Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2023) 45:543

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40430-023-04450-0

TECHNICAL PAPER

Investigation of a two‑diaphragm thermoacoustic Stirling engine

using passivity method
Shahryar Zare1 · Fathollah Pourfayaz1 · A. R. Tavakolpour‑Saleh2 · Amirreza Mohammadian3 · Reza Mirshekari4

Received: 27 January 2023 / Accepted: 23 August 2023 / Published online: 26 September 2023
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to The Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering 2023

Abstract
This paper presents a novel perspective on a thermoacoustic Stirling engine, emphasizing the integration of passivity con-
trol and a genetic algorithm (GA) framework. To this end, a brief overview of the mathematical modeling is presented by
investigating the movements of pistons and operating frequency. Next, the dynamic error equations are derived, and then, the
passivity-based control and GA are employed for estimating the design parameters obtained through the behavior-stabilizing
process of the system. Note that the mass of the pistons attached to the second diaphragm, the stiffness of diaphragms 1 and
2, the hot temperature, and the phase difference between diaphragms are the design parameters in this study. Consequently,
once the design parameters are assessed, the work and the output power are calculated. Finally, comparing the simulation
and the experiment outcomes confirmed that the presented technique is effective in not only predicting the design parameters
appropriately but also verifies the engine’s stable oscillations. It is important to note that obtaining such parameters before the
design and production phase can significantly enhance the cost-effectiveness and time efficiency of the production process.

Keywords Thermoacoustic Stirling engine · Diaphragm thermoacoustic Stirling engine · Genetic algorithm · Passivity
control · Renewable energy
List of Symbols K′ Positive definite symmetric matrix
A Cross-sectional area of the power piston m(2 ) K1 Array of matrix K ′
( )

A′ Cross-sectional area of the displacer piston m2 K2 Array of matrix K ′

Ap Desired stroke of power piston (m) L Length of the inertance tube (m)
Ad Desired stroke of displacer piston (m) m Total mass of the gas in the engine (kg)
dx (Damping)coefficient of the displacer piston Mx Mass of displacer (kg)
N s m−1 My Mass of the power piston (kg)
dy Damping coefficient of the power piston N s m−1 P Pressure (Pa)
( )

Ix Inertance of the feedback tube Patm Initial pressure of (working gas)(Pa)

Kx1 Spring stiffness of displacer N m−1 R Ideal gas constant J kg−1 K−1
( )

Ky1 Spring stiffness of power piston N m−1

( ) t Time (s)
Th Gas temperature in expansion space (K)
Tc Gas temperature in compression space (K)
Technical Editor Samuel da Silva. u Input vector
Vh0 Initial volume of expansion space m3
( )
* Shahryar Zare
shahryarzare13@gmail.com V Storage function
Vc0 Initial volume of compression space m3
( )
Fathollah Pourfayaz
pourfayaz@ut.ac.ir x Displacer position ((m) )
ẋ Displacer velocity m s−1
1
Department of Renewable Energies and Environment,
ẍ Displacer acceleration m s−2
( )
University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
2
y Power piston position (m)
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering,
y′ Output control
Shiraz University of Technology, Shiraz, Iran
ẏ Power piston velocity m s−1
( )
3
Sadjad University of Technology, Mashhad, Iran
ÿ Power piston acceleration m s
( −2 )
4
Yasuj University, Yasuj, Iran

