INTRODUCTION TO WORLD

RELIGIONS
UPGRADING ONE’S CULTURAL LITERACY

Edited by Darryl E. Howard

North Lake College

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CONTENTS

PREFACE IX

INTRODUCTION XIII

Unit I  INTRODUCTION TO THE VEDIC FAITHS 1

Chapter 1 HINDUISM 4
Reading 1.1 Hinduism 6
Thomas A. Robinson and Hillary P. Rodrigues
Reading 1.2 Hinduism: History, Beliefs, Practices 21
Richard Fox Young
Reading 1.3 Hindu Tradition 25
Victoria Kennick Urubshurow
Reading 1.4 Encountering the Divine Through Pilgrimage 34
Victoria Kennick Urubshurow
Reading 1.5 Hinduism: Identity and Deities 41
Vasudha Narayanan
Reading 1.6 Festivals, Domestic Rituals, and Worship 49
Vasudha Narayanan
Reading 1.7 Morality and the Person; the Belief in Karma and Rebirth 61
Julius Lipner
Chapter 2 BUDDHISM 81
Reading 2.1 Buddhism 83
Thomas A. Robinson and Hillary P. Rodrigues
Reading 2.2 Buddhism: History, Beliefs, Practices 98
Terry C. Muck
Reading 2.3 Buddhism 103
Mary Pat Fisher
Reading 2.4 Buddhist Tradition 114
Victoria Kennick Urubshurow

Chapter 3 JAINISM AND SIKHISM 133

Reading 3.1 Jain Traditions: Practicing Tradition Today 134
M. Whitney Kelting
Reading 3.2 Sikhism: Practicing Tradition Today 146
Pashaura Singh
Reading 3.3 Sikhism: Sacred Literature 158
Pashaura Singh
Reading 3.4 Jain Traditions: Practicing Tradition Today 164
M. Whitney Kelting

Unit II  INTRODUCTION TO THE FAR EASTERN

RELIGIONS 175

Chapter 4 TAOISM 177

Reading 4.1 Chinese Religions 178
Thomas A. Robinson and Hillary P. Rodriguez
Reading 4.2 Taoism 195
Martin X. Moleski

Chapter 5 CONFUCIANISM 205

Reading 5.1 Confucianism 206
Martin X. Moleski
Unit III  INTRODUCTION TO THE ABRAHAMIC
FAITHS 217

Chapter 6 JUDAISM 220

Reading 6.1 Judaism 223
Thomas A. Robinson and Hillary P. Rodrigues
Reading 6.2 Judaism: History, Beliefs, Practices 233
Richard Robinson
Reading 6.3 Judaism 236
Martin Moleski
Reading 6.4 Judaism 248
Thomas A. Robinson and Hillary P. Rodrigues
Reading 6.5 Judaism: History, Beliefs, Practices 261
Terry C. Muck
Reading 6.6 T
 he “Most High” God and the Nature of Early Jewish
Monotheism 264
Richard Bauckham

Chapter 7 CHRISTIANITY 273

Reading 7.1 Christianity 275
Thomas A. Robinson and Hillary P. Rodriguez
Reading 7.2 Christianity: Judiasm Continued 290
Martin Moleski
Reading 7.3 The Founder and the Foundational Documents 303
James R. Adair
Reading 7.4 Christian Traditions 311
Victoria Kennick Urubshurow
Reading 7.5 Christianity 321
Thomas A. Robinson and Hillary P. Rodrigues
Chapter 8 ISLAM 335
Reading 8.1 Islamic Tradition 337
Victoria Kennick Urubshurow
Reading 8.2 T
 he Beginnings of Islam: Muslim History
to About 700 ce 351
William E. Sheppard
Reading 8.3 Ritual Practice 359
Andrew Rippin
Reading 8.4 To Know God’s Will: Islamic Law 371
William E. Sheppard
Reading 8.5 T
 he Beginnings of Islam: Muslim History
to About 700 CE 380
William E. Sheppard
PREFACE

B eing classified as an educated person in today’s society demands an awareness—

and in certain occupations, even a basic knowledge—of world religions. A sincere
commitment to develop a basic understanding of the world’s religions is to enhance one’s
cultural literacy. Hence, the main purpose of this anthology is to enable and equip the
reader to improve their cultural literacy, preparing the reader to effectively and harmo-
niously interact with people of various traditions, beliefs, and practices in their work and
community lives.
The religious traditions described in the selected readings throughout the following
chapters represent the basic customs, beliefs, and practices of world religions and cultures
around the globe. Throughout ancient history, and even in modern times, religion has
significantly shaped, impacted, and influenced cultures. Religion has also influenced and
motivated people to often rationalize their behavior as in accordance with the precepts and
commandments of a transcendent power or in keeping with timeless traditions. Because
of the powerful and sometimes detrimental use of religions, possessing a correct, basic
understanding of the world religions is necessary for functioning as a fully productive and
participating member of society.

Religions in the Modern World

A responsible survey of the world’s religions requires an acknowledgment of the rapid

changes that characterize the modern world. Historical transformations, influenced during
the past several centuries by diverse and powerful factors, such as colonization, the
scientific revolution, and economic globalization, have transformed religious beliefs and
practices. The following four specific phenomena serve as additional reasons for gaining a
solid understanding of world religions for cultural literacy purposes.

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x | INTRODUCTION TO WORLD RELIGIONS

Modernization

Modernization involves the inclusive process through which societies change economically,
socially, and culturally to conform and stay relevant within an increasingly competitive global
marketplace. The major benefits of modernization include increased literacy, improved
education, enhanced technologies, self-sustaining economies, the increasing roles of
women in various aspects of society, and the greater involvement of the general populace
in government (as in democracies). Each of the benefits listed above involves corresponding
changes within religious traditions. Higher literacy rates and improved education, for exam-
ple, pave the way for increased access to religious texts that previously were regulated by
and reserved for the religious elite. Technological advances, strengthened economies, and
increased participation in government all nurture greater equality for and empowerment
of the common people. A general feature of modernity, moreover, is its tendency to deny
the authority of tradition and the past. Traditional male-dominated modalities, for example,
have slowly eroded over time. Around the globe, long-standing traditions involving power
structures within religions are disintegrating. While exemptions to the gradual erosion of
some religious traditions do exist, modernization clearly has influenced the reshaping of
religious traditions.

Urbanization

An important demographic result of modernization is urbanization. Urbanization is repre-

sented by the transformation of rural and agrarian communities into cities. A century
ago, only about 10 percent of the global population lived in cities. Today, over 50 percent of
the population reside in urban communities. As a result, religious traditions created within
rural communities provide far less relevance today for most religious people.

Globalization

Globalization involves the connecting and blending of cultures. One result of centuries
of exploration and colonization is the rapid development of globalization. Globalization is
also a by-product of the rapid expansion of advanced technologies introduced by modern-
ization. The impact of this connecting and blending is evidenced in the phrase “World Wide
Web,” as well as the exponential development and effects of the digital age. Today, we now
live in a global community that could hardly have been imagined a few decades ago, which
demands a basic, yet unbiased, understanding of traditions, beliefs, and practices contrary
to our own.
 PREFACE | xi

Multiculturalism

The commanding religious impact of globalization represents another direct result of multi-
culturalism. Multiculturalism is the simultaneous existence of people of different races,
ethnicities, religions, and cultural and social practices in one time and one location.
In today’s world, the existence of religious pluralism represents a common characteristic
in most communities. In other words, many people no longer live in religious isolated
or segregated societies. Because of the pronounced existence of religious pluralism, it
is becoming increasingly difficult for many individuals to subscribe to any one religious
tradition as the only legitimate belief system. Instead, more and more individuals, especially
among millennials, engage in critical thinking and render a critical assessment of religion.
One result of such an analytical assessment of religion is the gradual erosion of religious
authority. For example, individuals and communities enduring traumatic and repeated social
injustice will often blame religious traditions as the source of the suffering. Globalization,
like modernization, has nurtured the notably modern process of secularization, the general
turning away from religious authority and institutions.
In summary, the rapid pace of global and technological advancements throughout the
world demands a basic knowledge of world religions. Modernization, urbanization, global-
ization, and multiculturalism represent the new normal in our neighborhoods, in our places
of employment, and in our entertainment and recreation. Therefore, developing one’s
cultural literacy by cultivating an understanding of world religions is essential for greater
participation and effectiveness in making the world a better place. Let’s get started.

