Chapter 40

Product Design and Process Selection

in a Competitive Environment

QUALITATIVE PROBLEMS

40.16 Describe the major considerations involved in selecting materials for products.
By the student. Refer to Section 40.6 on p. 1149. Recall that among major considerations
are:

(a) Function: does the material fulfill the design and manufacturing requirements?
(b) Aesthetics: does it have an acceptable appearance?
(c) Availability: can it be procured in the desired quantities in the required time frame?
(d) Cost: is the material economically attractive?
(e) Environment: is the material disposable, biodegradable, recyclable or harmful to the
environment? Can it be included in biological or industrial life cycles?

40.17 What is meant by manufacturing process capabilities? Select four different man-
ufacturing processes and describe their capabilities.
By the student. Manufacturing characteristics are those that describe the ease with which
it is possible to give a material a desired shape. For example, although glass can be molded
easily, it is difficult to machine, whereas polycarbonate is fairly easy to do so. Thus, complex
transparent shapes can be made from polycarbonate instead of glass, provided it meets all the
necessary requirements. See also Section 40.8 on p. 1153 and review the list of manufacturing
characteristics of materials and their design implications as a guide to giving various examples.

40.18 Comment on the magnitude and range of scrap shown in Table 40.4 and the
reasons for the variations.

446
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 Product Design and Process Selection in a Competitive Environment 447

By the student. Referring to Table 40.4 on p. 1151, note that, as expected and even by
definition, a near-net-shape process (such as powder metallurgy) produces very little scrap.
Machining, being a material-removal process may produce the highest percentage of scrap,
depending, for example, on the initial and final dimensions of the workpiece machined from
a blank. Note also that processes such as forging, cold or hot extrusion, and permanent-
mold casting produce a rather consistent amount of scrap (by way of flash, runners, etc).
The rolling process is well controlled and, as a result, scrap is very low (generally by way
of trimming the material). However, it should be recalled that sheet metals typically are
subsequently subjected to various secondary forming processes, thus the scrap can increase
significantly.

40.19 Explain why the value of the scrap produced in a manufacturing process depends
on the type of material and processes involved.
By the student. Materials have different raw-material market values, which can fluctuate
with supply and demand. A major consideration is the processing required to make the scrap
material usable. The purity of the material is also important as various other materials that
may have been mixed with it. The cleanliness of the material is also a factor; for example,
metal chips from dry machining have more value than those in which cutting fluids have been
used, which can contribute to pollution during recycling.

40.20 Describe your observations concerning the information given in Table 6.1.
By the student. The major observations regarding Table 6.1 on p. 151 are:

(a) Steel is a very economical material.

(b) Most students are not surprised by the high cost of gold and silver, but are surprised by
the high cost of molybdenum and titanium.
(c) There is not a perfect correlation between the material cost and the energy content
shown in Table 40.2.

40.21 Other than the size of the machine, what factors are involved in the range of
prices in each machine category shown in Table 40.6? Explain.
By the student. As one would expect, and as also noted in the caption of Table 40.6 on
p. 1159, the wide ranges of machinery base prices are due to factors such as

(a) size and capacity of the machines

(b) machine quality and the level of precision
(c) level of automation and computer controls, and
(d) options, such as additional equipment or tool-magazine capacity in machining centers.

A good class project would be to contact various suppliers of machinery and provide numbers
to this table, which will range from a few thousand dollars to millions.

40.22 Explain why it takes different amounts of energy to produce different materials.
Consider both the material and the processing history.

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 Product Design and Process Selection in a Competitive Environment 448

Some materials are in a form that allows them to be easily extracted. For example, iron ore
allows steel to be obtained relatively easily. Aluminum takes far more energy to smelt from
bauxite. Magnesium has such a high energy content because it is commonly produced by
electrochemical means from seawater.