13
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543 Page 2 of 17 Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2023) 45:543
Greek symbols
ρm Density (kg ­m−3)
θ Phase difference (degree)
ω Engine frequency (rad ­s−1)
ν Error control input vector
e State vector
1 Introduction
The urgency for alternative energy sources has reached
unprecedented levels, as the existing energy resources
may prove inadequate to meet the demands of our rapidly
expanding global population [1, 2]. The challenge at hand
has prompted scientists and researchers to explore the uti-
lization of renewable energy sources [3, 4]. Hence, wind,
solar, geothermal, water, and biomass energies have emerged
as significant alternatives to fossil fuels, capturing the atten-
tion of numerous countries in recent years [5, 6]. With
solar energy being recognized as one of the most abundant
renewable resources, researchers have devoted their efforts
to maximizing its potential benefits [1, 7].
To this end, there is a crucial need for efficient converters
to convert solar energy into electrical energy. One of these
converters is the thermoacoustic Stirling engine. These types
of engines were invented for the first time in 2000 by Back-
haus and Swift [7, 8]. Thermoacoustic Stirling engines work
based on the Stirling cycle, and the efficiency of this cycle
is equal to the efficiency of the Carnot cycle [9, 10]. In the
structure of thermoacoustic Stirling engines, all mechanical
links, such as crankshafts and flywheels are removed [11,
12]. This has resulted in the increase in working life, being
maintenance-free, production cost efficiency, being self-
starting, etc. [9, 13]. However, the removal of mechanical
links caused the starting of such engines to be difficult and
challenging. In other words, such engines can be considered
an oscillator, if stable fluctuations can be created in their
dynamics, then they are well-designed [14, 15]. Another
type of thermoacoustic engines are diaphragm thermoacous-
tic Stirling engines that include two diaphragms (one serving
as a phase shifter and the other for converting acoustic waves
into linear motion to generate electrical energy). In these
engines, with the help of a diaphragm and a connected mass,
and a linear generator, the energy from the acoustic waves
can be converted into a reciprocating motion first and then,
into electrical energy [16, 17]. The use of a diaphragm in
the structure of this type of thermoacoustic Stirling engine
fulfills the start-up facilitating discussion [18].
As previously stated, achieving stable fluctuations in
the dynamics of Stirling thermoacoustic engines stands as
a paramount concern and objective for researchers in this
field. In this regard, numerous researchers dedicated their
time and efforts to investigate this problem. Most of these
13
researches investigated this issue experimentally or numeri-
cally and directly solve the governing equations of engines
including momentum and continuity equations. For instance,
Zhou et al. [19] investigated the stable oscillations (with the
help of pressure fluctuations) in a thermoacoustic Stirling
engine numerically. De Waele [20] studied the effect of hot
source temperature changes on the pressure fluctuations of
the thermoacoustic Stirling engine numerically. The results
showed that after a certain value of the temperature of the
hot source, the engine will start to fluctuate. Nouh et al. [21]
probed the effect of the ratio of the temperature in the start-
up of the thermoacoustic Stirling engine. The results proved
that when the temperature ratio is higher than 1.07, pressure
fluctuations will occur in the thermoacoustic Stirling engine.
Chen and Ju [22]examined the effect of mean pressure value
on the stable oscillations in a thermoacoustic Stirling engine.
This investigation showed that from the pressure of 1.4 MPa,
stable oscillations will occur. In another research conducted
by this group, they investigated the threshold temperature
and pressure value for the experimental results of the ther-
moacoustic Stirling engine. Based on this work, the engine
started to oscillate at a temperature of 454 K and a pressure
of 0.35 MPa (nitrogen gas) [23]. Jain et al. [24] showed that
pressurizing the gas within the Stirling engine up to a certain
threshold reduces the required temperature for stable oscil-
lations of the engine. They discussed further that crossing
this threshold increases the required temperature for stable
oscillations. Zare and Tavakalpour-Saleh [14] proved that
the length of the resonator has a great influence on stable
fluctuations of thermoacoustic Stirling engines.
A comprehensive review of the existing literature high-
lights a noticeable gap where a solution is needed to design
an engine based on desired parameters while ensuring sta-
bility in the dynamic fluctuations of the system. There-
fore, it is imperative to first establish the design goals and
subsequently determine the unknown parameters of the
