxic gases increase.
2. O 2 replacement in the soil is very inefficient. Diffusion of atmospheric O2 into thewater
logged soils is very inefficient (because of the slow diffusion of atmospheric O 2 to water logged
soil).
3. Root systems are suddenly plunged into an anaerobic condition. This switching from aerobic to
anaerobic respiration disrupts root metabolism.
4. Carbohydrates level get depleted it is due to
a. Dissipation ofmetabolism
b. High watertemperature
c. Lowlight
Characteristics of plants in response to water logging stress :
1. Reduced growth /elongation.
2. Chlorosis, senescence and abscission of lower leaves
3. Wilting & leafcurling
4. Hypertrophy (increase in size of organ due to increase in cell size)
5. Epinasty (downward growth of petioles)

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Mechanisms of tolerance:
1. Adventitious root formation on lower part of stem (close to surface so that O2 tension is quickly
restored after transient water logging) eg. Tomato
2. Lenticel (i.e. raised pores in the stem of plants) formation
3. Aerenchyma formation (soft plant tissue continues air spaces found in acquatic plants) in the
cortex that provide canal paralled to the axis of the root through which gases can diffuse
longitudinally (eg.rice)
4. Elongation capacity (In rice – best elongation response give 100% recovery from submergence
and poorest elongation gives upto 49% recovery)
Scoring for elongation can be done between booting and flowering stage after flooding the crop to
varying depths.
In sugarcane, S. spontaneum has more tolerance to flooding. Some canes gave upto 70% of their
production potential when in continuous flood for 5 months (in an east at canal point Florida,USA)

Ideotype for flooded areas: The postulated ideotype for flooded areas should have
thefollowingcharacterstics.
1. Capacity to carry out functional activity at low O2 concentration (i.e. High cytochrome
activity)
2. Ability for photosynthesis under low lightintensity
3. Capacity to synthesis foodrapidly
4. Regeneration capacity of shoots when damaged by flood
5. Ability to withstand drought at later growthstage
6. Deep rootsystem
7. Narrow, medium long and dark green leaves with high sugar and protein content.

Breeding methods : Same as in other stresses.

Breeding for salt tolerance

Salt Tolerance: refers to the ability of plants to prevent, reduce or overcome injurious effects of
soluble salts present in their root zone.
It is a global problem as saline and alkali soils are fond in almost all the countries of the world, more
in Semi Arid Tropic (SAT) of world.
Problem of salinity can be overcome by two ways:
1. Soil reclaimation : costly, time consuming and shortlived
2. Resistant varieties: less costly, more effective, long lasting require longer period to develop.

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Behavior / characteristics of plants to salt:
1. Land races more tolerant than High yielding varieties. Tolerant plants varieties are found is
salt affectedareas
2. Salt tolerance capacity differs from species to species. Also genetic differences exist among
cultivars for their salt tolerancecapacity.
3. Different crop plants show differential response to salinity

SalinityCrops
a. Highlytolerantcrops Sugarbeat, sunflower, barley (grain), cotton,
datepalm,asparagus
b. ModeratelyTolerantcrops Barley (Forage), rye, soghum, wheat, safflower,
soybean
c. moderatelysensitive Rice, corn, foxtail millet, cow pea, peanut,
sugarcane, tomato, potato, sweet potato, radish, alfalfa,cabbage
d. Extremelysensitive Citrus, straw berry, melon, peas, otherlegumes,
apple, rajmabean, carrot, okra, onion (orange)
4. Higher ploidy level crops are more tolerant than lower ploidy level crops. Eg. Hexaploid
wheat more tolerant than tetraploid
Tetraploid Brassica more tolerant than diploid Brassica
5. In rice tall, coarse grained, late maturing varieties- more tolerant
6. In sugarcane different strains have differential tolerance Barley more tolerant than wheat.
Symptoms of plants to salt stress :
1. Retardation / cessation of growth
2. Necrosis
3. Leafabscession
4. Loss ofturgor
5. Ultimate death ofplant
Mechanisms of salt tolerance:
2 types of mechanisms
1. Salt Tolerance : Plants respond to salinity stress by accumulating salt, generally in their
cells or glands and rootsetc.
2. Salt avoidance : plants avoid salt stress by maintaining their cell salt concentration
unchanged either by water absorption eg. Rice, chenopodiaceae family or by salt exclusion eg.
Tomato, soybean, citrus, wheat grass
Glycophytes (Non-halophytes) plants owe their resistance primarily to avoidance. Eg. Barley
Hallophytes (plants that grew in salty or alkaline soils) show tolerance by ion accumulation
mechanism