40.23 Refer to Table 40.2 and explain why it is essential to recycle aluminum and
magnesium. From a life-cycle standpoint, explain why aluminum and magnesium
should or should not be used in automobiles.
By the student. This is a difficult question. Clearly, the energy content in aluminum and
magnesium is very high, and the recycling of these materials is essential. Note the very much
lower energy content in steel; if aluminum or magnesium is used, then the energy saved in
operation of the car must overcome the increased initial energy cost. It is not clear that this
is the case. Often a partial energy assessment is made of plants, so that material costs are not
directly incorporated. However, for a full lifecycle, it is difficult to see if the use of aluminum
or magnesium is justified, especially if components are optimized with respect to their design.

40.24 Explain how the high cost of some of the machinery listed in Table 40.6 can be
justified.
By the student. Cost justification may be summarized as follows:

(a) Although a particular machine may first appear to be expensive, its cost must be put
into proper perspective, particularly in view of return on investment (ROI; see p. 1161).
As we have seen throughout this book, machines may be used in mass production (for
very large quantities) as well as in a shop setting (individual jobs; dedicated machines)
typically over the course of many years. The products from these activities are always
in demand.
(b) High-quality machines will be more expensive but their various characteristics (such as
stiffness, reliability, high precision, and productivity) will easily pay off, by avoiding
product quality problems.
(c) Machines for transfer lines may be one-of-a-kind units with only a few in existence;
consequently, though essential, such machines are likely to be more expensive.

40.25 On the basis of the topics covered in this book, explain the reasons for the relative
positions of the curves shown in Fig. 40.2.
By the student. Numerous observations about the relative positions and shapes of the curves
in Fig. 40.2 on p. 1148 may be made, including:

(a) Note that the overall trend for larger web dimensions, w, to involve larger web thick-
nesses, h. This is often necessary to avoid problems such as warping, wrinkling, nonuni-
form thickness, material handling, and various other issues.
(b) The curves for hot and cold rolling are horizontal; this is because rolling can easily
produce thin sections over the range of widths (shown in the figure) and even larger.
(c) Cold rolling may produce thinner sections than hot rolling, as the difficulties in control-
ling dimensional tolerances caused by thermal expansions and contractions from heat
are generally not present.

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 Product Design and Process Selection in a Competitive Environment 449

(d) Thin sections can be produced for thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers (due to
their excellent formability, with thermoplastics allowing even thinner sections).
(e) Thin sections also can be produced by casting, by proper mold design and control of
processing parameters.
(f) The curves from thick to thin sections are, respectively, sand casting, shell casting,
plaster-mold, investment, and die casting.
(g) Forging processes produce relatively thick sections. Recall that thin forgings can require
very high forging forces, and the dies can be complicated to design and expensive to
produce.
40.26 What factors are involved in the shape of the curve shown in Fig. 40.4? Explain.
By the student. Various factors are involved in the shape of the curve in Fig. 40.4 on p. 1153.
Overall, it indicates that as the dimensional tolerance required falls below about 0.25 mm the
relative cost begins to rapidly increase. Tighter tolerances require extra care, possibly reducing
production efficiency and increasing labor costs (which already may be high as more skilled
labor is required for precision work). Tighter tolerances usually require additional processing
and finishing operations. Also, tighter tolerances may result in higher reject rates and better
equipment may also be required, as well as better tool and die materials.
40.27 Describe the problems that may have to be faced in reducing the quantity of
materials in products. Give some examples.
By the student. For economic reasons, it is often desirable to reduce the quantity of material
in products; this reduction can be accomplished by using and optimizing cross-sections or by
using materials with higher strength-to-weight or strength-to-stiffness ratios (see, for example,
Fig. 3.1 on p. 90). Numerous examples of creative solutions can be given, such as the use of
a copper layer to achieve a smooth surface finish in electroplating applications in electronics,
followed by a much thinner layer of gold for improved corrosion resistance and electrical
conductivity. It should be apparent that to reduce the variety of materials in a product, as
well as the number of fasteners in it, a systematic review of the processes and materials must
be done. It should be recalled that this topic is discussed in some detail in Section 40.2.1 on
p. 1142, and several examples have been given.
40.28 Explain the reasons that there is a strong desire in industry to practice near-net-
shape manufacturing.
By the student. Refer also to p. 23. The costs associated with finishing operations are
usually very high. Thus, if a part can be made to near-net shape, then the machining
and finishing operations can be greatly reduced or eliminated (see, for example, Fig. 26.37
on p. 764), thereby reducing much of the expense in part manufacture (see also p. 31).
Also, the manufacturing processes associated with near-net-shape manufacturing (such as die
casting, precision forging, powder metallurgy, and injection molding) are high-production-rate
operations, thus the lead time and labor costs are also reduced.
40.29 State and explain your thoughts concerning cradle-to-cradle manufacturing.
By the student. Cradle-to-cradle engineering (see p. 12) involves consideration of a prod-
uct’s life cycle as well as the exploitation of either a biological or an industrial life cycle to