problem in order to achieve the desired design objectives
and ensure stable fluctuations. This issue has not been
studied so far in the case of two-diaphragm thermoacous-
tic Stirling engines. On this basis, this study tries to tackle
this gap and for the first time presents a method to design
the parameters of two diaphragm thermoacoustic Stirling
engines based on the objectives set while obtaining the
stable oscillations in the engine. To this end, the passivity
method will be employed together with the genetic algo-
rithm. The passivity method can be used for systems that
are passive in nature (such as the two-diaphragm thermoa-
coustic Stirling engine) [25, 26]. In fact, with the help of
the passivity method, the dynamics of the problem can
be directed toward the goals that have been determined,
and this problem is tackled for the first time for one of
the types of Stirling thermoacoustic engines (i.e., two-
diaphragm Stirling thermoacoustic engines).
Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2023) 45:543
Based on the outlined literature above and to the best of
our knowledge, there was no published paper in which a
diaphragm thermoacoustic Stirling engine is designed and
investigated based on the passivity method along with GA.
Thus, the primary concern of this study is to present a tech-
nique to estimate appropriately the engine design param-
eters based on the desired goals as well as guaranteeing
stable fluctuations in the nonlinear engine dynamic. In this
paper, first, the thermoacoustic Stirling engine and passivity
method are introduced. Next, the design process is presented
in Sect. 3. Afterward, the design parameters of the engines
are estimated in Sect. 4. In Sect. 5, the simulated outcomes
are compared with the simulated results to show the reliabil-
ity of the method. Finally, concluding remarks are proposed.
2 Primalities
2.1 Thermoacoustic Stirling engine
According to reports, global renewable capacity additions
are set to soar by 107 GW [27], the largest absolute increase
ever, to more than 440 GW in 2023 [28, 29]. This issue
shows the necessity of using equipment related to renewable
energy. Figure 1 shows the schematic view of a two-dia-
phragm thermoacoustic Stirling engine. This engine consists
of various components, including the core of the engine a
regenerator, a cold, and a hot source. As it is depicted in
Fig. 2, the engine consists of two diaphragms. Diaphragm
No. 1 is to adjust the phase difference between volumetric
Hot heat exchanger
Regenerator
Ambient heat exchanger
Diaphragm 2
Fig. 1  A two-diaphragm thermoacoustic Stirling engine
Page 3 of 17 543
Diaphragm 2
Resonator
Compliance
Inertance Diaphragm 1
Fig. 2  Two-diaphragm thermoacoustic Stirling engine (side view)
flow rate and pressure in the core section of the engine, as
well as facilitating the engine start-up, while the Diaphragm
No. 2 transmits power through the mass connected to it. It
should be noted that when the phase difference between pres-
sure and volumetric flow changes in the core of the engine
reaches the lowest possible state, the engine will work at its
best possible state. Figures 1 and 2 show that there are no
mechanical links in the structure of these types of engines,
and thus, the startup of these engines will become the one
of the most important concerns of researchers in this area.
Therefore, this work attempts to find a practical solution to
address this challenge.
2.2 Two‑diaphragm thermoacoustic Stirling engine
modeling
As mentioned in the introduction section, the existence of
stable fluctuations in the dynamic response of these highly
nonlinear systems is a vital condition for their operation at
a steady state. On the other hand, once this condition is met,
the engine’s startup is guaranteed. Notably, various theo-
ries were applied to this important subject [30, 31]. Since
creating a stable limit cycle in the behavior of the pistons
guarantees steady-state fluctuation, this idea can also be used
for the nonlinear analysis of the diaphragm thermoacoustic
Stirling engine. Hence, a nonlinear model for the diaphragm
thermoacoustic Stirling engine should be proposed. Thus,
this action paves the way for the nonlinear dynamic of the
diaphragm thermoacoustic Stirling engine to be studied by
the free-piston Stirling theories in future.
A glance at the available literature reveals that numerous
studies have considered thermoacoustic Stirling engines as
an advanced type of free-piston Stirling engines [9]. Thus,
it is possible to model a two-diaphragm thermoacoustic
Stirling engine based on the perspective of free-piston Stir-
ling engines. (Fig. 3 is the mechanical model provided for a
two-diaphragm thermoacoustic Stirling engine.) To this aim,
the lumped technique is employed to obtain the mechanical
model based on the following assumptions:
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543 Page 4 of 17 Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2023) 45:543

