FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF

GEOMETRY Exercise 7.1 UNIT # 1

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Q.1 Define the following terms and illustrate by drawing figures.

(0 LINE SEGMENT: If A and B are any two points, then the line segment AB,

denoted as AB, is the set of points consisting of

() Points Aand B and
(i) All the points between A and B
The points A and B are called the end -points of line Segment AB.

(i) RAY: lfa line with an arrow at one end contain two points P and Q is called a

ray it is denoted as AB.

P

(ül) DPPOSITE RAYS: Two rays AB and AC are sald to be opposite rays if.
) t h e y are collinear
(i) they have a common end point.
(i1) their intersection is the only common end point

BAC

() CONVEX SET: A set of points in a plane is said to be convex if for any of its
points A and B, the line segment AB is contained in the set.

eg lines, rays, line segments and planes are convex sets. A few non-convex sets
are given below.

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( HALF PLANE AND ITS EDGE Consider a plane ß on which a line "" is exist. If

we take two points P an Q on it and two convex sets h; and hz on it as, P is in hi

and Q is in h: then PQ intersect the line " In this hi nh = ¢;h1u t=B

(plane) aslo h1 n ha * ß So, we can say that hi and h; be half plane and line t is
the edge of the half plane.

Jodso I03

(vi) ANGLE An angle is the union of two non-Collinear rays having a common

end point is called the vertex and the rays constituting the angle are called the

0aci
arms (or sides) of the angle.An angle is denoted by the symbol .

0achl

(Vi) RIGHT ANGLE: If two supplementary angles are equal in measures, then each
of them is called a "right angle". It is denoted by the symbol a.

figure LABC= 2DBC = 90

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(vii) PERPENDICULAR: If two lines, (rays or segments) are said to be perpendicular.

On each other if they form a right angle peipendicular is denoted by L.

In figure i 1 t and : 1 fi at point O.

(ix) CONGRUENT ANGLES: Two angles with the same measure are called congruent
angles symbol a. Is used for congruence.
If figure LABC a LPQR because mzABC = mLPQR = 30

Note: Every angle is congruent to itself. |such a congruence is called ldentify

Congruence

30 30 Q

ADJACENT ANGLES: Two angles are said to be adjacent angles if:

(1) They have a common vertex

(2) They have one arm common and
(3) Intersection of their interiors in null (or empty) set.

In figure CAOB and 2COB are adjacent angles.

Adam
A

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Cxi) VERTICALLY OPPOSITE ANGLES: The angles whose arms form two pairs of

opposite rays are called vertically opposite angles. (or simply vertical angles), Vertical
angles are a pair of nonadjacent angles formed

In the adjacent figure, OA, OB is a pair of opposite rays

(ie., AB is a line) and OC, OD is another pair of opposite rays (ie. CD is a line)
therefore LA0C and 2BOD are vertically opposite angles

similarly cAOD and LBOC are vertically opposite angles.

1OdsSog LUO9

Q.2: Differentiate between the following terms and lustrate through figures.

() Interior and Exterior of an Angle:

Interior of an Angle Exterior of an Angle

We have two rays AC and AB intersect We have wo rays AB and AC Intersect at

at point A. So weget an angle 2BAC.point A. Take the points "R" "Q" and "S"|
Take a point "P" which is same side of which are outside the angle cBAC. The set
AB the set of all the points of the of all the points of plane which neither form

plane which lies in side the angle called the interior of angle not the point if angle is
called the exterior of the triangle.
interiorangle.
R

interior
P interior

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(ii) Collinearand Non-collinear Points:
Collinear Poínts Between and Beyond
The points that lie on the same line are The points that do not lie on the same line

said to be the collinear points. In the are called non-collinear points. Take a line |

figure A, B and Carecollinear points. segment AB and M, N are point which do not
lie on the line segment so, we can say that M
and N are non-collinear points.

(ii) Between and Beyond:

Between Beyond
| If we have any three point A, B and C If we have any three poínts A, B and C Iie on
lie on a same line. ie. collinear points a same line. ie. that collinear points such
such that mAB+m8C then we can say that mAC=mAB+BC then we can say that
that "B" is between that A and C. C is said to bë beyond the point Bon AC

A B c

(iv) Acute and obtuse Angles:

Acute Angle obtuse Ange

An angle with measure less that 90" si| An angle with measure greater than 90° is
called an acute angle. an obtuse angle in the figure LABC is
In the figure zABC is less than the 90 greater than the 90° is called an obtuse|
is the acute angle! angle.

d a l l

90
90°
C

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(v) Complementaryand Supplementary Angles:

Acute Angle obtuse Angle

| If the sum of the measure of two angles If the sum of the measure of two angles is
is 90 then they are called 180° then they are called supplementary
complementary angles, and each one is angles and each one is called "Supplement
called "Complement of the Other". of the other

In the Agure mzltmz2=90* so, 21|In the figure

C O

22 complement of the other. LAOB = 120°and

and are

LBOC= 60° hen

|LAOB+4B0C = 120+60° 180

So LAOB and ZBOC are the supplement of
the other

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Q.3: What do you understand by deductivé method of reasoning?

Ans. Deductive method of Reasoning: In this method of reasoning we deduce particular
results from the general results. For example, we know that:
All men are mortall

From this fact, we may deduce results about particular individuals. Such as:

Saleem is a man so Saleem is mortal.

Similarly we know that:

"Sum of the measures of all the angles of a triangle is 180

From this fact we can deduce results about particular triangles, such as

ABC is a triangle, so mzA + meB + m4C= 180

Now, inspire of precaution of the generalized results we deduce a particular result and
assign the name of the reasoning is deductive method.

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94: Enumerate the four characteristics of a deductive subject such as geometry. (you need
not give any examples)
FOR CHARACTERISTICS OFADEDUCTIVE SUB-GEOMETRY
Following are characteristic of the deductive subject Geometry.
(0 Certain concepts are accepted without definition called undefined terms. In this
subject point, line, plane are the undefined terms.

(i) At the bases of some undefined terms certain statements are accepted without
proof called fundamental agreements. These statements are used to find the
characteristics which we want to linked with undefined terms. These are the
assumptions and may not be self-evident truths from these assumptions, we can
develop a structure using logical reasoning. These are the two types.

(o) Axioms: Axioms are those fundamental agreements which are related
to numbers eg "f same number is added to equals their sums are equal.
(b) Postulate Postulates are those fundamental agreements which are
related to geometrical figures
O
eg "one and only one line passes through two distinct points"

(ii) With the help of undefined terms and fundamental agreements (i.e. postulates)
other concepts are developed and terms are defined which are called defined
terms.

egA rectangle is a parallelogram having at-least one right angle:"

(iv) With the help of undefined terms, postulates and defined terms, other
statements are developed and proved by deduction. These statements are called
propositions or theorems.

eg "If two sides of a triangle have congruent angles opposite to them, these
sides are also congruent".

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Q.5: What are fundamental agreements? What are its kinds? Explain giving examples?

Ans. FUNDAMENTAL AGREEMENTS:

The Certain statements which can he proved with the help of undefined terms and
accepted without proof are called fundamental agreements."

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These statements determine the characteristics which we want to associate with thee
undefined terms.

Kinds of Fundamentals Agreements:

There are two types of fundamental agreement.
(1) Axioms: The fundamental agreements which are related to the numbers are
called Axioms.
e-g."Every number is equal to itself."
(2) Postulates: "The fundamental agreements which are related to the geometrical
figures are called postulates"
eg. "A rectangle is a parallelogram having at-least one right angle."

Q.6: State the following postulates.

(0 Distance Postulate
According to this postulate, "IfA and B are two distinct points of a plane, then a
number can be associated with every pair of points (P, ) of the plane. Such that
this number is
(0 Iwhen (P,Q)= (A, B)
Owhen P=
(1 Q
(Gii) "Positive when P and Q are distinct points.
So we can say that the positive number associated with any pair of points is
called the distance from one point to the other. The distance from point P to
point Q is denoted as mPQ or |PQl, where m stands for "measure". It may be
noted that distance from Q to Pis mQP or |QP| and mQP = m|PÕI or |QP| = |PÕIL

FUNDAMENTAL cONCEPTS OF GEOMETRY Soved Exercise # 111

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() Partition of a plane postulate
According to this postulate "lfa line e lies on a plane x, then the line e partitions
the plane x into two subsets h; and h: such that.

() hi and h; are convex sets

(1) fP is in h; and Qis in hz, then PQ intersects the line .

JOdsSo LLIOO
hz

(i) Angle Constructions Postulate

According to this postulate "lf one arm of an angle is along the edge of a half
plane, one and only one ray can be drawn in the half plane making an angle of a
given measure between 0° and 180

In the figure, ray OA lies along the edge of half plane h, then for every 8, such
that Oses180° there is exactly one ray 0B in h so that mzAOB = 0°

(iv) Angle Additlon Pastiulate:

According to this postulate "The sum of the measure of two adjacent angles is
equal to the measure of the angle formed by their non-common arms.

In the figure, LBAD and 2CAD are two adjacent angles

So m4BAD + miCAD = mcBAC (or mzCAB).

Ada

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(V) Supplement Postulate:
This postulate consist on two points

(1) If two adjacent angles are supplementary, their non- common arms

are collinear.

(2) If non-common arms of two adjacent angles are collinear, they are

supplementary.
In the above figure, two adjacent angles LAOC and <BOC are supplenmentary,

therefore, their non-common arms OA and 0B are collinear, ie. they lie on a
line. [Downloaded from http://adamjeecoaching.blogspot.com
Conversely, if OA and OB are in a line, then m2A0C + m4BOC 180
ie. LAOC and zBOC are supplementary. This postulate also tells us that if two
adjacent angles are supplementary. their non-common arms are a pair of

opposite rays. In the figure OA and OB are opposite rays.

hing C

Q.7: If a point C lies between the points A and B., prove that.

0 mAB mAC (i) mBC< mAB

Solution:
OmAB > mAC
Consider three points A, B and C such that

() There are all collinear points

(i) The point C is lies between AB then from fAigure mAß = mAC + mCB

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As mCB is a positive value (an integer)
the value of mAC with mCB must be higher than the mAB
Therefore, we can write as
mAB > mAC Proved

() mBC<mAB
Consider three points A, B and C such that the point C lies between A and B as

shown in figure.

So we can write
OSpo
mAB = MAC+ mCB

from this relation it is clears that mAC is the distance which is positive and

higher than zero ie.

mAC>0
So, when this added to mBC then the résultant becomes
mBC< mAB Proved