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 Product Design and Process Selection in a Competitive Environment 450

ensure that the product is recycled and reborn as a new product. The alternative to this
approach is that the product eventually is discarded into a landfill, incinerated, or discharged
through wastewater, none of which is desirable. When considering the large scales involved
in modern industrial activities, a cradle-to-cradle approach can provide significant ecological
and environmental benefits.

40.30 Why is the amount of scrap produced in a manufacturing process important?

There are numerous reasons why the scrap produced is important (see also Table 40.4 on
p. 1151), including:

(a) Scrap represents an inefficiency in the process, in that energy and attention have been
paid to this material that has not been made into a product.
(b) Different materials have different raw-material market values, as, for example, gold vs.
iron.
(c) Supply and demand for the particular scrap material in the marketplace. For example,
tantalum scrap from the manufacture of capacitors is used as a precursor for chemical
vapor deposition of tantalum coatings.
(d) A further consideration is the additional processing required to make the scrap material
usable or recyclable. (Is it clean and free of metalworking-fluid residues? Are other
materials mixed with it?)
(e) Shipping costs may also have a significant effect on the value of the scrap.

40.31 Discuss the advantages to long lead times, if any, in production.

By the student. Long lead times (see bottom of p. 1154) are generally not desirable because
they adversely affect productivity and the economics of manufacturing operations. A possible
advantage is that other activities can continue taking place and potential problems can be
better identified during long lead times before production begins.

40.32 Review Table 40.2 and estimate the carbon footprint of materials (mass of carbon
produced per mass or volume of material) if the energy used to produce the
material is obtained from (a) hydroelectric power, wind, or nuclear energy; (b)
coal.

40.33 Explain why the larger the quantity per package of food products, the lower is
the cost per unit weight.
As many students must have noticed, the cost per unit weight of various products, include
food and beverages, generally decreases as the quantity per package increases. Recall that
the overall cost in production is the sum of material, labor, fixed, and capital costs. Although
fixed and capital costs change little as production volume increases, material and labor costs
decrease as the quantity per package increases, and bulk purchases of raw materials in large
quantities are always cheaper than small quantities. Note also that packaging of products
is a major and important activity, involving high costs which become a smaller and smaller
percentage as its contents increase.

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 Product Design and Process Selection in a Competitive Environment 451

40.34 List and explain the advantages and disadvantages of outsourcing manufacturing
activities to countries with low labor costs.
Outsourcing has a number of advantages and disadvantages. The advantages include:

• There are clearly cost advantages that can be achieved because of the lower labor costs.
• Outsourcing helps to open developing markets to your company’s products.
• As discussed in The World is Flat by T. Friedman, countries that share supply chains
are generally friendlier than those without economic interaction.
• There is an ethical imperative to improve the living conditions in the poorer portions of
the globe.
Some of the disadvantages include:

• Outsourcing to distant countries makes just-in-time approaches especially difficult to

implement.
• The cost savings may be illusory, since quality deficiencies or low productivity may erode
expected savings.
• Shipping costs are volatile.
• Such outsourcing results in supply chains being susceptible to political machinations.