Fig. 3  Mechanical model of a

two-diaphragm thermoacoustic
Stirling engine

Cold source

1 /2

1 /2
Hot source

(I) The dimensions of engine components are much
smaller than the wavelength of the acoustic wave.
(II) The pressure fluctuation is much smaller than the
mean pressure in the engine chamber.
(III) The gas pressure in the pulse tube is identical to
that of the inertance tube.
(IV) The effect of external/internal noises is ignored in
the presented mechanical model.
By comparing the mechanical model (Fig. 3) and the
acoustic model (Fig. 4), it can be found that the power
piston is equivalent to the mass connected to diaphragm
2. Besides, the displacer piston in the mechanical model
is equivalent to the gas mass in the inertance section. On
the other hand, the stiffness of diaphragms 1 and 2 is con-
sidered nonlinear spring ( Ky1 y + Ky y3 , Kx1 x + Kx x3 ) in the
mechanical model. It is important to note that the damping

Fig. 4  Section view of two-

diaphragm thermoacoustic
Stirling engine

,
Inertance

13
Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2023) 45:543
coefficients related to the diaphragms are dy and dx in the
mechanical model, respectively.
According to Newton’s second law of motion and the
mentioned assumptions, the governing equations of the
inertance section can be derived as follows:
P1 − P2 A� − Kx1 x − Kx x3 − dx ẋ = A2 Ix ẍ = Mx ẍ (1)
( )
L
𝜈 = −�(e)
Ix = 𝜌m (2)
A�
On the other hand, the dynamic equation of the resona-
tor section can be written as:
My ÿ = −dy ẏ − Ky1 y − Ky y3 + P1 − Patm A (3)
( )
Finally, the dynamic equation governing the diaphragm
thermoacoustic Stirling engine can be obtained as
My ÿ + dy ẏ + Ky1 y + Ky y3 = (P1 − Patm )A (4)
Mx ẍ + dx ẋ + Kx1 x + Kx x3 = P1 − P2 A� (5)
( )
Interested readers are referred to [9] for more detailed
information about the dynamic equations governing the
two-diaphragm thermoacoustic Stirling engine.
2.3 Passivity‑based control scheme
First, the system error equations should be acquired as
follows in the first place:
ė = f (e, 𝜈) (6)
y = h(e) (7)
where e ∈ Rn , 𝜈 ∈ Rm and y ∈ Rm . Note that 𝜈, e, and y′ are
error control input vector, state vector, and output control,
respectively. Moreover, f is a locally Lipchitz function in
(e, 𝜈). Besides, f (0, 0) = 0 specifies the equilibrium point
of the open-loop system.
Definition 1 [25] The error dynamic equations defined by
Eqs. (6) and (7) are known as a passive system if there is
a storage function that is continuous differentiable positive
semi-definite V ∶ Rn 𝛽 → R(V(0) = 0)and the following rela-
tion also holds:
V̇ < y�T u (8)
Definition 2 [25] The error state equations (see Eq. (6))
are zero-state observable if ė = f (e, 0) becomes zero when
e(t) ≡ 0.
Page 5 of 17 543
Accordingly, the passivity-based control is defined in the
following Lemma.
Lemma [25] Consider Eqs. (6) and (7), if the error equa-
tion is passive (V̇ < y′T u ) and zero-state observable, then
the equilibrium point e(t) ≡ 0 can be globally asymptotically
stabilized via the following static output feedback control:
̇ (9)
where �(.) is any locally Lipschitz function such that
yT �(y�) > 0 and �(0) = 0 for all y′ ≠ 0. Consequently, there
is great freedom in the choice of �(.).
3 Methodology
As outlined in Sect. 2, the most important goal in the design
of thermoacoustic Stirling engines is to achieve stable fluc-
tuations in engine dynamics. Therefore, the assumption
of sinusoidal motion for the power and displacer pistons
is acceptable. Therefore, the motions of the pistons are
assumed to be near the harmonic motion. In this regard, the
frequency and length of the piston courses must be selected
as the main goals. Accordingly, the error dynamic equations
for the movement of the pistons are defined as follows:
ep = y − Ap sin(𝜔t) (10)
ep = x − Ad sin(𝜔t + 𝜃) (11)
Substituting Eqs. (10) and (11) in Eqs. (4) and (5) yield the
error dynamic equations of the engine:
My ë p + 𝜔2 Ap sin (𝜔t) + dy ė p + Ap 𝜔 cos (𝜔t)
( ) ( )
)3
(12)
( ) (
+ Ky1 ep + Ap sin (𝜔t) + Ky ep + Ap sin (𝜔t)
= (P1 − Patm )A
Mx ë d + 𝜔2 Ad sin (𝜔t + 𝜃) + dx ė d + Ad 𝜔 cos (𝜔t + 𝜃)
( ) ( )
( ) (
+ Kx1 ed + Ad sin (𝜔t + 𝜃) + Kx ed + Ad sin (𝜔t + 𝜃)
)3
( )
= P1 − P2 A�
(13)
Finally, the error dynamic equations in the state-space will be:
M ë + Bė + KH e + q(e, t) = u (14)
A glance at the provided equations indicates the forces cor-
responding to the instantaneous pressure within the compres-
sion and expansion spaces are intended as measurable inputs.
Therefore, these forces can be controlled by changing the hot
and cold gas temperatures. With regard to Eq. (14), the follow-
ing equations can be written:
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543 Page 6 of 17 Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2023) 45:543

u1 = (P1 − Patm )A (15) By substituting Eq. (25) in Eq. (14), one can obtain the
following equation