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Breeding methods
Breeding methods are same but breeding strategies are
1. Breeding for yield potential should have greater emphasis than breeding for salt
resistance per se (As screening is done on the basis of yield reduction in stress environment as
compared to non-stress Environment.).
2. Selectionshouldbedoneisstressestargetenvironments(Asabioticstressresistanceisan
important part of Environ. Fitness & is bound to be location specific i.e. it is related to narrow
adaptation.
Screening Techniques
Common methods are
1. Sandculture by using nuturient solution in sand & irrigation with salinewater
2. Solutionculture by using solution culture tanks (Hydroponic culture)
3. Microplot techniques by using small microplots
Microplot Techniques: By using small microplots of size 6 x 3 x 1 m (CSSRI, Karnal, Haryana)
at central soil salinity Research Institute.
Then Multilocation Trial (MLT) conducted over seasons to get more reliable results.
Genotypes which survive better under salinity are considered tolerant & tested further.
Selection criteria
1. Germination (%) is salinemedium
2. Dry matter accumulation (seeding / plant dry wt.) / Early vigour
3. Leaf senescence or death – Estimated by total dead leaf area or No. of dead leaves
4. Leafnecrosis
5. Leaf ioncontent
6. Osmoregulation (Determined as maintenance of turgor under stress) Measured as proline
or CHo accumulation or accumulation of glycine, betaine etc.
7. Yield – Economicyield
Problems
1. Creation of reliable controlled salinityEnv.
2. Scoring for salinity resistance
3. Genetic control – it is complex &polygenic
4. Mechanisms of resistance poorly understood. Salinity may have interaction with other
stresses.

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COLD TOLERANCE

When temperatures remain above-freezing i.e. >00C to <100-150C it is called chilling When
temperature. remain below freezing i.e.<00C it is called Freezing.
A. ChillingResistance:
Chilling sensitive plants are typically tropical plants. Temperate plants are generally tolerant to
chillinginjury.
Effects of chilling stress on plants :
1. Reducedgermination
2. Poor seedlingestablishment
3. Stuntedgrowth
4. Wilting
5. Chlorosis
6. Necrosis
7. Pollensterility
8. Poor fruit set / seedformation
9. Reduced root growth
10. Locked openstomato
11. ABAaccumulation
At subcellular level
12. Reduces membranestability
13. Poor chlorophyll synthesis(affected)
14. Reduced photosynthesis &respiration
15. Toxicity due to H2O2 formation

A. Chilling Tolerance
Ability of some genotypes to survive / perform better under chilling stress than other genotypes is
called chilling tolerance. It is because ofchilling hardening, i.e. an earlier exposure to a near chilling
temperature for a specified period as a result of which chilling tolerance of the concerned
plantsincreases.
Mechanisms of chilling tolerance:
1. Membrane lipidun-saturation
2. Reduced sensitivity ofphotosynthesis
3. Increased chlorophyllaccumulation
4. Improvedgermination
5. Improved fruit / seedset
6. Pollenfertility

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Sources of chilling Tolerance:
1. Late adopted breeding populations eg. maize
2. Germplasm(eg.Thatcollectedfromhighaltitude,lowtemperaturegeographicregions)
3. Induced mutants for coldtolerance
4. Cold tolerant somaclonal variants
5. Related wild species eg. Tomato
Selection criteria
Based on -
1. Germinationtest
2. Growth under stress (measured as plant dry matter accumulation)
3. Chlorophyll Loss under chilling stress eg. rice, cucumber, tomato (measured as seedling
colour)
4. Membrane stability : (Assayed in terms of solute leakage from tissues)
5. Photosynthesis : Chilling injury to photosynthesis is assayed as variable chlorophyll
fluorescence at 685nm
6. Seedlingmortality
7. Seed / Fruitset
8. Pollen fertility (apply during injury at PMC)

