Fundamentals of Natural Gas Liquefaction

A brief overview of the process and challenges of converting natural gas

into liquid form

Introduction
Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbons, mainly methane, that is found in underground
reservoirs or associated with oil fields. It is a valuable source of energy and feedstock for various
industries, but it poses some challenges for transportation and storage. Natural gas occupies a
large volume at normal temperature and pressure, and it may contain impurities such as water,
carbon dioxide, sulfur compounds, and heavier hydrocarbons that can affect its quality and
safety. Therefore, natural gas is often processed and liquefied at the production site or near the
shore, before being shipped to the market by tankers or pipelines.

Natural gas liquefaction is the process of cooling and compressing natural gas to reduce its
volume by about 600 times and turn it into a liquid state. This allows for more efficient and
economical transportation and storage of natural gas, as well as access to remote or stranded gas
resources. However, natural gas liquefaction is a complex and energy-intensive process that
requires careful design and operation of the facilities and equipment. In this document, we will
briefly explain the main steps and challenges of natural gas liquefaction, focusing on the
following aspects:

 The boiling points of different hydrocarbons and the need for precooling and liquefaction
stages
 The pipe transmission characteristics and the issues caused by water and condensable
hydrocarbons
 The gas treatment at the terminal and the importance of monitoring the water,
hydrocarbon dew points and methanol content

Boiling Points of Hydrocarbons and Liquefaction Stages

The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which it changes from liquid to gas, or vice
versa, at a given pressure. The boiling point of a substance depends on its molecular structure
and intermolecular forces. In general, the larger and more complex the molecule, the higher the
boiling point. For example, methane, the simplest hydrocarbon, has a boiling point of -162
degrees Celsius at atmospheric pressure, while ethane, propane, and butane have boiling points
of -89, -42, and -0.5 degrees Celsius, respectively. This means that methane is more difficult to
liquefy than the other hydrocarbons, and it requires lower temperatures and higher pressures.
Therefore, natural gas liquefaction typically involves two stages: precooling and liquefaction. In
the precooling stage, the natural gas is cooled to an intermediate temperature, usually around -83
degrees Celsius, using a refrigerant such as propane or ethylene. This reduces the volume of the
gas and partially liquefies some of the heavier hydrocarbons. In the liquefaction stage, the
precooled gas is further cooled to the final temperature, usually around -160 degrees Celsius,
using a refrigerant such as nitrogen or mixed refrigerants. This liquefies most of the methane and
the remaining hydrocarbons, resulting in a product called liquefied natural gas (LNG).

Pipe Transmission Characteristics and Issues

Natural gas is often transported from the production site to the liquefaction terminal by pipelines,
which can span hundreds or thousands of kilometers. The gas transport by pipelines involves
some technical and operational challenges, such as pressure drop, corrosion, leakage, and hydrate
formation. One of the main issues is the presence of water and condensable hydrocarbons in the
gas stream, which can affect the quality and safety of the gas.

Water and condensable hydrocarbons can form liquid droplets or solid crystals when the gas
temperature or pressure drops below a certain point, called the dew point. The dew point is the
temperature at which the gas becomes saturated with water or hydrocarbons, and any further
cooling or pressure reduction causes condensation or solidification. The water dew point is
usually higher than the hydrocarbon dew point, meaning that water condenses before
hydrocarbons. The water and hydrocarbon dew points depend on the composition and pressure of
the gas, and they can vary along the pipeline due to changes in ambient temperature, elevation,
and flow rate.

The condensation or solidification of water and hydrocarbons can cause several problems in the
pipeline, such as:

 Reducing the gas flow capacity and efficiency

 Increasing the pressure drop and energy consumption
 Causing corrosion and erosion of the pipeline material
 Blocking or damaging the pipeline valves and equipment
 Forming explosive or flammable mixtures
 Creating environmental and safety hazards

Gas Treatment at the Terminal and Monitoring

To prevent or minimize the issues caused by water and condensable hydrocarbons, natural gas is
usually treated at the terminal before entering the liquefaction process. The gas treatment at the
terminal aims to ensure that the gas meets the specifications for water and hydrocarbon dew
points, as well as other quality parameters such as heating value, sulfur content, carbon dioxide
content, and nitrogen content. The gas treatment at the terminal may involve several steps, such
as:

 Dehydration: removing water from the gas using glycol or molecular sieves
 Acid gas removal: removing carbon dioxide and sulfur compounds from the gas using
amine or membrane systems
 Mercury removal: removing mercury from the gas using activated carbon or metal sulfide
beds
 Hydrocarbon recovery: recovering the heavier hydrocarbons from the gas using
turboexpanders or distillation columns
 Nitrogen rejection: removing nitrogen from the gas using cryogenic or membrane
systems

The gas treatment at the terminal is essential for ensuring the quality and safety of the LNG
product, as well as the efficiency and reliability of the liquefaction process. Therefore, it is
crucial to monitor the water, hydrocarbon dew points and methanol content of the gas at the
terminal, as well as at the inlet and outlet of the pipeline. Methanol is a common additive that is
injected into the gas stream to prevent or dissolve hydrates, which are solid compounds of water
and hydrocarbons that can form at low temperatures and high pressures. Methanol can lower the
freezing point of water and hydrocarbons, and it can also act as a corrosion inhibitor. However,
methanol can also affect the quality and safety of the LNG product, as it can increase the
flammability and toxicity of the gas, and it can interfere with the liquefaction process. Therefore,
methanol concentration in the gas and water dew point measurement are vital for gas quality
assessment.