This chapter covers: the characteristics of lving things the structure of animal ells and plant cells the functions ofthe diffrent parts of cells how to calculate magnification. B1.01 Characteristics of living things Wicicgy isthe study of ving tings, which are en or choractersties which make them diferent for movement: an action by a cxparism causingachange ct positon or place respiration: he chemical eactonsin cel thatbreakdown nutrient molecules and release energy sensitivity: the ality to detect and respond to changes in he environment ofthese characteristics are shown in the key terms box. You should learn these definitions now, will find out much mare about each of them later in this book, growth: 2 permanent increaseinsize reproduction: he processes that make more! the sae ing ‘oferganism excretion: rrnoval fom cpanisns oftoxc materia and substances in excess of requrements nutrition: taknginofmatrals for energy growthan developmentCambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences Growth Allorganisms begin small and getlargerby the growth oftheircels ard by adding new istotherrbo: Movement Excretion Allorganisms produce unwanted or toxic waste products as aresult of th metaboiie reactions, anc these ‘must be removed kom the body. Repraduction (Organisms ate ableto make new organisms themselves Figure B1.01 Characteristics of living organisms. Allorganismsare ableto move tesome extent. Most animals can move ther whole body from place to place, and plants can slowly move part themselves ofthesame species as Sensitivity Allorganisms pickup information about changes in their eavirormentand reactto the changes, ‘nutri take substarces from their environment and use them to vide energy of mater als romake neweels, tion Allorganisms glucose and ‘other substances inside ther ceals,torelease energy that they ean use, (eee Se ‘movement: 27 actonby an otganis of part ofan organism ccausinga change o! poston or pace ‘respiration: the cherical reactionsincdl'stnatbreak ow nutrient melecdes ane release energy for metabolism sensitivity: the ablty to detect orsensestimullin theinteral or exeral envionment and to make aparopriate responses [growth: a permanentinereaseinsize anc ry mass by an increase in cellnumber or ce size or both Inaddition to these seven characteristics living organisms have another feature in common: when we study living reproduction: the processes that make mereot the sane kind cf organism ‘excretion: removal tom organisms ofthe waste procucts of ‘metabolism (chemical reactions incels including respiretion} tonic materia and substances in eaces of requirements rutrition: coking n of materas or energy, growth and ‘evelopment; plans require light, carbon Goxice, water and Tons, animalsneed organic compounes andions and usually eed water ‘organisms under a microsc all made of cells 2, we can see that they are1.02 Cells Aloipanisms are made of cells. Cells arevery ‘pul. s0 large organisms contain milions of cells “Boane organisms are unicellular, which means that Ahoy ave made ofjusta single cell Bacteria and yeast are ‘ionples of single-celled organisms " Microscopes ‘ovo ces cleary, you need to use 2 microscope {je 62.02, The kine of microscope used in & ‘cial laboratory s called a ight microscope because shes ight through the piece of animal or plant ore looking 3tItuses gasslenses to magnty and mustreimage. Avery good lignt microscope can " snagify about 1500 times, so that all the structures in Fig.s 8103 and 81.04canbe seen Phoiomierographs of plant and animal cals are shown in Jpuopes 8101 and B02. Aricrographis a picture made shh. 8 microscope. A photomicrograph sa pcture mace hina light microscope ‘Josee even sale things insicea col an electron ‘ocoscope is used. Ths uses a bear of electrons Hhwehuman eye cannot see ost cel ¥ lens magnifes S004! 10. Ces can fon be seen as cots suchaea tuceus F pute 81.02 Equipment used for looking at biological material. The light microscope magrifies uo t0 21500. With alight microscope you can see some structures inside a el, cell membrane clear envelope ‘toplas Figure 81.03 Atypical animal cell alivercell-asseen Using light microscope. instead of ignt and can magnify up t0 500 000 times. This means that a lot more detail car be seen inside cell We can see many structures more cleary, anc also some structures that could not be seen at all with a lignt microscope. Pictures made using an electron microscope are called electron micrographs. An electron microscope magnifies upto scamilion. With an eleven m erozcope ‘much more detail can be seen,Cambridge IGCSE Combined and Co-ordinated Sciences cellmembrane cwctope toplasm chloroplast ~ largevacuole contamingeel Sap Image 81.02 Cells from the trachea (windpipe) of 2 sacnwairnsce mammal, seen through @ light microscope (* 300), Figure 81.04 Atypical plant cell -apalisade cell- as seen ‘Making drawings of biological specimens, Skill: ‘803.3 Observing, measuring and recording ‘Scientists reedtobe abletolock closely a specimens ~ citer with the naked eye o using emicroscope-and note Signflcantfeatres h them. it's also important tobe ableto ‘make scertfic drawings. These