SYNTHESIS, DESIGN, AND PROJECTS

40.35 As you can see, Table 40.5 lists only metals and their alloys. On the basis of the
information given in various chapters in this book and in other sources, prepare
a similar table for nonmetallic materials, including ceramics, plastics, reinforced
plastics, and both metal-matrix and ceramic-matrix composite materials.
By the student. Students are encouraged to respond to this question by reviewing process
capabilities throughout this book, as well as conducting a literature search. A partial answer
is given below:

Process Ceramics Thermoplastics MMCs

Casting A A A
Extrusion B A B
Rolling B A B
Sheet-forming - A -
Machining
Chemical B - A
ECM B - A
EDM B - A
Grinding A A A
Welding (joining) B A A
Injection molding A A B
Blow molding - A -

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 Product Design and Process Selection in a Competitive Environment 452

40.36 Is it always desirable to purchase stock that is close to the final dimensions of a
part to be manufactured? Explain why or why not and give some examples.
As expected, it is often very beneficial to purchase stock that is close to the final desired di-
mensions; this choice minimizes the additional machining, forming, finishing, etc., that have
to be performed, thus reducing the production time and cost. The quality of the stock also is
an important consideration; for example, hot-extruded, hot-forged, or hot-rolled blanks may
not have the desired dimensional tolerances, surface integrity, and surface finish. Thus, oper-
ations such as machining or grinding may be necessary in order to remove sufficient material
for the desired surface characteristics; this extra amount of material must be accounted for
in selecting the stock size.
40.37 What course of action would you take if the supply of a raw material selected for
a product line becomes unreliable? Explain.
By the student. It should be noted that unreliable materials supply means that the material
is not being delivered to a plant as required; it does not necessarily mean that the quality and
other characteristics of the material are unacceptably fluctuating. If the material supply is
unreliable for geopolitical or other reasons, such as random or continued strikes, then material
substitution has to be considered. Examples would, for instance, be substituting imported
materials for cutting tools or for gas-turbine blades. Substitution can be a challenging task,
as can be appreciated by reviewing Section 40.6 on p. 1149.

40.38 Estimate the position of the curves for the following processes in Fig. 40.4: (a)
centerless grinding, (b) electrochemical machining, (c) chemical milling, and (d)
extrusion.
Referring to Fig. 40.4 on p. 1153, we can state the following:
(a) Centerless grinding (pp. 750-751) will give a similar range of roughness as cylindrical
grinding, but the production time will be much lower because the process is continuous.
(b) Electrochemical machining (p. 775) will produce very smooth surfaces (to 0.05 µm or
so) but involves a much higher production time than cylindrical grinding.
(c) Chemical milling (p. 771) will give a roughness ranging from ground surfaces to surfaces
typical of end milling, depending on the workpiece properties and process parameters.
The processing time is difficult to define for this process because it depends to a large
extent on the workpiece material and surface roughness to be produced.
(d) Extrusion (p. 364) will have surface finish ranges similar to shaping and drilling (although
the surface texture is different; see also Fig. 23.14 on p. 647), and the production time
will be lower than all the processes shown in the figure.
40.39 Review Fig. I.2 in the General Introduction and present your own thoughts con-
cerning the two flowcharts. Would you want to make any modifications, and if
so, what would they be?
By the student. The students are encouraged to investigate similar flow charts in other books
and publications. It will be observed that, as to be expected, such flow charts have different
stages, with more or less emphasis placed on them, depending on the priorities of those who
develop them. For example, the planning or marketing stages may be emphasized with far
more detail than shown in these charts.

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 Product Design and Process Selection in a Competitive Environment 453

40.40 Over the years, numerous consumer products (such as rotary-dial telephones,
analog radio tuners, turntables, and vacuum tubes) have become obsolete or
nearly so, while many new products have entered the market. Make two lists: a
comprehensive list of obsolete products that you can think of and a list of new
products. Comment on the reasons for the changes you observe.
By the student. This would be an interesting student project. As resource materials, it
would be helpful to (a) search for newspaper and magazine advertisements in archives of large
libraries and (b) to interview people of different age groups for their recollection of various
products that they purchased or used in the past. Among examples of obsolete products
are record players, typewriters, analog radios, early videogames, daisy-wheel printers, and
oil-based printing inks. New products which correlate to these obsolete products are compact
disks, word processors, digital radios, modern videogame systems, laser printers, and water-
based inks. It is apparent that the newer products and devices are made possible by the rapid
advances being made in materials, design, and manufacturing.