(16)
( ) [ ][ ] [ ][ ]
u2 = P1 − P2 A� My 0 ë p dy 0 ė p
+
0 Mx ë d 0 dx ė d
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ] (26)
My 0 Ky + K1 0 ep 𝜈
M= (17) + = 1
0 Mx 0 Kx + K2 ed 𝜈2

[ ] Equation (25) can be rewritten in the compact form as:

d 0
B= y (18) M ë + Bė + KH e = 𝜈 (27)
0 dx
Considering that the dynamic behavior of the two-
diaphragm thermoacoustic Stirling engine is passive, the
[ ]
Ky1 0
KH = (19) candidate Lyapunov function can be written as follows:
0 Kx1

[ ( )3 ( ) ]
Ky ep + Ap sin (𝜔t) + My 𝜔2 + Ky1 Ap sin (𝜔t) + dy Ap 𝜔 cos (𝜔t)
q(e, t) = ( )3 ( ) (20)
Kx ed + Ad sin (𝜔t + 𝜃) + Mx 𝜔2 + Kx1 Ad sin (𝜔t + 𝜃) + dx Ad 𝜔 cos (𝜔t + 𝜃)

1 T 1
Equation (14) shows that the dynamics of the engine is V= ė Me + eT KH e (28)
2 2
a system with two inputs, and the goal of the system is to
reach the desired movements that were determined earlier And its time derivative is:
(see Eqs. (10) and (11)). With these interpretations, con-
trol methods can be used to achieve the target goals. In this V̇ = ė T M ë + eT KH ė (29)
regard, the passivity-based control is used. On the other
By substituting the dynamics of the thermoacoustic
hand, since the dynamics of the diaphragm thermoacoustic
Stirling engine in the time derivative of the support func-
Stirling engine (Eqs. (4) and (5)) follow the principle of
tion, the following relationship can be obtained:
the conservation of energy, the passiveness of the system is
certain. Thus, it is possible to investigate the desired goal V̇ = ė T (−Bė − KH e + 𝜈) + eT KH ė (30)
based on the passivity-based control method. First, accord-
ing to the passivity method, the control law is selected for As a result, through simplification, it can be readily
the system as follows: appreciated that the given inequality shows that the time
derivative of the support function is negative as
(21)
�
u = q(e, t) − K e + 𝜈

[ ]
K1 0 V̇ = −ė T Bė − ė T KH e + ė T 𝜈 + eT KH ė (31)
�
K =
0 K2 (22)

[ ] ė T KH e = eT KH ė (32)
𝜈
𝜈= 1
𝜈2 (23)
V̇ = −ė T Bė − eT KH ė + ė T 𝜈 + eT KH ė (33)
[ ]
u1
u= (24) B ≥ 0 ⇒ −ė T Bė ≤ 0 (34)
u2

[ ] [ ( )3 ( ) ] [ ][ ] [ ]
u1 Ky ep + Ap sin (𝜔t) + My 𝜔2 + Ky1 Ap sin (𝜔t) + dy Ap 𝜔 cos (𝜔t) K1 0 ep 𝜈
= )3 ( − + 1 (25)
u2 0 K2 ed
( )
Kx ed + Ad sin (𝜔t + 𝜃) + Mx 𝜔2 + Kx1 Ad sin (𝜔t + 𝜃) + dx Ad 𝜔 cos (𝜔t + 𝜃) 𝜈2