need tobe simple but clear. In this Activity, you wil be provided witha specimen of an arimaltadraw, tie Here are some points to bearin mind when you draw: Image 81.01 Many plant cells contain green structures, 1m Nake good useof tre spaceon your sheet ofpaper. Your called chloroplasts. Even if it does not have chloroplasts, drawing shouldbe large, butdo leave space aroundtso you can stil identify a plant cell Because it has a cell wall that you Fave room for labels, ‘around it (2000),ocleraserwith you. palllines single and clear the right proportions. some points to bear in ind when you pciagrar ale to draw each label ne sure the end ofthe label ine actually touches structure beng labelled, the labels horizontally sop the labe's wel away trom the edges of drawing. ing magnification ‘Observing, measuring and recording sings and photographs of biological specimens are ly made at a different size from the actual object ification ofa diagram or photograph ishhow gor it is than the rea thing nication = S22 St0HiNg or potograph Brilcation =~" ize othe real object. »ple, measure the length ofthe spider's bodyin ‘am. You shou find that tis4mm long, spider was 8 mim long, Sowe can caleulate the cation Uke this: smagntction= Ste neni Tength of real spider 40mm “mm 5 ways use a sharp HB (megium hard) pencil and have a time togetthe outline ofyour drawing corect fist, ‘The following are two very important things to ntice: 1m You myst use the same units forall the measurements, Usually, milimetres are the bestunitstouse, 1B You shou rot include any units with thefnal answer. Magnification does rot have a unit: However, you must include th times'sign you read it ot loud, you would say'tmestive! Questions [AL Measure the length ofthe lowest ‘tai’ (tis really called {an appendagel onthe centipede below Write your answer in milimetres, |. ees Saar ee ee 1.01 How manytimes can agood light microscope magnify? 1.02 Ifanobjectwas 1 mm across, how big, would iookifitwere magnified ten times? Cell structure Cell membrane Whatever sort of animal or plant they come from, all cells have cell membrane (sometimes called the cel surface membrane) around the outside. inside the cell memrene isa jelly-lke substance called cytoplasm, in which are found many small structures called organelles. The most ‘obvious of these organelles is usually the nucleus. Ina plant cel, the nucleus is very dificult to see, because itis, Fight against the cell wal, The cell membrane s very thin layerof protein and fat. Itis very important to the cell because it controls what goes In and out oft tis partially permeable, which means. thatit wil letsome substances through but nat others,Cell walt Al plant cells are surroundes by @ eell wall mace mainly of cellulose, Paper, which is made from ell walls, s also made of cellulose, Animal cells, never have cell walls made of cellulose. Cellulose belongs to a group of substances called polysaccharides, which are described in Chapter 32, Cellulose forms fibres that criss-cross over one anotner toform a very strong coveringto the cell Image 81.03}, ‘This nelps to protect and support the cell. the cell absorbs 2 lot of water and swells, the cell wall stops it from bursting Because ofthe spaces between fibres, evenvery large molecules are able to go through the cellulose cell wal Itis therefore said to be fully permeable, Cytoplasm ytoplasm isa clear jelly, tisneery all water, about 70% is water in many cells. Many substances are dissolved in it, especially proteins. Many different metabolic reactions {the chernical reactions of ife} take place inthe cytoplasm, Vacuoles Avacuole's 2 spacein acell, surrounded by a membrane and containing a solution Plant cells have very large vacuoles, which contain a solution of sugars and other substances, called cell sap. A full vacuole presses outwards lon therestof the cel, and helps to keep itn shape, Animal Cells have nuch smaller membrane-bound spaces, called vesicles, which may contain nutrients or water. Image 81.03 Cellulose flores from a plant cell wal. This, picture was taken using an electron microscope (x 50.000), Chloroplasts Chloroplasts are never found in animal celis, ut most ofthe cells in the green parts of plants have them. They contain 2 green colouring or pigment called chlorophyll Chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight, and this energy is then used for making food for the plant by photosynthesis (Chapter 34 Chloroplasts often contain starch grains, which have been made by photosynthesis. Animal cells never contain starch Brains. Some animal cells, however, do have granules {tiny grains) of another substance similar to starch, called glycogen. These granules are found in the cytoplasm, not inside chloroplasts. Nucleus ‘The nucleus is where the genetic information is stored. This helps the cello make the right sorts of proteins. The information iskepton the chromosomes, which are inherited from the organism's parents. The chromosomes are made of DNA, Chromosomes are very ong, butso thin that they cannot easily be seen even using the electron microscope, However, when the cells dvicing, they become short {and thick