xi
INTRODUCTION

T his anthology begins with a general introduction describing why a basic understand-
ing of world religions is essential for cultural literacy in today’s world. The book is
divided into three units of study. Unit I covers the Vedic religions—Hinduism, Buddhism,
Jainism, and Sikhism. The East Asian belief systems and religions are discussed in Unit II.
Finally, Unit III describes the Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Each
chapter is organized with four sections.
The first section highlights a major belief, tradition, and/or practice associated with
the religions referenced in the unit. The second section in each unit provides a list of key
terms unique and significant to the chapter religion. Selected readings about the religions
appear in the third section of each chapter. The fourth section of each chapter consists of
comprehension questions related to content in the chapter.
Because a proper study of world religions demands a knowledge of world geography,
maps of key locations of throughout the world highlight this text. Finally, the pages of this
anthology are filled with color photographs and illustrations, adding a visual experience to
the verbal descriptions of the beliefs, traditions, and practices associated with the religions
of the world. The purpose of these photographs and illustrations is to provide the reader
with a visual experience to complement the content.

xiii
 UNIT I
INTRODUC TION TO THE
V ED I C FA I T HS

Editor’s Introduction

The following introduction highlights a major belief, tradition,

and practice associated with the Vedic religions.

Namaste: “The divine in me acknowledges and recognizes the

divine in you.”

Namaste is the common form of greeting in Hinduism. This Vedic greeting is recited
to show respect to others and to declare their devotion and reverence to gods. The
physical posture maintained by the one reciting this expression is to join both the
hands with the palms touching and facing one another with reverential attitude
in the presence of a person or a deity. The person making the gesture may also
extend a bow by lowering the head and upper body to bow in submission.
This Hindu greeting is usually offered to senior citizens, educators, spiritual
leaders, sages, clerics, scholars, authority figures, and people of high social status.
The greeting conveys an expression of a courtesy demonstrating genuine respect
and admiration or reverence and submission. When performed in rote fashion
without any emotion or feeling, it represents a mere social custom or ritual.

IMG 2.0: Source: https://legacy.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/txu-oclc-247232986-

asia_pol_2008.jpg.
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 Origins
Excavations for Indus civilization have revealed many male and female terracotta
figures in the Namaste posture. These archaeological findings are dated between
3000 BCE to 2000 BCE.

Meaning
Namas is a bow, salutation, or obeisance, and akar means giving shape or expression;
te means “to you.” Thus, Namaskar is a physical expression of reverential love and
devotion. The word pranam is also used in Sanskrit to denote the same. It means
reverential salutation, bowing, stooping, etc. It was probably used in ancient times as
a declaration or oath of loyalty to a king, divinity, or an eminent person, meaning, “I
am offering my prana (breath) or life to you” (Jayaram V).

Symbolism
Namaste has a deeper symbolic significance in Hinduism. The two hands, joined
together in reverence, serve as the point of connection between the subject (God) and
object (his devotee). The two hands represent the duality, or the pairs of opposites,
which are common to our world. The joining of the hands represents the connection
between one’s mind and body. The interrelation between the body and the soul is
also represented. Lastly, the connection between the soul and God, Nature and Self,
attraction and aversion, and all the dualities of your mind as an offering to God.
The outer sides of the hands, facing toward the deity, represent the transcendental
reality, or the divine, whereas the sides of the hands facing toward yourself signify the
physical reality that is your body, or the field of Nature. In between the two, bridging
them, represents the devotional offering, your salutation and declaration of faith. By
putting the hands together before God, you unite the God (Brahman) in front of you
with the divine (Atman) in your heart. With the joined hands, the Hindu believer not
only salutes the Supreme Being in front of him, but also the deity (Self), who resides
innate in oneself.

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Bibliography
Kalyanaraman, S. Indus Script Cipher: Hieroglyphs of Indian Linguistic Area, pp. 234–236. 2010.
New Delhi, India: Sarasvati Research Center. ISBN: 9780982897102
Origins of Hinduism. Hinduism Today: Affirming Sanatana Dharma and Recording the Modern
History of a Billion-Strong Global Religion in Renaissance. (April/May/June 2007), no. 2, Ch. 1,
p. 3.
Seated Male in Namaskar Pose. 2012. National Museum, p. 129. New Delhi, India: Kaveri.
V, Jayaram. The Meaning and Significance of Namaskar or Namaste. www.hinduwebsite.com/
hinduism/concepts/namaskar.asp

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 CHAPTER 1

Hinduism

Key Terms in Hinduism

Ahimsa (uh-him’-sa)–“Nonharm”; “nonviolence.”

Ashram (ash’-ram)–A spiritual community.
Atman (at’-mun)–The spiritual essence of all individual human beings.
Avatar (ah’-va-tar)–An earthly embodiment of a deity.
Bhagavad Gita [bhuh’-guh-vud-gee’-ta]–The most famous and popular of all Hindu writings.
Bhakti (bhuk’-ti)–Devotion to a deity or guru.
Bhakti yoga–The spiritual discipline of devotion to a deity or guru.
Brahma (bruh’-mah)–God of creation.
Brahman (bruh’-mun)–The spiritual essence of the universe.
Brahmin (bruh’-min)–A member of the priestly class.
Caste (kast)–A major social class sanctioned by Hinduism.
Devi (deh’-vee)–“Goddess,” the Divine Feminine; also called the Great Mother.
Dhyana (dyah’-nah)–Meditation.
Durga–(der-ga’) “Awe-inspiring,” “distant”; a mother-goddess; a form of Devi.
Guru (goo’-roo)–A spiritual teacher.
Hatha yoga (hah’-tha yoh’-ga)–The spiritual discipline of postures and bodily exercises.
Jnana yoga (juh-nah’-nah yoh’-ga)–The spiritual discipline of knowledge and insight.
Kali (kah’-lee)–“Dark”; a form of Devi, a goddess associated with destruction and rebirth.
Karma–The moral law of cause and effect that determines the direction of rebirth.
Karma yoga–The spiritual discipline of selfless action.

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Krishna–A god associated with divine playfulness; a form of Vishnu.
Kundalini yoga (Koon-duh-lee’-nee yoh’-ga)–A form of raja yoga that envisions the individual’s
energy as a force capable of being raised from the center of the body to the head, producing
a state of joy.
Mantra–A short sacred phrase often chanted or used in meditation.
Maya–“Illusion”; what keeps us from seeing reality correctly.
Moksha (mohk’-shah)–“Liberation” from personal limitation, egotism, and rebirth.
Monism–The belief that God and the universe are the same, that the universe is divine.
Puja (poo’-jah)–Offerings and ritual in honor of a deity.
Raja yoga–The “royal” discipline of meditation.
Rama–A god and mythical king; a form of Vishnu.
Samadhi (suh-mah’-dhee)–A state of complete inner peace resulting from meditation.
Samsara (suhm-sah’-rah)–The everyday world of change and suffering leading to rebirth.
Sannyasin (san-nyas’-in)–A wandering holy man.
Shiva (shee’-vah)–A god associated with destruction and rebirth.
Trimurti (tree-mur’-tee)–“Three forms” of the divine: the three gods, Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.
Upanishads (oo-pahn’-i-shads)–Written meditations on the spiritual essence of the universe
and the self.
Vedas (vay’-duhs)–The first religious text of Hinduism, consisting of four collections of ancient
prayers and rituals.
Vishnu–A god associated with preservation and love.
Yoga–A spiritual discipline; a method for perfecting one’s union with the divine.