13
Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2023) 45:543 Page 7 of 17 543

to diaphragm No. 2 ( My ), the stiffness of diaphragms No. 1

V̇ = −ė T Bė + ė T 𝜈 ≤ ė T 𝜈
As stated in Sect. 2.2, investigating whether the engine
error dynamic equation is zero-state observable or not
is the second necessary condition for using the passiv-
ity method. Considering the velocity of the power piston
as the output of the system, it can be understood that the
two-diaphragm thermoacoustic Stirling engine with input
ν and output ė is a zero-state observer:
y(t) ≡ 0 ⟺ e(t)
̇ ≡ 0 ⇒ ë (t) ≡ 0 ⇒ KH e(t) ≡ 0 ⇒ e(t) ≡ 0
(36)
Equation (36) clearly shows that the error dynamic equa-
tion of the two-diaphragm thermoacoustic Stirling engine
is the zero-state observer. As a result, the system is globally
stable via the control 𝜈 = −�(e)̇ (with any function �) such
that �(0) = 0 and y�T �(0) > 0 for all y′ ≠ 0. Therefore, 𝜈 is
selected as follows:
𝜈 = −KL ė
where KL is a positive definite matrix. With these explana-
tions, the control law for the desired system will be:
u = q(e, t) − K�e − KL ė
In the end, the control law can be rewritten according to
Eqs. (25) and (37) as follows:
(35)
and 2 ( Kx , Ky ) and the appropriate phase difference between
the pistons (θ) (in the mechanical model) should be to
achieve the desired fluctuations. As it is known, there are
eight parameters that are supposed to be designed for this
study, yet, there are only two equations related to the dynam-
ics of the power and displacer pistons in the mechanical
model. Thus, the conventional solutions fail to determine the
values of the determined parameters. Therefore, the genetic
algorithm method will be employed to estimate these
parameters.
In order to use the genetic algorithm, first, a suitable
cost function must be selected for this method. The sum of
the squares of the difference between the desired changes
of the pistons and the changes estimated by the presented
method is considered the cost function of the problem:
)2 ( )2
(40)
(
c.f . = y − Ap sin(𝜔t) + x − Ad sin(𝜔t + 𝜃)
(37) The values of design parameters that are known in the
design process are presented in Table 1.
In summary, the general scheme of designing and stud-
ying the stable fluctuations through the passivity method
(38) is depicted in Fig. 5.
As mentioned, the goal of this study is to have the
engine dynamics reach the desired fluctuations shown in
Eqs. (10) and (11). Based on this, the desired goal is that

[ ] [ ( )3 ( ) ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ]
u1 Ky ep + Ap sin(𝜔t) + My 𝜔2 + Ky1 Ap sin(𝜔t) + dy Ap 𝜔cos(𝜔t) K1 0 ep KL1 0 ė p
u2
= ( )3 ( )
Kx ed + Ad sin(𝜔t + 𝜃) + Mx 𝜔2 + Kx1 Ad sin(𝜔t + 𝜃) + dx Ad 𝜔cos(𝜔t + 𝜃)
−
0 K2 ed
−
0 KL2 ė d (39)

Equation (39) shows that if the constant values of K′ and the working frequency is equal to 13.8 Hz and the stroke
KL matrices are determined correctly, then the state equa- length of the power and displacement pistons is equal to
tions errors will tend toward the objectives of the problem 0.0048 m and 0.001 m, respectively; the phase difference
(Eqs. (10) and (11)). In the next section, more investigation between the pistons is 121 degrees. Notably, the values
regarding the proposed method will be conducted. selected for desire motion were selected based on the char-
acteristics of the SUTech-SR-3, which was designed and
built by the authors of this article.
4 Results and discussion Therefore, based on the defined desired movement and
with the help of the genetic algorithm [32] and the pas-
As stated in the earlier sections, the primary goal of this sivity method, the estimated parameters can be found. As
study is to achieve stable dynamic oscillations of the two- shown in Fig. 5, using GA and passivity control, the design
diaphragm thermoacoustic Stirling engine. On this basis, the
desired motions of power and displacer pistons are consid-
ered in the mechanical model presented for this engine (Eqs. Table 1  Values of known design parameters of the diaphragm TASE
(10) and (11)). In order to achieve the mentioned goals, the
Parameter Value Parameter Value
passivity method is employed so that the error dynamics
equation of the engine tends to the desired fluctuations. In A′ 0.000314(m2 ) Tc 300 (K)
this regard, it is necessary to know, how much the values of ​​ P0 10+5 (pa) A 0.00384 ­(m2)
the control constants, i.e., KL1 , KL2 , K1، and K2 as well as the 𝜌 4.81(kg∕m3 ) Rq 13,450
values of
​​ the engine parameters such as the mass connected R 287(N × m∕kg × k)