40.41 List and discuss the different manufacturing methods and systems that have en-
abled the manufacture of new products. (Recall that these products and systems
are known as enabling technologies.)
By the student. This can be answered in a number of ways, for example, by discussing the
developments in a particular industry, by examining developments with a particular product,
or by collecting a number of examples. Students should be encouraged to develop their own
answers.
Notwithstanding the open-ended nature of the problem, some of the types of answers that
could be discussed are the development of numerical control by John Parsons, where his
intention was to develop a method of producing helicopter blades. Numerical control can
be argued to have had an enormous impact and has been an enabling technology for a wide
variety of products.
Another classic examples is the invention of the transistor in 1947 (see p. 800), which has
enabled integrated circuits, which in turn enable personal computers, cell phones, etc.

40.42 Select three different products, and make a survey of the changes in their prices
over the past 10 years. Discuss the possible reasons for the changes.
By the student. This topic presents challenging and interesting possibilities. For example,
computers can be shown to have approximately the same wide range of price, from low-
performance ‘bare-bones’ systems to top-of-the-line models. However, the performance of
computers has improved dramatically over the period of ten years, such that a comparison
is not appropriate. As now widely observed, the manufacture of many labor-intensive prod-
ucts have been moved to countries with low wages (see Table I.7 on p. 32), thus keeping
manufacturing costs low.

40.43 Describe your own thoughts concerning the replacement of aluminum beverage
cans with those made of steel.
By the student. Aluminum has an economic advantage as long as the material costs remain
competitive and if the aluminum is recycled numerous times. Aluminum requires a large
amount of energy to produce from ore (see Table 40.2 on p. 1149), so the initial cost is higher,

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 Product Design and Process Selection in a Competitive Environment 454

but once produced, aluminum requires less energy to re-melt. Steel is used for beverage
cans in Europe and Asia, and these have some benefits over aluminum. Steel is generally
easier to form (because of its higher strain-hardening exponents), so its shape can be more
easily optimized, further reducing material cost and resulting in negligible weight increase
over aluminum cans. Note also the appearance of an aluminum can over steel (which could
corrode), its high thermal conductivity, as well as light weight.

40.44 Select three different products commonly found in homes. State your opinions
on (a) what materials were used in each product, (b) why those particular ma-
terials were chosen, (c) how the products were manufactured, and (d) why those
particular processes were used.
By the student. The students are encouraged to investigate each product and, based on a
review of the topics described in this book, comment on each of the four questions.

40.45 Comment on the differences, if any, among the designs, materials, and processing
and assembly methods used for making such products as hand tools and ladders
for professional use and those for consumer use.
By the student. There is a realization that professional use implies a far more rugged and
repeated use, often under adverse conditions. For example, the intended uses for hand tools
and ladders for home use are not nearly as extensive as professional ones; thus, they usually
are produced with greater emphasis on cost reduction. For example, drills for home use
typically are less powerful and with less rugged motors; drill bits are not be made with as
high a quality material and are likely to wear more rapidly; aluminum ladders are lighter and
less rigid.

40.46 The cross-section of a jet engine is shown in Fig. 6.1. On the basis of the topics
covered in this book, select any three individual components of such an engine
and describe the materials and processes that you would use in making them in
quantities of, say, 1,000.
By the student. This is a very challenging problem and, because of the many factors involved,
would be suitable for a class project.

40.47 Inspect some products around your home, and describe how you would go about
taking them completely apart quickly and recycling their components. Comment
on their design regarding the ease with which they can be disassembled.
By the student. Refer also to Section I.3 on p. 10 and Section 37.10 on p. 1094. It will be
noted that most such products utilize a wide variety of metallic and nonmetallic materials,
which must be separated into types before they can be recycled. This aspect has not have
been considered in the product design stage, whereby disassembly cannot be done quickly
and economically. For example, plastic housings that are riveted in place are more difficult to
separate than those attached with snap fasteners. A more challenging task is how to disas-
semble microelectronic and micromechanical devices and electronic components for recycling,
such as those described and shown in Chapters 28 and 29. A study of this important topic
can demonstrate that while material costs are certainly considered during design, the ease of
recycling the materials has not, until now, generally been the main concern.