andcan be seen with a gooc light microscope. Table B1.01 compares some features of plant cells and animalcels. have acellulosecelwall [haveno cel. wall outside the cell membrane haveacellmembrane [havea cell membrane have cytoplasin have cytoplasm have a nucleus have a nucleus often have chloroplasts containing chlorophyll have no chloroplasts often have large vacuoles containing cell sap have only small vacuoles never have starch grains; sometimes have glycogen granules often have starch grains ‘are often regularin shape _ | are often iregularin shape Table B1.01 A comparison of plant and animal cells.rena (+) Using a microscope Practise using 2 microscope tolook atvery small things. Lookingat animal cells Skis: ‘AO3.1 Using techniques, apparatus and materials ‘803.3 Observing, measuring and recording Ay Wasryour hands thoroughly afterhanding the trachea and cals, Some simple animal cells ine the mouth and trachea (orwindpipel.fyou colour or stain thecells, they are quiteeasyto see using alight microscope (see Image 81.02 and the drawing below. \ ‘ral vocole \o @ a ‘A drawing of tracheal cells seen through a light microscope after staining with methylene blue. 2. Usinga section ter, gently rub of alittle ofthe lining from the insie o the trachea provides 2 Putyourcelis onto the middle ofa clean microscope slide, and gently spread them out. You will probably rot be able to see anything at alla this stage, 3 Puton afewdrops of methylene blue. 4 Gently lower ecoversip over the stained cel, trying ‘nottotrap any air bubbles. '5 Use ter paper or blotting paper to clean up the slide, and thon look att under the low power ofa microscope. 6 Make labelled drawing of afew cells. Questions __AL Which part ofthe col stained the darkest blue? | A2 Isthecell membrane permeable or impermeable tomethylene biue? Explain how you worked out your answer. Looking at plant cells shits: {ORL Ung techlques, apparatus acters 022 Observing, measuring and recording AN Teecre th he sap Bacewhen ctingthe ovon Tabeabetoseecel ea ndera lretope you eed 3 thn lyr ses tion one celtic ea) Scat ei ar Rae at iat sega ee eer a ee ce topes asmal pec of thn sh caledenierms, tramthelnadet kD nti ge El te ea ate leet eet ace mtoscope side Put he pce fepidermisitar, and spead i, 2 Gentyleracoverip ono 4 aefter pee lotngpapertoceanupthesic, srcthentookat tude! fe Ev pe esc 5 ake labeled crawngotafewcls The dawg below mayhelpyou, utd nots cny orem es aes ‘Adrawingof onion epidermis cells seen through a light microscope after staining with iodine. 6 Using pipette, take ip a smallamauntotiodine sluton. Very carefully place someiodne soltionrexttotheedgeo! thecoversp. The iodine sclution wl seep undertheedge of thecovesip Tohelpitéoths, you can place asmal piece lft papernex tothe oppestesiceofthecoversip, “which wll soakup some ofthe iquid and craw through 7 Look attheslice under the low power of the microscope, Note any diflerences between wiatyou can seenow ‘and what itlocked lie before adding the iodine solution ‘Questions [AL Nametwostructures which youcanseein thesecels, but \whichyou couldnt see in thetrachealcelsctvty1.04) ‘A2 Most plant cells have chloroplasts, but these onion ‘cells do not. Suggest a reason fr tis. [AB lodine solution turns blue-black the presence of starch, Did any ofthe onioncellscontain starch?Dice ombined and Co-ordinated Science B1.03 Cells and organisms a ee a oy cell membrane? millions of cells, but net all the cells are alike, Almost all of fee rr pee ee touiat nn eae LOT” ae nes CICY Dea inthe leaf of a plant are specially adapted for making food 81.08 Whatisavecuole? by photosynthesis. ae Ral II I, Table 81.02 li les of lised cells and 81.12 Why can chromosomes be seen onlywhen a cell pene a Table 81.02 Some examples of specialised cells End-of-chapter questions Without looking back at the beginning ofthis chapter, decide which five ofthe following, characteristics are found in alliving things movement blood system sight growth photosynthesis ‘nutrition sensitivity speech excretion List the other two characteristics of al ving organisms2 State which part ofa plant cell ‘makes food by photosynthesis controls what goes in andout of thecell stores information about making proteins contains cell sap e_ protects the outside of the cell 3. Distinguish between each ofthe following pais of terms: chloroplast, chlorophyll b caliwal cell membrane 4. Thephotograph shows a section through a fruit, 2 Make alarge diagram of the rut. You do not need to label your diagram, b The protograph shows the fruit at a magnification ofx 0.6. Calculate the diameter of the actual fruit atthe pointirdicated by the dotted lire. Show your working, and remember to include the unt. 5 Themicrograph shows a group of cell from a plant. ‘ 8 a Namethe parts ofthe celllabellec A and B. bb State two ways inwhich yeu car tell thatthe cells in the micrograph areplant cells and ‘not animal cells © 1 Measure the maximum diameter ofthe cel labelled x Record your measurement in milimetres. ‘The micrograph hasbeen magnified 250 times Calculate the rea, maximum diameter of the cel! labelled X. Show your working clearly. (51 a 2 2 cy a