13
543 Page 8 of 17 Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2023) 45:543

Fig. 5  The design process based on the passivity method and GA

parameters are estimated in the first step. After obtain- effectiveness of the presented method are verified in
ing the design parameters, the movement and velocity of Figs. 10 and 11.
both pistons are obtained using the simulation as shown One should bear in mind that achieving stable fluctua-
in Fig. 6. Finally, the obtained results are compared with tions in the dynamic behavior of such engines is one of the
the desired results. More detailed information about GA most important challenges for researchers. Figures 12 and
is given in Table 2. 13 also show the stable limit cycle in the dynamics of the
As can be seen in Fig. 7, the value of the cost func- engines, which proves the reliability and effectiveness of the
tion is equal to 0.000000000432 after 267 iterations which passivity-based technique.
is less than the value of the stopping criteria strategy Now, it is time to calculate the work and output power
(0.000000001). in the thermoacoustic Stirling engine. To this end, first, it
The optimal values of design parameters using GA are is necessary to calculate the instantaneous pressure varia-
given in Table 3. tion. The pressure can be obtained using Eqs. (4) and (5) as
Now, employing the estimated parameters, the engine follows [16]:
dynamics can be simulated, allowing for the examination ( )
and comparison of the outcomes. Figure 8 shows that the mRTh Tc − b1 ẋ + b2 xx
̇ + b3 ẏ + b4 yx
̇
P1 = (41)
presented method can track the movement of the power a1 y + a2 x + a3
piston appropriately. Besides, it is clear that the simulated
behavior can track the desired motion of the power piston where
in less than 0.1 s. a1 = Th A (42)
Meanwhile, Fig. 9 shows the simulated and desired
movements of the displacer piston 9. Figure 9 also con-
a2 = Tc A − Th A (43)
firms that the presented method is able to track the desired
movement successfully.
In addition, Figs. 10 and 11 reveal that the proposed a3 = Tc Vh0 + Th Vc0 (44)
method in this work can track the velocity of the power
and displacer pistons. Once again, the reliability and b1 = 2Rq ATc Vh0 (45)

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Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2023) 45:543 Page 9 of 17 543

Fig. 6  Simulink block diagram

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543 Page 10 of 17 Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2023) 45:543

Table 2  Proposed GA parameters By calculating the composition inside the volume pres-
Parameter Type/value sure diaphragm, the amount of work produced in one work-
ing cycle of the SUTech-SR-3 engine is 0.0083 J. By multi-
Population size 1000 plying the working frequency of the engine by this value, the
Range of parameters [0, 1] output power of the engine is determined to be 0.115 watts.
Selection strategy Stochastic It should be noted that the working fluid in this engine was
Crossover Scattered air with a pressure of 1 atmosphere. Please note that if the
Mutation Adaptive feasible air pressure in the engine can be increased, the power of the
engine increases.

b2 = 2Rq A2 Tc (46)
5 Experimental study
b3 = −Rq ATc Vh0 (47) Figure 16 presents the experimental pressure fluctuations
inside the engine, as measured by the pressure sensor model
b4 = −Rq A2 Tc (48) MPXV7002. Note that extracting all data was performed
using the NI-USB6009 model.
As it is clear from Eqs. (41) to (48), the required hot An accelerometer sensor, namely MMA7361, is used to
source temperature for starting the engine should be deter- obtain the data of the power piston (mass connected to the
mined. This value can be obtained through the estimated diaphragm number 2). The empirical data of the reciprocating
design parameters and Eqs. (15), (39), and (41). Therefore, movement of the connected mass to the piston are shown in
the estimated temperature was found to be 493 K. Now, Fig. 17. Notably, the mass of the acceleration sensor is also
with the help of Eq. (41), pressure changes in the stable
oscillations within the engine are shown in Fig. 14. Table 3  Optimal values of design parameters using GA
In order to plot the P–V diaphragm, it is necessary to
Design parameter Value Design parameter Value
calculate the changes of the total volume inside the engine,
which can be acquired using Vtotal = Vh + Vc . Finally, with Mx 0.101 (kg) KL1 3.8
the help of this relationship and the results simulated by the 𝜃 117 (degree) KL2 1.9
presented method, the steady-state P–V diaphragm is plotted Kx 3.8 (N ­m−1) K1 66
as shown in Fig. 15. Ky 9.4 (N ­m−1) K2 77

Fig. 7  Convergence of the genetic algorithm for the determination of the minimum value of the desired fitness function

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Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2023) 45:543
Fig. 8  Simulated and desired motions of the power piston
Fig. 9  Simulated and desired motions of the displacer piston
added in the mass connected to diaphragm 2. Besides, the
wires connected to the acceleration sensor are selected in such
a way that they do not create a disturbing force for the recipro-
cating movement of the diaphragm and the mass connected to
it (or to the power piston in the presented mechanical model).
Page 11 of 17 543
So far, total volume and pressure changes were deter-
mined experimentally. Now, the P–V diaphragm for the
SUTech-SR-3 engine in a working cycle as shown in Fig. 18.
Table 4 provides a meaningful comparison between
the results obtained from simulations using the passivity
method and the experimental outcomes. The comparison
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543 Page 12 of 17 Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2023) 45:543

Fig. 10  Simulated and desirable velocities of the power piston

Fig. 11  Simulated and desirable velocities of the displacer piston

clearly demonstrates the passivity method's ability to accu- 6 Conclusion

rately estimate the design parameters. Consequently, it
becomes feasible to acquire estimated values of the design
parameters prior to the construction of the two-diaphragm
thermoacoustic Stirling engines, thereby enhancing the
cost efficiency of the production process.
This study introduces a groundbreaking design approach
utilizing the passivity method and genetic algorithm
(GA). For the first time, a design mechanism is presented

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Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2023) 45:543 Page 13 of 17 543

Fig. 12  Simulated and desirable limit cycle of power piston

Fig. 13  Simulated and desired limit cycle of displacer piston

to effectively determine the design goals, including the
desired motions of the power and displacer pistons in the
mechanical model of the engine, alongside the operating
frequency. According to the objectives of the dynamic
design, the engine error dynamic equations were derived.
Next, the design parameters including the mass of the pis-
ton connected to diaphragm 2, the stiffness of diaphragms
No. 1 and 2, the temperature of the hot source, and the
phase difference between the diaphragms were estimated
via the passivity technique and GA. Subsequently, the

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543 Page 14 of 17 Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2023) 45:543

Fig. 14  Simulated pressure x 10

5

changes 1.008

1.006

1.004

1.002

P1 (Pa)
1

0.998

0.996

0.994

0.992
55 56 57 58 59 60
Time (s)

Fig. 15  Simulated P–V diagram

output work and the output power of the engine were pre-
dicted using the estimated parameters. Comparing the sim-
ulated results with the experimental results showed that
this method can predict the SUTech-SR-3 engine design
and performance parameters. This work also addresses
the crucial aspect of ensuring stable oscillations in engine
dynamics. The proposed features presented in this study
hold the potential to significantly reduce both the pro-
duction and design costs, as well as the time required for
thermoacoustic Stirling engines. Notably, this method can

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Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2023) 45:543 Page 15 of 17 543

Fig. 16  Experimental pressure

variation
1000

500

Pressure (pa)
0

-500

-1000

-1500
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (s)

Fig. 17  Installation method

of the accelerometer on the
diaphragm 2

Analog accelerometer (model: MMA7361)

Mass connected to the diaphragm No. 2

be implemented on other types of thermoacoustic Stirling
engines.
In the end, the main contributions of this article can be
listed as follows:
• A new design of a thermoacoustic Stirling engine using
a passivity control and genetic algorithm (GA) point of
view was presented.
• The stable fluctuations of the engine with the help of
the presented method were investigated and guaranteed.
• The design parameters including the mass of the pis-
ton connected to diaphragm No. 2, the stiffness of dia-
phragms No. 1 and 2, the temperature of the hot source,
and the phase difference between the diaphragms were
estimated (based on the design goals) with the help of
the presented method.

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543 Page 16 of 17 Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2023) 45:543

Fig. 18  Experimental P–V

diagram

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