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 Product Design and Process Selection in a Competitive Environment 455

40.48 What products do you know of that would be very difficult to disassemble for
recycling purposes? Explain.
By the student. The students are encouraged to carefully analyze various products and pro-
vide their own answers (referring also to Section I.3 on p. 10). It will be obvious that products
constructed from one material are relatively easy to recycle, but those made of several differ-
ent metallic and nonmetallic materials are much more difficult, such as computers, television
sets, radios, calculators, and automobiles. Welded structures are difficult to take apart, as are
riveted assemblies and brazed or adhesively-bonded connections. It should be apparent that
although recycling is always an important consideration, it has to be cost effective (which
also means less time for disassembly).

40.49 Conduct a literature search and perform a lifecycle assessment of a typical auto-
mobile. Estimate the amount of energy needed to produce the car from its raw
materials, and compare this to the energy that is consumed by the car during its
intended life of 160,000 km. What recommendations would you make regarding
the use of aluminum and magnesium instead of steel in cars?
By the student. For example, the following is taken from Ashby, Material Selection in Me-
chanical Design, 2012:

40.50 Discuss the trade-offs involved in selecting between the two materials for each of
the applications listed:

a. Sheet metal vs. reinforced-plastic chairs

b. Forged vs. cast crankshafts
c. Forged vs. powder metallurgy connecting rods
d. Plastic vs. sheet metal light-switch plates

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 Product Design and Process Selection in a Competitive Environment 456

e. Glass vs. metal water pitchers

f. Sheet-metal vs. cast hubcaps
g. Steel vs. copper nails
h. Wood vs. metal handles for hammers

Discuss also the typical conditions to which these products are subjected in their
normal use.
By the student. It is obvious that a wide variety of approaches are possible in response to this
question. For example, the materials can be compared for performance, cost, environmental
concerns, and aesthetics. This effort will require a review of all the materials characteristics,
as described in Chapter 3 of this book. See also Question 16.52 regarding manufacturing of
these products.

40.51 Discuss the factors that influence the choice between the following pairs of pro-
cesses to make the products indicated:

a. Sand casting vs. die casting of a fractional electricmotor housing

b. Machining vs. forming of a large-diameter bevel gear
c. Forging vs. powder metallurgy production of a cam
d. Casting vs. stamping a sheet-metal frying pan
e. Making outdoor summer furniture from aluminum tubing vs. cast iron
f. Welding vs. casting of machine-tool structures
g. Thread rolling vs. machining of a bolt for high-strength application
h. Thermoforming a plastic vs. molding a thermoset to make the blade for an
inexpensive household fan

(a) Sand casting vs. die casting of a fractional electric-motor housing. The sand-cast housing
would be less expensive for low quantities and for designs requiring very little finishing
operations. For high volumes, however, and depending on size, die casting could prove
more cost effective, especially when less finishing operations are required. The type of
metal will also dictate the process to be chosen. (See also Table 11.1 on p. 257.)
(b) Machining vs. forming a large gear. Machining is generally more expensive than forming,
except in low quantities. The mechanical properties of the formed gear would be superior
to those of a machined gear. However, for lower quantities or in cases where higher
dimensional tolerances are required, machining could be the better choice. In addition,
certain gear profiles or designs might not be easy to form to final dimensions, thus
requiring some machining. Also, certain characteristics of the gear material may prohibit
forming operations, thus leaving machining as the only choice. It should also be obvious
that a combination of the two major processes will likely be the best viable choice.
(c) Forged vs. powder metallurgy gear. The strength, fatigue life, and possibly wear re-
sistance of the forged gear would be superior to those of the PM gear, especially for
power transmission. The size and type of the gear would also play an important role, as