B. FreezingResistance
Freezing injury / Frost injury / cryo injury
Freezing Stress: Dormant state is conducive to freezing resistance, while resistance in actively
growing tissue is rare: Thus Freezing resistance largely involves surviving freezing stress in such
a manner as to enable subsequent regrowth when the temperature rises.
As water in plants cools below 00C, it may either
1. Freeze i.e. form iceor 2. Super cool without formingice.
Effects of freezing stress
1. Ice formation :Twotypes Intercellular iceformation
Intracellular ice formation
Intercellular Ice formation: Initiation of ice formation on plant surface is sufficient to induce
freezing of the internal (intercellular & xylem vessels etc.) water is most plant species.

Intracellular ice formation: It is more lethal may be due to physical disruption of subcellular
structure by ice crysta l. Intracellular ice formation is the major and terminal freezingstress.

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Extracellular ice formation in a cases the conc entrations of extracellular solutes, the re by water is
withdrawn from the cells during extracellular ice formation. This creates water- stress in the frozen
tissue / plant.
2. Membrane disruptions:
 Freezing causes disruptions is and / or alter the semipermeable properties of plasmamembrane
 Loss of solutes from the cells occur
 Cells remain plasmolyzed even after thawaing which is often called as frost plasmolysis
 Cellsmaybecomehighlyturielduetouptakeofexcesswater.
3. Suspercooling:
Cooling of water below 00C without ice crystal formation is called supercooling
 In plants water may cooldown to -1 to-150C is herbeceour sps and to -40 to -450C in hardytrees.
 This becomes possible apparently because internal ice-nucleators are absence in suchcases.
 This is regarded as an important. Mechanism of freezing avoidance
4. Stress due to external factors : Consequent tofreezing
1) Ice sheet formation below and above the ground causes reserve depletion anoxia etc. inplants.
2) Tissues killed during freeze-thaw are highly prone to pathogen attacks
3) Auto toxicity mary occur

Mechanism of Freezing Resistance :

The ability of a genotype to survive freezing stress and to recover and re grow after thawing is
known as freezing resistance. Freezing resistance is a complex trait involving physiological,
chemical &physical processes at the tissue and cell level.

Mechanism of Freezing resistance.

1. Freezing avoidance : The ability of plant tissues / or genes (but the whole plants) to avoid ice
formation at sub zero temperature is called freezing avoidance

Supercooling is a mechanism of freezing avoidance it is controlled by

1. Lackofice-nucleators 2. Small cellsize
3. Little or nointercellularspace 4. Low moisturecontent
5. Barriers againstexternalnucleators 6. Presence of antinucleators
2. Freezing Tolerance : Ability of plants to survive the stresses generated by extra cellular ice
formation and to recover and regrow after thawing is known as freezing tolerance. The various
components of freezing tolerance are as follows:
1) Osmoticadjustment
2) Amount of boundwater
3) Plasma membranestability
4) Cell wall components properties
5) Cold-responsiveproteins Eg.ABA

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Sources of freezing tolerance
1. Cultivatedvarieties
2. Germplasm lines
3. InducedMutations
4. Related wild species Eg. Wheat Agropyron sps; rye
Barley – H. jubatum, H.brachyantherum x H.bogdanii, H.jubatum x H.compressum
Oats – Avena sterilis
5. Transgenes:Eg.chemicalSynthesizedantifreezeproteingene,ala3,intobacco
Selection criteria:
Based on
1. Fieldsurvival
2. Freezing test inlaboratory
3. Cryofreezing
4. Osmoregulation
Problems in breeding for freezingtolerance
1. Freezing Tolerance is a complex trait &involves several components. So, it is not ready measurable
under fieldconditions
2. Breeding work under field conditions is highly influenced by other environ factors and
bioticstresses
3. Due to large G X E for the trait field survival shows poor heritability
4. Freezing tolerance also shows a large GXE interaction which limits progress under selection

5. Laboratory tests are yet to be developed to screen large breeding population

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