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 Product Design and Process Selection in a Competitive Environment 457

forging is capable of producing much larger gears than PM can. On the other hand, the
gear material specified may be more easily processed by PM than by forging. Also, PM
gears could prove more effective if tighter control of dimensional tolerances and shape
are permitted, and for large production quantities.
(d) Frying pan made by casting vs. stamped sheet metal. The cast frying pan would be
more expensive than the stamped pan since it requires more material, processing time,
and labor to produce it. Note that the handle could be cast integrally whereas stamped
pans would require the handle (metal, plastic, or wood) to be assembled as a secondary
operation (such as with rivets or threaded fasteners). Regarding performance, the thicker
cast pan would provide more uniform heat distribution and retention than the relatively
thin stamped pan. Also, the smooth surface of the stamped pan (which nowadays is
generally coated with nonstick materials) would offer important advantages for cleaning
as well as appearance.
(e) Outdoor furniture made of aluminum tubing vs. cast iron. The outdoor aluminum
tubing furniture would be less expensive than the cast-iron design, as it would require
much less material, processing time, and lower die and labor costs. In addition to
its corrosion resistance, aluminum tubing can easily be anodized to almost any color,
whereas cast-iron furniture would require painting initially, and regularly thereafter.
Although casting allows for much more decorative design possibilities, it would, unlike
aluminum furniture, be more difficult and costly to make the cast design foldable, which
is a significant concern for storage and ease of shipping). Note also that the lighter,
aluminum-tubing furniture will be much easier to move during its use and for storage,
but might also be easily blown around.
(f) Welding vs. casting of machine-tool structures. In the case of large machine-tool struc-
tures, welding may be the only choice. However, more elaborate designs will be easier
to cast than weld, as is done for traditional machine tools such as lathes, milling ma-
chines, and drill presses. Also, the weight, stiffness, and damping capacity offered by
cast structures have important advantages over welded designs. (See also Section 8.13.)
(g) Thread rolled vs. machined bolt for high strength application. The rolled thread gen-
erally possesses higher strength and fatigue resistance than the machined thread due
to the improved grain flow of the metal and work hardening during forming. On the
other hand, the machined thread can be a non-standard geometry or size. Note that the
bolt material and desired production quantity also play important roles in the ultimate
choice of processes and their economics.

40.52 A dish-shaped part is to be produced; two methods are under consideration as

illustrated in Fig. P40.52. The part can be formed by placing a flat piece of sheet
metal between two dies and closing the dies to get the desired shape; the part
can also be made by explosive forming as shown. (a) List the advantages and
disadvantages to these options if the part is 2 m in diameter, and only 50 parts
are required. (b) What other manufacturing processes would be suitable for
producing this part?

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Product Design and Process Selection in a Competitive Environment 458

Upper
die Explosive
Water
Sheet
metal

Lower die Vacuum line

(a) (b)

FIGURE P40.52

A simple, dish-shaped part can be formed from sheet metal by placing a round, flat piece
of sheet metal between a pair of male and female dies in a press and then closing the dies
by applying a vertical force. Parts like this typically are formed in such manner at high
production rates; the method is generally known as stamping or pressworking.

Assume now that the size of the part is very large, say, 2 m in diameter and that
the lot size is only 50 parts. We now have to reexamine the total operation. Is it economical
to manufacture a set of dies 2 m in diameter (which would be very costly; see Section 14.7)
when the total production quantity is very low? Are presses available with sufficient capacity
to accommodate such large dies? Are there alternative methods of manufacturing this part?
Does the part have to be made in one piece?
This part also can be made by welding smaller pieces of sheet metal, formed by other methods,
as described in Chapter 16. (Note that large municipal water tanks and ships are made by
this method.) Would a part manufactured by welding be acceptable for its intended purpose
in the environment in which it will be used? Will it have the required properties and the
desired shape after welding, or will it require additional processing?
The part also can be made by explosive forming, as shown. Because of the nature of the
process, the deformation of the material in explosive forming takes place at a very high rate.
Consequently, a series of questions has to be asked regarding this process:
• Is the material capable of undergoing deformation at high rates without fracture or any
detrimental effect on the final properties of the formed part?
• Can the dimensional tolerances and surface finish be held within acceptable limits?
• Is the life of the die sufficiently long, given that the die is subjected to the very high
tran-sient pressures generated in explosive forming?
• Can this operation be performed in a manufacturing plant within city limits, or should
it be carried out in open country?
• Although explosive forming has the advantage of requiring only one die, is the operation
economical?

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obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic,
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Product Design and Process Selection in a Competitive Environment 459

40.53 Figure P40.53 shows a sheet-metal part made of steel:

50

80 50 mm

2m
80

FIGURE P40.53

Discuss how this part could be made and how your selection of a manufacturing
process may change (a) as the number of parts required increases from 10 to
thousands and (b) as the length of the part increases from 2 m to 20 m.
By the student. Several possibilities exist for producing this part. The constant cross section
can be produced through roll forming of sheet, bending operations in a press brake, and
possibly through extrusion if the section is not too thin. As the number of parts increases,
the most economical manufacturing process will change from bending to roll forming. This is
mainly due to the higher tooling costs associated with roll forming. Similarly, as the length
of the part changes from 2 to 20 m, press brakes will not be able to accommodate such large
sizes, and roll forming is then likely to be more economical.

40.54 The part shown in Fig. P40.54 is a carbon-steel segment (partial) gear:

100

20 mm

FIGURE P40.54

The small hole at the bottom is for clamping the part onto a round shaft, using a
screw and a nut. Suggest a sequence of manufacturing processes to make this part.
Consider such factors as the influence of the number of parts required, dimensional
tolerances, and surface finish. Discuss such processes as machining from a bar
stock, extrusion, forging, and powder metallurgy.

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obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic,
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 Product Design and Process Selection in a Competitive Environment 460

This discussion will be restricted to the processes of machining from bar stock, extrusion,
forging, and powder metallurgy, as stated in the problem.
(a) Machining from bar stock. The cross section is difficult to machine, and an effort should
first be made to modify the design to simplify machining. For example, the clamping
mechanism, if replaced by a set screw or shrink fit, would eliminate the clamp portion
of the part and would allow more direct use of bar stock. However, if the shape cannot
be modified, the exterior would have to be machined and the gear threads hobbed. The
center would be drilled and the screw hole would then be drilled and tapped. Finally,
the gap in the clamp would have to be milled, cut with wire EDM, or possibly cut with
a saw, depending on the size of the gap. Where better surface finish is required, grinding
or polishing operations could also be performed as appropriate.
(b) Extrusion. The cross section may be difficult to extrude, especially because of the sharp
corners in the clamp and the gap in the clamp area. Again, this difficulty would suggest
a potential redesign. Assuming a cross section could be extruded, the extrudate would
be cut to length, such as on a saw, then the hole would be drilled and tapped. If the
threads need better tolerances and surface finish than can be obtained in extrusion, the
extruded cross section will have to be larger than that required and the threads will be
machined (hobbed) and possibly ground.
(c) Forging. This shape is very difficult to obtain through forging, although it is possible to
forge a blank for subsequent machining operations as discussed above.
(d) The shape can be obtained through powder metallurgy, although the clamp section is
difficult to produce, and the hole would require machining after the sintering operation.
Although the basic shape can be obtained through powder metallurgy, it may be difficult
to obtain exact replication of the gear teeth, and their strength may be suspect with
this design.

40.55-40.59 Review the products illustrated below and, for each component, describe your
thoughts on the (a) material or materials that would be appropriate for use
and (b) specific manufacturing process or processes that could be employed in
making each component. Assume now that after presenting your suggestions, you
are told that the product would be too expensive to produce as recommended.
Suggest the changes that you could make to reduce the overall cost, explaining
your reasons.
By the student. The students are encouraged to develop solutions based on contents of the
book. Note also that these products offer good opportunities for classroom discussions.

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obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise.