POULTICES

A soft magma or mush prepared by wetting various powders or other absorbent substances with oily or watery fluids, sometimes medicated, and usually applied to the surface while hot; it exerts an emollient, relaxing, or stimulant, counterirritant effect on the skin and underlying tissues. Also used in the manufacture of porcelain and pottery, as an emollient, and as a poultice and gastrointestinal adsorbent. Nontoxic. The final report to the FDA of the Select Committee on GRAS Substances stated in 1980 that it should continue its GRAS status with no limitations other than good manufacturing practices. CLOPIDOL Additive used in chicken and turkey feeds to combat parasites. The FDA tolerance for residues in milk is 0.02; for cereal, grains, vegetables, fruits, meat of cattle, sheep, and goats, and in edible tissue of swine, it is 0.2 ppm. The tolerance is 1. The roots, flowers, and leaves are used externally as a poultice. Nontoxic. There is reported use of the chemical, it has not yet been assigned for toxicology literature. ALUM Potash Alum. Aluminum Ammonium. Potassium Sulfate. A colorless, odorless, crystalline, watersoluble solid used in astringent lotions, after-shave lotions, and as a styptic (stops bleeding). A double sulfate of aluminum and ammonium potassium, it is also employed to harden gelatin, size paper, or waterproof fabrics. In concentrated solutions alum has produced gum damage and fatal intestinal hemorrhages. ROUTES ADMINISTRATION OF POULTICE It is used externally as an astringent for wounds and boils. Formerly, it was in use as a replacement for quinine. It is still used for headaches and fatigue. Homeopathic Uses: Uses include for poor digestion and chronic attacks of fever. precautions and adverse reactions Health risks or side effects following the proper administration of designated therapeutic dosages are not recorded. dosage Mode of Administration: Formerly the drug was used internally as a tincture as an alternative to quinine and externally as a liquid extract."

MIXTURES

A MIXTURE is a combination of two or more substances that are not chemically united and do not exist in fixed proportions to each other. Most natural substances are mixtures. "Natural mixtures may sometimes be more potent than synthetic mixtures because even though both mixtures may have the same physical "structures," they will have different functional properties due to their different systemic (informational and energetic) histories. Probably the most controversial heretofore unexplained observations involving memory and memory retrieval are reported in parapsychology. It is commonly claimed in parapsychological folklore as well as some well documented case studies

Routes of administration / Dosage forms Oral Digestive tract (enteral)

Solids Pill Tablet Capsule Time release technology Osmotic controlled release capsule (OROS) Liquids Solution Softgel Suspension Emulsion Syrup Elixir Tincture Hydrogel Buccal / Sublabial / Sublingual Solids Orally Disintegrating Tablet (ODT) Film Lollipop Lozenges Chewing gum Liquids Mouthwash Toothpaste Ointment Oral spray Respiratory tract Solids Smoking device Dry Powder Inhaler (DPI) Liquids pressurized Metered Dose Inhaler (pMDI) Nebulizer Vaporizer Gas Oxygen mask Oxygen concentrator Anaesthetic machine Relative analgesia machine Ocular / Otologic / Nasal Nasal spray Ear drops Eye drops Ointment Hydrogel Nanosphere suspension Mucoadhesive microdisc (microsphere tablet) Urogenital Ointment Pessary (vaginal suppository) Vaginal ring Vaginal douche Intrauterine device (IUD) Extra-amniotic infusion Intravesical infusion Rectal (enteral)

Ointment Suppository Enema (Solution Hydrogel) Murphy drip Nutrient enema Dermal Ointment Liniment Paste Film Hydrogel Liposomes Transfersome vesicals Cream Lotion Lip balm Medicated shampoo Dermal patch Transdermal patch Transdermal spray Jet injector Injection / Infusion (into tissue/blood) Skin Intradermal Subcutaneous Transdermal implant Organs Intracavernous Intravitreal Intra-articular or intrasynovial injection Transscleral Central nervous system Intracerebral Intrathecal Epidural Circulatory / Musculoskeletal Intravenous Intracardiac Intramuscular Intraosseous Intraperitoneal Nanocell injection Additional explanation: Mucous membranes are used by the human body to absorb the dosage for all routes of administration, except for "Dermal" and "Injection/Infusion". Administration routes can also be grouped as Topical (local effect) or Systemic (defined as Enteral = Digestive tract/Rectal, or Parenteral = All other routes).

CAPSULE DEFINITION: Enclosed in or formed into a capsule. In the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, Encapsulation refers to a range of techniques used to enclose medicines in a relatively stable shell known as a capsule, allowing them to, be taken orally or be used as suppositories TYPES OF CAPSULES: The two main types of capsules are:
1. 2.

Hard-shelled capsules, Soft-shelled capsules,

1. Hard-Shelled Capsules: They are normally used for dry, powdered ingredients or miniature pellets or tablets. They are also called Hard gel capsules

The capsules are made in two parts by dipping metal rods in the gelling agent solution. The capsules are supplied as closed units to the pharmaceutical manufacturer. Before use, the two halves are separated, the capsule is filled with powder (either by placing a compressed slug of powder into one half of the capsule, or by filling one half of the capsule with loose powder) and the other half of the capsule is pressed on. This is also called Two-piece gel encapsulation

Two-piece, hard starch capsule 2. Soft-Shelled Capsules: These are primarily used for oils and for active ingredients that are dissolved or suspended in oil. These are single-piece gelatin capsule sealed with a drop of gelatin solution. Initially Moths and Dublanc were granted a patent for a method to produce a single-piece gelatin. They used individual iron moulds for their process, filling the capsules individually with a medicine dropper. Later on, methods were developed that used sets of plates with pockets to form the capsules, but this equipment is not produced commercially any more. All modern soft-gel encapsulation uses variations of a process developed by R.P. Scherer in 1933. His innovation was to use a rotary die to produce the capsules, with the filling taking place by blow molding. This method reduced wastage, and was the first process to yield capsules with highly repeatable dosage. The process is also known as Single-piece gel encapsulation

Cod liver oil soft gel capsules. COMPSITION OF CAPSULES: Both of these classes of capsules are made from aqueous solutions of gelling agents like:

Animal protein mainly gelatin; Plant polysaccharides or their derivatives like carrageenans and modified forms of starch and cellulose.

Other ingredients can be added to the gelling agent solution like

plasticizers such as glycerin and/or sorbitol to decrease the capsule's hardness, coloring agents, preservatives, disintegrants, lubricants and Surface treatment.

CAPSULE SIZE

Ca

psule sizes are denoted by a number, which indicates the size and volume of the capsule. There are four sizes of Cap-M-Quick filler available; size 1 which is the smallest, size 0, size 00 and size 000 which is the largest. Each capsule filler is specific to its capsule. For instance, size1 Cap-M-Quick filler will only fit size1 capsules. Size '0' will only work with '0'

capsules, etc. Some confusion exists because there are only two tampers, size 1/0 and size 00/000. But the filler itself is exclusive to the capsule size. Some of the capsule sizes we offer include:

Capsule Name 000 Height inches Height in mm Volume in mL Volume ounces in in

00

1.03 0.92 0.85 0.76 0.71 0.63 0.56 0.44 26.1 23.3 21.7 19.4 18.0 15.9 14.3 11.10 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.37 0.95 0.68 0.50 0.37 0.30 0.21 0.13 1/20 1/30 1/40 1/55 1/75 1/10 1/13 1/220 0 5

Average fill weights in mg 1370 950- 680- 500- 370- 300- 210- 130(depending on -615 430 305 225 165 135 95 60 powder density) Whether you need empty gelatin capsules, vegetarian capsules, or any other

SIZE 0f CAPSULES: These all-natural capsules are perfect for taking essential oils internally. These capsules are made of cellulosic raw materials and are vegetarian approved and kosher certified. One-hundred-fifty size-0 capsules come in a white plastic pill container with a simple twist-on/off lid

Size 00

Size 0

Volume: Volume: .91 ml .68 ml

Size "0" is the industry standard and most popular size used for capsulated products. Gelatin source: kosher beef, sulfite free. Size "0" is about 50% smaller than size "00" and is close to the size of a nickel. Each "0" capsule will hold 400 mg - 800 mg or so (5,000 mg = 1 teaspoon), depending on the powder and whether or not you use a Tamper when filling the capsules. Heavy and dense powders, such as Bentonite clay, Kelp and Spirulina, will be closer to the 800 mg range in one "0" capsule. Light and fluffy powders, such as Slippery Elm and Siberian Ginseng, will be closer to the 400 mg range in one "0" capsule. Of course, using a Tamper will drastically increase the amount that will fit into each capsule. Precaution: Even though these capsules are designed to hold liquid, they will dissolve within a few minutes when in contact with a liquid unless professional banding equipment is used

DETERMINATION OF CAPSULE SIZE: Hard Gelatin capsules are made in a range of fixed sizes; the standard industrial sizes use today is for human medicines are from 0-4. Estimating Fill Weight for Powders: To estimate the fill weight for powders, the simplest way is to multiply the body volume by its tapped bulk density Estimating Fill Weight for Liquids: The fill weight for liquids is calculated by multiplying the specific gravity of the liquid by the capsule body volume multiplied by 0.9

To accommodate special needs some intermediate sizes are produced, termed Elongated Sizes, that typically have an extra 10% of fill volume compared to the standard sizes, e.g. for 500mg doses of antibiotics, elongated size 0 capsules are commonly used. Siz e 5 4 3 2 1 0 0E 00 000 13 12 12e l 11 10 7 Su0 7 Volume (ml)[A] 0.13 0.21 0.3 0.37 0.5 0.68 0.7 0.95 1.37 3.2 5 7.5 10 18 24 28 Locked (mm)[A] 11.1 14.3 15.9 18 19.4 21.7 23.1 23.3 26.14 30 40.5 57 47.5 64 78 88.5 length External (mm)[A] 4.91 5.31 5.82 6.35 6.91 7.65 7.65 8.53 9.91 15.3 15.3 15.5 20.9 23.4 23.4 23.4 diameter

CAPSULE SIZE CHART

SHAPES AND DESIGNS OF CAPSULES The shape of the capsule has remain virtually unchanged since its invention over 150 years ago , except for the development of the self unlocking capsule during the 1960s, when automatic filling and packaging machines were introduced. Filled capsules were subjected to vibration during this process, causing some to come apart and spill their contents. To overcome this, Modern capsule shells have a series of identifications on the inside of the cap and on the external surface of the body which when the capsule is

closed after filling, form an interference fit sufficiently strong to hold them together during mechanical handling. The manufacturers of the empty shells can be identified from the types of indent which are specified to each one. Some shapes of different types of capsules are as follows:

Caplets and Ovals

19

mm

19 Caplet

mm

22

mm

22 Caplet

mm 15 Oval

mm

Caplet

breakbar

Caplet

Small

22

mm

22 mm Large Oval breakbar

breakbar

Large Oval

Soft Gel Capsules

4 Round 5

5 Round 7 3 Ovall 5 Oval 9. 5 Oblong

6.75 Oval 1 2 Oblong 4 Oblong 7.5 Oval 8.5Ova 1 6 Oblong 1 0 Oblong 12 Oval 2

Oblon Oblong g Soft Gel Tubes

8 Tube

18 Tube

Two Piece Hard-Gels

Size Coated

1 Size Colour

2 Size 00 Hard Gel

ADVANTAGES OF ENCAPSULATION: Encapsulation makes it possible to separate an objects implementation from its behavior to restrict access to its internal data. This restriction allows certain details of an objects behavior to be hidden. It allows us to create a "black box" and protects an objects internal state from corruption by its clients. Encapsulation is a technique for minimizing interdependencies among modules by defining a strict external interface. This way, internal coding can be changed without affecting the interface, so long as the new implementation supports the same (or upwards compatible) external interface. So encapsulation prevents a program from becoming so interdependent that a small change has massive ripple effects. The implementation of an object can be changed without affecting the application that uses it for: Improving performance, fix a bug, consolidate code or for porting

SPIRITS & PLASTERS Pharmacology A solution containing a volatile substance, usually alcohol Examples

aromatic ammonia spirit an ammonia-containing

preparation used as a respiratory stimulant in syncope, weakness. Aromatic ammonia spirit is a mixture of ammonia, ammonium carbonate, and other agents for use as an inhalant to revive a person who has fainted. camphor spirit a solution of camphor and alcohol, used topically as a local counterirritant. rectified spirit alcohol. Uses For aromatic ammonia spirit Aromatic ammonia spirit is used to prevent or treat fainting. Fainting may be caused by some kinds of medicine, by an unpleasant or stressful event, or by a serious medical problem, such as heart disease. Fainting in an older person is often more serious than fainting in a younger person. Older people and people with a history of heart problems should seek medical attention as soon as possible after fainting. Aromatic ammonia spirit is available without a doctor's prescription. Before using aromatic ammonia spirit In deciding to use a medicine, the risks of taking the medicine must be weighed against the good it will do. This is a decision you and your doctor will make. For aromatic ammonia spirit, the following should be considered: Allergies Tell your doctor if you have ever had any unusual or allergic reaction to aromatic ammonia spirit or any other medicines. Also tell your health

care professional if you have any other types of allergies, such as to foods, dyes, preservatives, or animals. For non-prescription products, read the label or package ingredients carefully.

Pediatric aromatic ammonia spirit has been tested in children and, in effective doses, has not been shown to cause different side effects or problems than it does in adults. However, aromatic ammonia spirit should not be given to children without first checking with their doctor. Geriatric Many medicines have not been studied specifically in older people. Therefore, it may not be known whether they work exactly the same way they do in younger adults. Although there is no specific information comparing use of aromatic ammonia spirit in the elderly with use in other age groups, aromatic ammonia spirit is not expected to cause different side effects or problems in older people than it does in younger adults. Interactions with Medicines Although certain medicines should not be used together at all, in other cases two different medicines may be used together even if an interaction might occur. In these cases, your doctor may want to change the dose, or other precautions may be necessary. Tell your healthcare professional if you are taking any other prescription or nonprescription (over-the-counter [OTC]) medicine. Interactions with Food/Tobacco/Alcohol Certain medicines should not be used at or around the time of eating food or eating certain types of food since interactions may occur. Using alcohol or tobacco with certain medicines may also cause interactions

to occur. Discuss with your healthcare professional the use of your medicine with food, alcohol, or tobacco. Other Medical Problems The presence of other medical problems may affect the use of aromatic ammonia spirit. Make sure you tell your doctor if you have any other medical problems, especially: Asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, or other chronic lung disease, or Eye problemsaromatic ammonia spirit may make these conditions worse Flushed faceThe cause of the fainting may be a serious condition that should be treated by a doctor

PLASTER
sticking plaster n (Medicine) a

thin cloth with an adhesive substance on one side, used for covering slight or superficial wounds Usual US term adhesive tape EXAMPLE Sal-Acid Plasters (Salicylic Acid Topical)? Salicylic acid is a keratolytic (peeling agent). Salicylic acid causes shedding of the outer layer of skin. Salicylic acid topical is used in the treatment of acne, dandruff, corns, and warts. Salicylic acid topical may also be used for purposes other than those listed here. What should I discuss with my healthcare provider before taking Sal-Acid Plasters (Salicylic Acid Topical)? Avoid the eyes, mouth, lips, inside the nose, genitals, and anal areas when applying salicylic acid topical. Do not use the wart remover on moles or birthmarks, or warts with hair growing from them, red edges, or unusual color. Also, do not use salicylic acid topical on sunburned, windburned, dry, chapped, irritated, or broken skin; or on open wounds. If medication is applied to any of these areas, wash with water. Before using salicylic topical, talk to your doctor if you have kidney disease have liver disease have diabetes have poor circulation; or are treating a child

What are the possible side effects of Sal-Acid Plasters (Salicylic Acid Topical)? Serious side effects are not likely to occur with the use of salicylic acid topical. If you do experience any of the following rare serious side effects, stop using salicylic acid topical and seek emergency medical attention or contact your doctor: an allergic reaction (shortness of breath; closing of the throat; swelling of the lips, face, or tongue; or hives); or severe skin irritation Other, less serious side effects are more likely to occur. Continue to use salicylic acid topical and talk to your doctor if you experience skin burning; stinging; itching; dryness; redness; peeling; or irritation. EXTRACT- a distillate composed of active and/or inert ingredients extracted from plant or animal matter, and represented in concentrated form. - It is made by extracting a part of a raw material, often by using a solvent such as ethanol or water. Variants: Tincture- liquid solution of herbs and a fluid menstruum, usually ethanol. The dried or fresh herbs are combined with alcohol, then the solid matter is removed leaving only the oils of the herbs. Example: Tincture of Iodine used as a disinfectant Powdered or Dried Extracts- formed by evaporation of all the solvents after the process of extraction. Example: Wild Yam extract used as a treatment for colic.

Wild Yam Extract Iodine

Tincture of

Composition: small percentage of solvents (mostly ethanol) used from extracting, oils of the extracted substance, powdered/dried residue of the extracted substance. Routes of Administration: Oral Route: some powdered-form extracts are dissolved or mixed with water (hot or cold); then it could be taken orally by the consumer as a tea or as juice.
-

some extracts which are capsulated are taken orally.

Inhalation Route: Powdered-form extracts such as Aloe Vera extracts are inhaled by the patient to Pulmonary Tuberculosis. Tincture of Benzoin can also be inhaled in steam as a treatment for various conditions including bronchitis and colds. Topical Route: Compound Tincture of Benzoin (CTB) is often applied to skin before applying tape or other adhesive bandages. Example:

COLLYRIUM- is a lotion or liquid wash used as a cleanser for the eyes, particularly in diseases of the eye.

Variants: Liquid Collyrium/ Opthalmic solutions Composition: Liquid collyria are composed of ophthalmic powders, or waters, such as rose-water, and plantain-water. Boric acid, which has mild antibiotic properties against fungal or bacterial infection, is a common component of Collyria..

Route of Administration: Collyria are taken topically. Some are sprayed inside the injured eye and the area around it. Affected eye is flushed directly with the solution.

Tablet

- Is a pharmaceutical dosage form. It comprises a mixture of active substances and excipients, usually in powder form, pressed or compacted from a powder into a solid dose. The excipients can include diluents, binders or granulating agents, glidants (flow aids) and lubricants to ensure efficient tabletting; disintegrants to promote tablet break-up in the digestive tract.

- A polymer coating is often applied to make the tablet smoother and easier to swallow, to control the release rate of the active ingredient, to make it more resistant to the environment (extending its shelf life), or to enhance the tablet's appearance.

- The compressed tablet is the most popular dosage form in use today. About two-thirds of all prescriptions are dispensed as solid dosage forms, and half of these are compressed tablets. A tablet can be formulated to deliver an accurate dosage to a specific site; it is usually taken orally, but can be administered sublingually, buccally, rectally or intravaginally.

Example Of Tablets 1. Creatinine 2. Vitamin C(Asrorbic Acid)

Tablet properties - tablets can be made in virtually any shape, although requirements of patients and tableting machines mean that most are round, oval or capsule shaped. More unusual shapes have been manufactured but patients find these harder to swallow, and they are more vulnerable to chipping or manufacturing problems. Tabletting formulations - In the tablet-pressing process, it is important that all ingredients be fairly dry, powdered or granular, somewhat uniform in particle

size, and freely flowing. Mixed particle sized powders can segregate during manufacturing operations due to different densities, which can result in tablets with poor drug or active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) content uniformity but granulation should prevent this. Content uniformity ensures that the same API dose is delivered with each tablet.

Advantages and disadvantages of tablets tablets are simple and convenient to use. They provide an accurately measured dosage of the active ingredient in a convenient portable package, and can be designed to protect unstable medications or disguise unpalatable ingredients. Colored coatings, embossed markings and printing can be used to aid tablet recognition. Manufacturing processes and techniques can provide tablets special properties, for example, sustained release or fast dissolving formulation. Some drugs may be unsuitable for administration by the oral route. For example, protein drugs such as insulin may be denatured by stomach acids. Such drugs cannot be made into tablets. Some drugs may be deactivated by the liver when they are carried there from the gastrointestinal tract by the hepatic portal vein (the "first pass effect"), making them unsuitable for oral use. Tablet coating Many tablets today are coated after being pressed. Although sugar-coating was popular in the past, the process has many drawbacks. Modern tablet coatings are polymer and polysaccharide based, with plasticizers and pigments included. Tablet coatings must be stable and strong enough to survive the handling of the tablet, must not make tablets stick together during the coating process, and must follow the fine contours of embossed characters or logos on tablets.

Liniments I. Therapeutic Uses and Route of Administration Liniments are liquid forms of drugs which are usually used in temporary treatment of pain. However, some can also come in semi-solid or semi fluid form Liniments are administered through the dermal or topical route onto the skin covering the area in which an individual is experiencing pain, usually muscle pain. Liniments are incorporated with friction onto the skin and contain substances such as menthol that cause mild irritation of receptors on the skin to bring about more blood to the painful area, therefore temporarily relieving pain and aches as temporary topical analgesics. II. Composition Liniments are composed of a variety of oil or alcohol bases such as camphor, oil of turpentine, oil of wintergreen, or ethyl alcohol. Substances which possess counterirritant aromatic properties such as menthol, methyl salicylate, or benzoin resin are also incorporated into the composition of liniments as well as substances which quickly evaporate. Some liniments contain sweet-smelling components to mask some of the irritating scents derived from the other ingredients. III. Variants Oil-based liniments are commonly used for a variety of different ailments. Most oil-based liniments such as Red Flower Oil and White Flower Oil are used for relief of muscle and joint aches as well as clearing the sinuses and alleviating sinus headaches. Oils Alcohol-based liniments, such as herbal liniments which contain isopropyl alcohol, can sometimes be homemade and used for muscle pains, bruising and sprains, however unlike oil-based liniments, give a cooling effect to the painful area. III. Size of Dosage

Liniments are usually packaged in 3 to 6 ounce bottles or vials. Application requires only a minimal to moderate amount, sufficient enough to cover the painful area. Liniments should not be in contact with mucous membranes. IV. Additional Information Menthol primarily activates the cold-sensitive TRPM8 receptors in the skin. Menthol, after topical application of the liniment, causes a feeling of coolness due to stimulation of the 'cold' receptors by inhibiting Ca2+ currents of neuronal membranes. Liniments may also yield analgesic properties via kappa-opioid receptor agonism. The effect of liniments only lasting for a course of hours.

Glycerites I. Uses and Routes of Administration A glycerite is a liquid preparation that uses glycerin to extract the constituents from an herb. Glycerin is both a solvent and a preservative and ideal for preparing children's remedies due to its sweet taste and lack of alcohol. Such preparations can be stirred into juice. They are also an option for people who do not want the alcohol in tinctures. Glycerites are most commonly administered through the oral route, absorbed in the intestines and metabolically processed in the liver. Note that glycerin is less absorbed after metabolic processing in the liver than alcohol. II. Composition Glycerites are simply composed of the main component glycerin, fresh or preserved herbs, and essential oils. III. Variants Different types of glycerites are present, including starch and tannic acid glycerites. Starch glycerite is composed of glycerin, starch, benzoic acid, and water. This mixture is marketed as an emollient (skin softening or soothing agent). Tannic acid glycerite is made up of tannic acid, sodium citrate, sodium sulfite, and glycerin. Because of the high concentration of tannic acid, this mixture is produced and marketed as an astringent, which causes contraction.

Astringent is also known as styptic, meaning "astringent" or "arresting hemorrhage" (bleeding) because of an astringent quality.

Mucilages -Mucilages are generally normal products of metabolism formed within the cell - The mucilaginous plants work on remedies for wounds, to soothe itching, irritation and pain and also for drying and binding a tissue that is damaged. The action is referred to as being emollient or demulcent. - The demulcent action is continued in the lining of the digestive tract and this explains the remedies that mucilage bring for ulcers, lesions, inflammations in the gastrointestinal tract and for reducing the excessive acid secretions. - The mucilaginous remedies have properties that are soothing for the urinary tracts, the bronchial tissues, and acts as a comfort where there is vigorous coughing syndrome and they increase the bronchial secretions if they go dry and also in an asthmatic condition they help to reduce the spasms. Thus in asthmatic situation, there are symptoms of breathlessness and nervous coughing, this provides great help. In bladder infections or in urinary infections, they help to reduce colic pain due to stones. So it is looking into management rather than providing a remedy but these conditions bring in many cases where the approach may be very much useful. - valuable aids in the management of irritable digestive disorders, especially where ulceration is a feature.

- Mucilage is most commonly used as adjuvant different pharmaceutical dosage forms. They pharmaceutical properties, which include suspending, emulsifying and sustaining properties different pharmaceutical dosage forms

in the manufacturing of possess a variety of binding, disintegrating, at different proportion in

**binding agent in tablet formulations and these mucilages were found to be suitable binders for uncoated tabletsas compared to starch. And it also show comparable disintegration , hardness and release data as starch. **gelling agent generally applied externally. It is used topically on the external skin for the control of pain. But when applied to body cavity it have a specific purpose such as improvement of bioavailability, control of side effects and drug targeting. **suspending agent to stabilize the suspension types of drugs. Aids in suspending insoluble substances in liquid formulations; their colloidal character and viscous nature prevent immediate sedimentation. **disintegrant facilitates the break up or disintegration of tablets into smaller particles that dissolve more rapidly than in the absence of disintegrants. Mucilages are used as disintegrant due to its swelling property.

Functions of mucilages - Storage material - Water storage reservoir - Protection for germinating seeds. Occurence - Epidermal leaf cells (Senna) - Seed coats (linseeds, psyllium) - Roots (marshmallow) - Barks (Slippery elm)

Routes of administration Nasal

CONSTITUENTS OF PSYLLIUM (an herb containing mucilages) All the seeds contain mucilage in the epidermis of the testa. 2 fractions have been separated from the mucilage - One is soluble in cold water, & the other in hot water, making a viscous solution which gels on cooling. The seeds also contain fixed oil Sugars

Sterols Protein

Ointment Description It is a homogeneous, viscous, semi-solid preparation, most commonly a greasy, thick oil (oil 80% - water 20%) with a high viscosity, that is intended for external application to the skin or mucous membranes. They are used as emollients or for the application of active ingredients to the skin for protective, therapeutic, or prophylactic purposes and where a degree of occlusion is desired. Ointments are used topically on a variety of body surfaces. These include the skin and the mucous membranes of the eye (an eye ointment),vagina, anus, and nose. An ointment may or may not be medicated. Composition A topical ointment composition includes a mixture of non-systemic bases comprising calcium carbonate, magnesium hydroxide, and aluminum hydroxide. The composition also includes an anhydrous lanolin base carrier material and a hydrophilic ointment base carrier material, and is effective to essentially adjust the acid-base balance at the area of topical application to a point which corresponds with normal healthy body tissue. The composition may further include a compound having pharmaceutically acceptable anesthetic properties.

A method is provided for treating skin injuries involving inflammation or destruction of tissue, such as decubitus ulcers, varicose ulcers and burns, which method involves preparing the above noted composition and applying it to the affected area. There are five (5) classes or types of ointment bases which are differentiated on the basis of their physical composition. These are: oleaginous bases absorption bases water in oil emulsion bases oil in water emulsion bases water soluble or water miscible bases Each ointment base type has different physical characteristics and therapeutic uses based upon the nature of its components. The following table summarizes the composition, properties, and common uses of each of the five types.

SUMMARY CHART: PROPERTIES OF OINTMENT BASES Oleaginous Absorption Water/Oil Oil/Water Ointment Ointment Emulsion Emulsion Bases Bases Ointment Bases Ointment Bases Compositi oleaginous on compounds oleaginous base + w/o surfactant oleaginous base oleaginous + water (< 45% base + water w/w) + w/o (> 45% w/w) surfactant + o/w (HLB <8) surfactant (HLB >9) hydrous hydrous hydrophilic moderate to easy hydrophilic easy

Watermiscible Ointment Bases Polyethyle ne Glycols (PEGs)

Water anhydrous anhydrous Content Affinity for hydrophobic hydrophilic Water Spreadabil difficult difficult ity

anhydrous, hydrous hydrophilic moderate to easy

Washabilit nonwashable nonwashable y Uses protectants, protectants, emollients emollients (+/-), (+/-), vehicles vehicles for for aqueous hydrolyzable solutions, drugs solids, and nonhydrolyzable drugs Examples White Hydrophilic Petrolatum, Petrolatum, White Anhydrous Ointment Lanolin, Aquabase, Aquaphor, Polysorb

non- or poorly washable emollients, cleansing creams, vehicles for solid, liquid, or nonhydrolyzable drugs Cold Cream type, Hydrous Lanolin, Rose Water Ointment, Hydrocream, Eucerin, Nivea

washable

washable

emollients, drug vehicles for vehicles solid, liquid, or nonhydrolyzable drugs

Hydrophilic PEG Ointment, Ointment, Dermabase, Polybase Velvachol, Unibase

Route of Administration -Topical administration

Pharmacokinetics (of lidocaine ointment) The rate and extent of absorption depends upon concentration and total dose administered, the specific site of application and duration of exposure. In general, the rate of absorption of local anesthetic agents, following topical application to wound surfaces and mucous membranes is high, and occurs most rapidly after intratracheal and bronchial administration. Lidocaine is also well absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, although little intact drug may appear in the circulation because of biotransformation in the liver. The plasma binding of lidocaine is dependent on drug concentration, and the fraction bound decreases with increasing concentration. At concentrations of 1 to 4 g of free base per mL, 60 to 80% of lidocaine is protein bound. Binding is also dependent on the plasma concentration of the alpha-1-acid glycoprotein. Lidocaine has a total plasma clearance of 0.95 L/min, a volume of

distribution at steady state of 91 L, an elimination half-life of 1.6 hours and an estimated hepatic extraction ratio of 0.65. The clearance of lidocaine is almost entirely due to liver metabolism, and depends both on liver blood flow and the activity of metabolizing enzymes. Lidocaine is metabolized rapidly by the liver, and metabolites and unchanged drug are excreted by the kidneys. Biotransformation includes oxidative Ndealkylation, ring hydroxylation, cleavage of the amide linkage, and conjugation. Only 2% of lidocaine is excreted unchanged. Most of it is metabolized first to monoethylglycinexylidide (MEGX) and then to glycinexylidide (GX) and 2,6-xylidine. Up to 70% appears in the urine as 4hydroxy-2,6-xylidine. The elimination half-life of lidocaine following an i.v. bolus injection is typically 1.5 to 2.0 hours. Examples of Ointments

Katinko -an ointment for common body pains like muscle pains, headaches, stomachaches and even menstrual cramps

Erythromycin Ophthalmic Ointment USP -for the treatment of superficial ocular infections involving the conjunctiva and/or cornea caused by organisms susceptible to erythromycin

Lidocaine - stabilizes the neuronal membrane by inhibiting the ionic fluxes required for the

initiation and conduction of impulses, thereby effecting local anesthetic action.

Vagistat-1 -is used either on the skin or in the vagina for fungal infections

MASSES Description Mass drug is a powerful drug producing rapid gains in size and strength. Testosterone propionate is a commonly manufactured, oil-based injectable testosterone compound. It is therefore comparatively much faster acting than other testosterone esters such as cypionate or enanthate, and requires a much more frequent dosing schedule. While cypionate and enanthate are injected on a weekly basis, propionate is generally administered (at least) every third day. To make this drug even more uncomfortable to use, the propionate ester can be very irritating to the site of injection. In fact, many sensitive individuals choose to stay away from this steroid completely, their body reacting with a pronounced soreness and low-grade fever that may last for a few days. Even the mild soreness that is experienced by most users can

be quite uncomfortable, especially when taking multiple pharmacokinetics. The "standard" esters like in ection enanthate and cypionate, which are clearly easier to use, are therefore much more popular among athletes. Composition Testosterone-17-propionate; 17-(1-Oxopropoxy)-(17b)-androst-4-en-3-one

Route of Administration -intramuscular injection

Pharmacokinetic Testosterone esters less polar than free testosterone. Testosterone esters in oil injected intramuscularly are absorbed slowly from the lipid phase, thus testosterone enantate can be given at intervals of two to four weeks. Testosterone in plasma is 98% bound to a specific testostrone estradiol binding globulin and about 2 % is free. The free testostrone concentrate will determine its half life. About 90% of a dose of testosterone is excreted in the urine as glucoronic and sulfuric acid conjugates of testosterone and its metabolites, about 6 % of a dose is excreted in the feces, mostly in the unconjugated form.

FLUID EXTRACT a liquid preparation, containing alcohol as a solvent or as a preservative, that contains in each cubic centimeter the medicinal activity of one gram of the crude drug in powdered form. is a type of fluid-solid extraction, that usually employ Soxhlet Apparatus to extract certain compound with known solubility in a solvent. Such as In extracting recent lipids this from has a plant(solid) to using include ethanol(liquid). years expanded

specialized extraction methodologies and equipment of a proprietary nature to ratio-intact extract multiple groups of compounds with

discovered solubility in a solvent. Such as extracting polysaccharides, resins and organic acids from a plant(solid) using glycerol(liquid). Extracts are usually prepared in two phases. The first phase involves getting the active principle into solution followed by partial or total evaporation of the liquid obtained in order to concentrate the product. Fluid products are prepared so that one part by weight corresponds to one part by weight of the dried drug. They are first steeped and then percolated. The percolation technique is to pass the solvent through a glass or enamel tube filled with drug to be extracted the menstrum is collected drop by drop until 85% of the final volume is obtained; the remaining 15% is obtained by draining the solvent-saturated plant material and concentrating the liquid obtained by dissolving a soft or dry drug extract in alcohol of appropriate strength followed by filtering if necessary. Composition Whatever the preparation method, fluid extracts must have identical composition. The most commonly used fluid extracts are hydroalcoholic (alcohol at 95%). Alcohol, apart from possessing greater solvent capacity than water that acts as a preservative. Fluid extracts can be used in drop form directly but are usually used in the preparation of syrups or other dosage forms. Fluid extractions can sometimes be improved by the addition of fruit juice. For example , prune juice improves the therapeutic action of a laxative, pear juice may act as a chalagogue and blackberry juice enchances the effects of diuretics. Route of Administration Enteral *Oral

DECOCTION is the process of extraction of water-soluble substances of a drug or medicinal plants by boiling. Decoction is a method of extraction, by boiling, of dissolved chemicals, or herbal or plant material, which may include stems, roots, bark and rhizomes. Decoction involves first mashing, and then boiling in water to extract oils, volatile organic compounds, and other chemical substances. Convenient administration and easy absorption Better efficacy and lower toxicity and side effects

Flexibility in combination of drug and hence and expansion of their application to a wider scoop of remedies Routes of Administration Enteral *Oral

BACKGROUND AND SUPPORTING DETAILS ABOUT POWDER A powder is a dry,thick(not creamy) bulk solid composed of a large number of very fine particles that may flow freely when shaken or tilted. Powders are a special sub-class of granular materials, although the terms powder and granular are sometimes used to distinguish separate classes of material. In particular, powders refer to those granular materials that have the finer grain sizes, and that therefore have a greater tendency to form clumps when flowing. Granulars refers to the coarser granular materials that do not tend to form clumps except when wet. Powders are transported in the atmosphere differently from a coarse granular material. For one thing, tiny particles have little inertia compared to the drag force of the gas that surrounds them, and so they tend to go with the flow instead of traveling in straight lines. For this reason, powders may be an inhalation hazard. Larger particles cannot weave through the body's

defenses in the nose and sinus, but will strike and stick to the mucous membranes. The body then moves the mucous out of the body to expel the particles. The smaller particles on the other hand can travel all the way to the lungs from which they cannot be expelled. Serious and sometimes fatal diseases such as silicosis are a result from working with certain powders without adequate respiratory protection. Also, if powder particles are sufficiently small, they may become suspended in the atmosphere for a very long time. Random motion of the air molecules andturbulence provide upward forces that may counteract the downward force of gravity. Coarse granulars, on the other hand, are so heavy that they fall immediately back to the ground. Once disturbed, dust may form huge dust storms that cross continents and oceans before settling back to the surface. This actually explains why there is relatively little hazardous dust in the natural environment. Once aloft, the dust is very likely to stay aloft until it meets water in the form of rain or a body of water. Then it sticks and is washed downstream to settle as mud deposits in a quiet lake or sea. When geological changes later reexpose these deposits to the atmosphere, they may have already cemented together to become mudstone, a type of rock. For comparison, the Moon has neither wind nor water, and so itsregolith contains dust but no mudstone. LISTS OF DRUGS IN POWDER FORM Aconite- Powder.Grayish-brown; starch grains, nearly spherical, simple or 2 to 5 compound (3 to 15 in diam.); stone cells, large, tabular, irregular, or elongated to fibers; yellowish-brown cork fragments, few; tracheae, spiral, reticulate or with bordered pits; parenchyma, relatively thick-walled, filled with starch. Althaea Powder.White or light yellow; starch grains, numerous (5 to 20 in diam.), calcium oxalate crystals in rosette aggregates (15 to 35 in diam.); bast fibers in groups, sometimes not strongly lignified, tracheae scalariform or with bordered pits; numerous parenchyma fragments with large mucilage cells. Anisum Powder.Yellowish-brown, fragments of pericarp showing portions of yellow oil reservoirs numerous; small tracheae accompanied by sclerenchyma fibers; endosperm cells filled with aleurone (about 6 in diam.), each containing a rosette crystal of calcium oxalate (about 2 in diam.); 1-celled

hairs up to 2000 long, having slight projections on the surface; the endocarp is characteristic. Arnica Powder.Yellowish-brown, pappus consists of multicellular axis with unicellular branches; non-glandular hairs 1- to 6-celled, glandular hairs of three kinds, with unicellular stalk and unicellular head; a 4-celled stalk and unicellular head, or a 10-celled stalk of a double row of cells with a 2-celled head; pollen grains numerous, spherical (25 to 35 in diam.) Amylum Powder.White, starch grains, polygonal, rounded or spherical (3 to 35 in diam.) with central cleft 3 to 5 rayed. Buchu Powder.Pale green, consists mostly of parenchyma, often containing sphaerocrystals of inulin (25 to 40 in diam.) and numerous globules short and unicellular; aggregate crystals of calcium oxalate (15 to 25 in diam.); tracheids and bast fibers, few.

PAPER FORM DRUG Lysergic acid diethylamide, abbreviated LSD or LSD-25, also known as lysergide and colloquially as acid, is a semisynthetic psychedelic drug of the ergoline family, well known for its psychological effects which can include

altered thinking processes, closed and open eye visuals,synaesthesia, an altered sense of time and spiritual experiences, as well as for its key role in1960s counterculture. It is used mainly as an entheogen, recreational drug, and as an agent inpsychedelic therapy. LSD is non-addictive, is not known to cause brain damage, and has extremely low toxicity relative to dose, although in rare cases adverse psychiatric reactions such as anxiety or delusions are possible. LSD can cause pupil dilation, reduced appetite (for some, it increases), and wakefulness. Other physical reactions to LSD are highly variable and nonspecific, and some of these reactions may be secondary to the psychological effects of LSD. The following symptoms have been reported: numbness, weakness, nausea,hypothermia or hyperthermia (decreased or increased body temperature), elevated blood sugar, goose bumps, increase in heart rate, jaw clenching, perspiration,saliva production, mucus production, sleeplessness, hyperreflexi a, and tremors. Some users, including Albert Hofmann, report a strong metallic taste for the duration of the effects. LSD is not considered addictive by the medical community. Rapid tolerance build-up prevents regular use, and there is cross-tolerance shown between LSD,mescaline and psilocybin. This tolerance diminishes after a few days without use and is probably caused by downregulation of 5-HT2A receptors in the brain. In the 1950s and 1960s LSD was used in psychiatry to enhance psychotherapy. Some psychiatrists believed LSD was especially useful at helping patients to "unblock" repressed subconscious material through other psychotherapeutic methods, and also for treating alcoholism.One study concluded, "The root of the therapeutic value of the LSD experience is its potential for producing self-acceptance and self-surrender," presumably by forcing the user to face issues and problems in that individual's psyche. In December 1968, a survey was made of all 74 UK doctors who had used LSD in humans; 73 replied, 1 had moved overseas and was unavailable. Of the 73 replies, the majority of UK doctors with clinical experience with LSD felt that LSD was effective and had acceptable safety: 41 (56%) continued with clinical use of LSD, 11 (15%) had stopped because of retirement or other extraneous reasons, 9 (12%) had stopped because they found LSD ineffective, and 5 (7%) had stopped because they felt LSD was too dangerous. LSD is produced in crystalline form and then mixed with excipients or redissolved for production in ingestible forms. Liquid solution is either distributed in small vials or, more commonly, sprayed onto or soaked into a distribution medium. Historically, LSD solutions were first sold on sugar cubes, but practical considerations forced a change to tablet form. Appearing

in 1968 as an orange tablet measuring about 6 mm across, "Orange Sunshine" acid was the first largely available form of LSD after its possession was made illegal. Tim Scully, a prominent chemist, made some of it, but said that most "Sunshine" in the USA came by way of Ronald Stark, who imported approximately thirty-five million doses from Europe. After tablets came "computer acid" or "blotter paper LSD", typically made by dipping a preprinted sheet of blotting paper into an LSD/water/alcohol solution. More than 200 types of LSD tablets have been encountered since 1969 and more than 350 blotter paper designs have been observed since 1975. About the same time as blotter paper LSD came "Windowpane" (AKA "Clearlight"), which contained LSD inside a thin gelatin square a quarter of an inch across. LSD has been sold under a wide variety of often short-lived and regionally restricted street names including Acid, Trips, Uncle Sid, Blotter, Lucy, Alice and doses, as well as names that reflect the designs on the sheets of blotter paper. Authorities have encountered the drug in other formsincluding powder or crystal, and capsule. Pharmacokinetics LSD's effects normally last from 612 hours depending on dosage, tolerance, body weight and age. The Sandoz prospectus for "Delysid" warned: "intermittent disturbances of affect may occasionally persist for several days."Contrary to early reports and common belief, LSD effects do not last longer than the amount of time significant levels of the drug are present in the blood. Aghajanian and Bing (1964) found LSD had an elimination half-life of only 175 minutes. However, using more accurate techniques, Papac and Foltz (1990) reported that 1 g/kg oral LSD given to a single male volunteer had an apparent plasma half-life of 5.1 hours, with a peak plasma concentration of 5 ng/mL at 3 hours post-dose.

SOLUTIONS A solution is a clear, homogeneous liquid dosage form that contains one or more chemical substances dissolved in a solvent or mixture of mutually miscible solvents. Hand trituration. TYPES OF SOLUTION Gas If the solvent is a gas, only gases are dissolved under any given set of conditions. An example of a gaseous solution is air (oxygen and other gases dissolved in nitrogen). Since interactions between molecules play almost no role, dilute gases form rather trivial solutions. In part of the literature, they are not even classified as solutions, but addressed as mixtures. Liquid If the solvent is a liquid, then gases, liquids, and solids can be dissolved. Examples are: Gas in liquid:

Oxygen in water. Carbon dioxide in water is a less simple example, because the solution is accompanied by a chemical reaction (formation of ions). Note also that the visible bubbles in carbonated water are not the dissolved gas, but only an effervescence of carbon dioxide that has come out of solution; the dissolved gas itself is not visible since it is dissolved on a molecular level.

Liquid in liquid: The mixing of two or more substances of the same chemistry but different concentrations to form a constant.(Homogenization of solutions)

Solid in liquid:

Sucrose (table sugar) in water Sodium chloride or any other salt in water forms an electrolyte: When dissolving, salt dissociates into ions.

Counterexamples are provided by liquid mixtures that are not homogeneous: colloids, suspensions, emulsions are not considered solutions.

Solid If the solvent is a solid, then gases, liquids, and solids can be dissolved. Gas in solid:

Hydrogen dissolves rather well in metals, especially in palladium; this is studied as a means of hydrogen storage.

Liquid in solid:

mercury in gold, forming an amalgam Hexane in paraffin wax

Solid in solid:

Steel, basically a solution of carbon atoms in a crystalline matrix of iron atoms. Alloys like bronze and many others. Polymers containing plasticizers.

Pharmacokinetic properties Risperidone is completely absorbed after oral administration. Peak plasma concentrations are attained within 1 to 2 hours. Food does not affect the absorption of risperidone. RISPERDAL is metabolized by cytochrome P-450-IID6 to 9-hydroxyrisperidone which has a similar pharmacological activity to risperidone. Risperidone and 9-hydroxy-risperidone form the active antipsychotic fraction. After oral administration to psychotic patients, risperidone's half-life is about 3 hours. The elimination half-life of 9-hydroxy-risperidone and

the active antipsychotic fraction is 24 hours. Steady state is reached within 1 day for risperidone in most patients and 4-5 days for 9-hydroxy-risperidone

TRITURATIONS the process of reducing substances to fine particles in a mortar with a pestle. Mortars are usually made of glass porcelain, or wedgewood and the pestles are made of the same ' material as the mortar. TYPES OF TRITURATIONS Hand trituration The process of reducing a substance to a fine powder with the use of mortar and pestle. Mechanical trituration The process of reducing a substance to fine powder with the use of machines. Tablet Triturates: These may be prepared either by molding or by compression. They are small, round with flat opposing surfaces. Of Tablet Triturates there are (1) dispensing tablets and (2) hypodermic tablets

Tinctures A tincture is an alcoholic extract (e.g. of leaves or other plant material) or solution of a non-volatile substance (e.g. of iodine, mercurochrome). To qualify as a tincture, the alcoholic extract is to have an ethanol percentage of at least 40-60% (80-120 proof) (sometimes a 90% (180 proof) pure liquid is even achieved). In herbal medicine, alcoholic tinctures are often made with various concentrations of ethanol, 25% being the most common. Other concentrations include 45% and 90%. Herbal tinctures do not always use ethanol as a solvent, though this is the most frequent. Other solvents include vinegar, glycerol, ether and propylene glycol, not all of which are used for internal consumption

Examples of tinctures

Some examples that were formerly common in medicine[2] include: Tincture of Cannabis sativa Tincture of Benzoin Tincture of cantharides Tincture of ferric citrochloride (a chelate of citric acid and Iron(III) chloride)

Tincture of green soap (which also contains lavender) Tincture of guaiac Tincture of iodine Tincture of opium (laudanum) Camphorated opium tincture (paregoric) Tincture of Pennyroyal

Warburg's Tincture (aka Tinctura Antiperiodica aka Antiperiodic Tincture), an antipyretic medicine of the 19th-century.

Advantages of tinctures

Ethanol is able to dissolve substances which are less soluble in water, while at the same time the water content can dissolve the substances less soluble in ethanol. It is possible to vary the proportion of ethanol and water to produce tinctures with different qualities because of different substances. One example of this is tincture of Calendula officinalis, which is frequently used either at 25% ethanol or 90% ethanol. The solvent also acts as a preservative.

Disadvantages of tinctures

Chemically speaking, ethanol possesses a profound intrinsic denaturing and inert rendering quality. This quality accounts for a large part of ethanol's anti-microbial properties. This denaturing and inert rendering quality also has an undesired effect on many extracted botanical constituents. For instance, alcohol intrinsically fractures and denatures many highly complex aromatic compounds and denatures many extracted for polysaccharides. Other constituents are likewise subjected to denaturing and being rendered inert. The basic tenets of chemistry teach

that anytime a biologically viable component is denatured or rendered inert, it will reduce or negate the prior biological viability. This factor needs to be seriously considered and weighed by the clinician or consumer when determining the hoped for biological viability of an ethanol-based botanical tincture both as to sought for efficacy and dosage considerations. Ether and propylene glycol tinctures are not suitable for internal consumption and are instead used in such preparations as creams or ointments.

INFUSION Its the slow therapeutic introduction of fluid other than blood into a vein. intravenous infusion

1 a solution administered into a vein through an infusion set that includes a plastic or glass vacuum bottle or bag containing the solution and tubing connecting the bottle to a catheter or a needle in the patient's vein. 2 the process of administering a solution intravenously. Swelling of the limb around and distal to the site of injection may indicate that the tip of the catheter or needle is in the subcutaneous tissue and not in the vein. The fluid may be infiltrating the tissue spaces. It should be withdrawn and the limb elevated. Redness, swelling, heat, and pain around the vein at the site of injection or proximal to it may indicate thrombophlebitis. The infusion should be discontinued and the inflammatory condition treated. The infusion is usually begun again at another site. constant-rate infusion the continuous intravenous administration of medication usually through an electronic delivery device, in order to maintain constant blood levels. Most suitable for use with rapid onset of action and short half-life. intramammary infusion material used to introduce medicaments, especially antibiotics, into the teat and udder sinuses for the treatment or prevention of mastitis. May be in liquid or thin paste form and usually prepackaged in tubes for the treatment of individual quarters. Contain antibiotics and adjuvants in a slow or fastrelease base depending on objective, e.g. dry period or lactation period treatment. May contain dye to warn that milk may contain antibiotics. Specially prepared watery infusions of escharotic agents, e.g. silver nitrate, copper sulfate, may be used to dry off permanently a quarter that is chronically affected. intrauterine infusion administration of fluids for irrigative purposes. Hypodermoclysis the injection of an isotonic or hypotonic solution into subcutaneous tissue to supply a continuous and large amount of fluid, electrolytes, and nutrients. The procedure is used to replace the loss or inadequate intake of water and salt during illness or surgery or after shock or hemorrhage. It is performed only when a patient is unable to take fluids intravenously, orally, or rectally. The rate of absorption into the circulatory system is increased with the addition to the solution of the enzyme hyaluronidase. The most common sites of administration are the anterior thighs, the abdominal wall along the crest of the ilium, below the breasts in women, and directly over the scapula in children; sites should be changed when multiple infusions are given. The patient is placed in a comfortable position because the procedure takes a

long time. The nurse observes for signs of circulatory collapse, respiratory difficulty, and edema at the site of injection. Also called hypodermatoclysis, interstitial infusion, subcutaneous infusion. subcutaneous infusion administration of fluids directly into subcutaneous tissues for the purpose of providing hydration

TYPES OF INTRAVENOUS ADMINISTRATION An I.V. injection is the administration of a relatively small volume of solution directly from a syringe. When administered over a short period, it is sometimes called an I.V. push. Before the medication is administered; a small volume of blood is usually drawn into the syringe (aspirated) to make certain that the needle is in the vein. Frequently, I. V. injections and I. V. pushes are done into an existing I. V. line or I. V. access device. The introduction of larger volumes of solution directly into a vein is known as an I.V. infusion, in which the solution is permitted to flow into the vein over a relatively long period. Infusions are given to overcome dehydration, to restore depleted blood volume, and to serve as a vehicle for the administration of medications Infusions may be administered continuously or intermittently Continuous infusions are used to administer a large volume of solution over several hours at a slow, constant rate. An example of a continuous infusion is the administration of 40 milliequivalents (mEq) of potassium chloride in 1,000 milliliters (mL or ml) of 5% dextrose injection over eight hours. Intermittent infusions are used to administer a relatively small volume over a short time at specific intervals. An example of an intermittent infusion is the administration1 g of ampicillin in 50 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride injection over 15-20 minutes every six hours. Piggyback administration of medications has these advantages: 1. An additional venipuncture is not necessary. 2. Medications can be given at intervals rather than by continuous infusion, providing higher blood levels of the drug more quickly. This may lead to the more effective and rational use of many antibiotics.

SETUP FOR CONTINUOUS INTRAVENOUS INFUSION

o o

A container for the solution to be administered; this is almost always a plastic bag, but may be a glass bottle An administration set, consisting of a spike for insertion into the solution container, a drip chamber, a length of plastic tubing, a clamp, and a needle adapter A needle or catheter, which is inserted into the patient's vein

The solution container is supported about three feet above the level of the injection site so that gravity causes the solution to flow from the container. A length of plastic tubing connects the solution container to the needle in the patient's vein. As the solution flows from the container, it passes through a drip chamber, which is a small reservoir connected to the plastic tubing near the solution container. By collecting in the drip chamber, the solution can flow continuously through the remainder of the tubing without mixing with air, thus avoiding the formation and administration of air bubbles. A nurse can also determine how rapidly the solution is being administered by counting the number of drops per minute that enter the drip chamber. The clamp is used to regulate the flow of the solution through the tubing. Closing the clamp progressively flattens the tubing from the "wide-open" to the "shutoff" position. At the end of the plastic tubing is a plastic needle adapter to which a

needle or catheter (discussed later in this chapter) is attached. All of these components are sterile and disposable in order to reduce the risk of Infection. Proper technique is obviously critical to maintain that sterility.

SETUP FOR INTERMITTENT INTRAVENOUS INFUSION

First, the primary solution drip rate is established. At the appropriate time for administration of the medication, the clamp to the piggyback set can be opened to allow the piggyback solution to flow through the tubing, Because the piggyback solution is hanging higher than the primary solution, the greater pressure allows it to flow in preference to the primary solution. The piggyback solution is prevented from flowing up and into the primary

solution container by a one-way check valve on the primary set. This check valve allows the solution to flow from the primary container to the patient, but not the opposite way.

NTRAVENOUS PUMPS AND INFUSION DEVICES An I. V. infusion pump is a device used to control the delivery of an I. V. solution at a selected rate. Under normal circumstances, gravity provides enough pressure to allow an I. V. solution to flow through an administration set and into the vein. The pressure generated by gravity depends on the height at which the I. V. solution is hung, but is generally sufficient to overcome the back pressure from inside the vein. However, several factors may impede the flow of solution; they include clogged filters, small (microbore) tubing or catheters, thick (viscous) solutions, and increased pressure in the vein. Pumps can be adjusted to provide just enough pressure to overcome resistance to flow and maintain a constant flow rate. Pumps are used to:
o

Assure accurate delivery of an I.V. solution, usually within 2-5% of the selected rate

o o

Provide an enhanced 1evelof safety through various built-in alarms. Pumps may sound an alarm if there is air in the I. V. line or the flow of solution is impeded for any reason - for example, if a filter clogs; a patient pinches off the tubing accidentally, or the I. V. container becomes empty. Store data such as volume of solution already infused, infusion rate, etc. Save time for nurses by eliminating the need to repeatedly check on the status of the I. V. infusion

Infusion pumps are used most commonly in special care areas of a hospital, such as intensive care units and pediatric units, as well as with certain types of admixtures, such as parenteral nutrition solutions, chemotherapy solutions, and potent drugs that must be administered very accurately. Most I. V. pumps are designated for use in conjunction with large-volume infusions. However, many are designed to be used with a syringe to deliver the drug. Syringe pumps are most commonly used with pediatric patients, although many hospitals use syringe pumps to deliver intermittent I.V. medications as an alternative to minibags or minibottles.

ELIXIR Elixirs are clear, sweetened, hydroalcoholic liquids intended for oral use. They contain flavoring substances and, i n some cases,active medicinal agents. Theprimary solvents in elixirs ar e alcohol a n d water. Sugar or other age nts are added as sweeteners. Elixirs are use d either as vehicles or for th e effect of t h e drug t h e y contain (for example, phenobarbita l elixir) Characteristics Elixirs are clear, usually brilliantly colored medications pleasing to th e e y e a n d th e palate (taste).Because of their palatability, this form of medication is often given to infants a nd children. Types of elixirs.
1. 2.

Medicated elixirs -used for their medicinal a n d therapeutic effects. Nonmedicated elixirs - used as flavoring agents a nd vehicles.

Versatility. They are easy to prepare a nd are stable forms of medication. Their range of application is limited o nl y by t he number of medication s that c a n be made into elixir form. Generally, th e alcohol content of elixirs, ranging from 4 percent to 40 percent, is limited to an amount sufficient to keep th e medication or active principles in solution. Incompatibility. Elixirs are often incompatible with aqueous solutions a n d hydro-alcoholic solutions with v e ry lo w alcohol content. When co mbined with s u c h

solutions, t he elixir generally throws some of its dissolved material o u t of solution because its alcohol content ha s been reduced. On th e other hand, t h e aqueous solution precipitates its dissolved material because its alcohol conten t h a s been increased. Of course, th e incompatibilities of specific active ingredient s c a n v a r y widely Composition An elixir is a hydro-alcoholic solution of at least one active ingredient. The alcohol is mainly used to:

Solubilize the active ingredient(s) and some excipients Retard the crystallization of sugar Preserve the finished product Provide a sharpness to the taste Aid in masking the unpleasant taste of the active ingredient(s) Enhance the flavor.

The lowest alcoholic quantity that will dissolve completely the active ingredient(s) and give a clear solution is generally chosen. High concentrations of alcohol give burning taste to the final product. An elixir may also contain the following excipients: Sugar and/or sugar substitutes like the sugar polyols glycerol and sorbitol. Preservatives like parabens and bezoates and antioxidants like butylat ed hydroxytoluene (BHT) and sodium metabisulfite. Buffering agents Chelating agents like sodium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) Flavoring agents and flavor enhancers Coloring agents

Cream A cream is an emulsion of oil and water in approximately equal proportions. It penetrates the stratum corneum outer layer of skin well. Creams for application to mucus membranes such as those of the rectum or vagina are also used. Cream is thicker than lotion, and maintains its shape when removed from its container. It tends to be moderate in moisturizing tendency. For topical steroid products, oil-in-water emulsions are common. Creams have a significant risk of causing immunological sensitization due to preservatives. It has a high rate of acceptance by patients. There is a great variation in ingredients, composition, pH, and tolerance among generic brands. Composition: Water Oil Emulsifier Thickening agent

Uses of creams: The provision of a barrier to protect the skin This may be a physical barrier or a chemical barrier as with sunscreens To aid in the retention of moisture (especially water-in-oil creams) Cleansing Emollient effects As a vehicle for drug substances such as local anaesthetics, antiinflammatories (NSAIDs or corticosteroids), hormones, antibiotics, antifungals or counter-irritants.

Pharmaceutical preparations for treatment of conditions such as:

Rashes Skin Irritation Stings

Fungal infections

Sample drugs in cream form:

Nizoral contains the active ingredient ketoconazole, which is a type of medicine called an antifungal. It is used to treat infections with fungi and yeasts. Hydrocortisone temporary relief of minor skin irritations, itching, and rashes caused by eczema, insect bites, poison ivy, poison oak, poison sumac, soaps, detergents, cosmetics, and jewelry; itchy anal and rectal areas; and itching and irritation of the scalp. Dexpanthenol Cream Relieving dry skin, preventing and treating sore nipples during breast-feeding, and promoting healing of burns and poorly-healing wounds.

The Advantages:

Stable emulsion Maximized yield of raw materials as thickening agents are fully hydrated and other ingredients fully dispersed Pre-mixing of powdered ingredients can be eliminated Consistent product quality and repeatability

Disadvantages: Ingredients must be fully hydrated to obtain the required viscosity and develop yield. Active ingredients can be temperature sensitive. Poor dispersion of the active impairs product effectiveness

EMULSION AND COLLODIONS

I. EMULSIONS - a fine dispersion of one liquid in a second, largely immiscible liquid. In foods the liquids are inevitably oil and an aqueous solution. A. Variants of Emulsions 1. Oil-in-water emulsion - depends on the volume fraction of both phases and on the type of emulsifier. 2. Water-in-oil emulsion - depends upon the nature of the emulsifying agent, the nature of the oil, and the effect of electrolytes.
3. Water-in-oil-in-water

emulsion - often stabilized using combination of hydrophilic and hydrophobic surfactants. of hydrophilic and hydrophobic surfactants.

4. Oil-in-water-in-oil emulsion - often stabilized using a combination

B. Composition 1. Interfacial layer - essential to stabilizing the emulsion. 2. Oil Phase - limited effects on the properties of the emulsion. 3. Aqueous Phase - aqueous chemical reactions affect the interface and hence emulsion stability.

C. Size

1. < 0.5 mm 2. 0.5-1.5 mm 3. 1.5-3 mm 4. >3 mm

D. Route of Administration 1. First, it will be administered orally. 2. And on the Digestive Tract (Enteral) 3. The Emulsion is liquid.

E. Pharmacokinetics 1. Propofol (emulsion) is highly protein-bound in vivo and is metabolized by conjugation in the liver. 2. Its rate of clearance exceeds hepatic blood flow, suggesting an extrahepatic site of elimination as well. 3. The half life of elimination of propofol has been estimated at between 2 and 24 hours. 4. However, its duration of clinical effect is much shorter, because propofol is rapidly distributed into peripheral tissues. 5. When used for IV sedation, a single dose of propofol typically wears off within minutes. 6. Propofol is versatile; the drug can be given for short or prolonged sedation as well as for general anesthesia.

F. Example Mayonnaise - Mayonnaise is an emulsion, which is a mixture of two liquids that normally can't be combined. Vegetable oil in lemon juice or vinegar, with egg yolk lecithin as emulsifier.

II. Collodions - Collodion is a flammable, syrupy solution of pyroxylin in ether and alcohol. A. Variants of Collodions
1. Flexible Collodions - a mixture of collodion, camphor and castor

oil; used topically as a protectant.

2. Salicylic Acid Collodions - flexible collodion containing salicylic

acid, used topically as a keratolytic.

B. Composition 1. There are two elements enter into the composition of collodions a. First, the Gun Cottons; b. Second, the fluids used to dissolve it.

C. Route of Administration 1. The collodions will be administered orally. 2. Its a syrup therefore it will pass on the digestive tract (Enteral) 3. The collodion is a syrup. D. Example 1. Cosmetics - Non-flexible collodion is used in theatrical makeup for various effects, such as simulating old-age wrinkles or scars.

Lozenges

solid preparations consisting of sugar and gum, the latter giving strength and cohesiveness to the lozenge and facilitating slow release of the medicament. They are used to medicate the mouth and throat and for the slow administration of indigestion or cough remedies. solid preparations that are intended to dissolve or disintegrate slowly in the mouth. They contain one or more medicaments usually in a flavored, sweetened base. Lozenges are most often used for localized effects in the mouth. They can also be used for systemic effect if the drug is well absorbed through the buccal lining or is swallowed. More traditional drugs used in this dosage form include phenol, sodium phenolate, benzocaine, and cetylpyridinium chloride.

TYPES OF LOZENGES A. HARD LOZENGES considered solid syrups of sugars are made by heating sugars and other ingredients together and then pouring the mixture into a mold. The molds can shape the mixture to look like a sucker or a lollipop The hard lozenge will not disintegrate in the mouth but will erode or dissolve over a 5 - 10 minutes period Hard lozenges are similar to hard candy. In fact, many hard lozenge formulas are modifications of hard candy formulas

B. SOFT LOZENGES easily compounded and can be colored and flavored They can either be chewed or allowed to slowly dissolve in the mouth typically made of ingredients such as polyethylene glycol (PEG) 1000 or 1450, chocolate, or a sugar-acacia base Flavoring and sweetening soft lozenges to achieve a satisfactory taste will take some experimentation on the part of the pharmacist. Flavors can be obtained from sources such as food extracts, syrup flavor concentrates, or volatile oils

C. CHEWABLE LOZENGES Chewable lozenges are popular with the pediatric population since they are "gummy-type" lozenges . Most formulations are based on the glycerinated gelatin suppository formula which consists of glycerin, gelatin, and water These lozenges are often highly fruit flavored and may have a slightly acidic taste to cover the acrid taste of the glycerin

Lozenges have the advantage of: 1. being easy to administer to pediatric and geriatric patients. 2. having formulas that are easy to change and can be patient specific. 3. keeping the drug in contact with the oral cavity for an extended period of time. One disadvantage of using a "gummy-type" lozenge with children is they may perceive it as candy and not a serious dosage form.

Lozenges can be made by molding or by compression. The name troche is applied to compressed lozenges. But in lay language, lozenge and troche are used interchangeably. Commercial lozenges are made by compression; they are harder than ordinary tablets so they will slowly dissolve or disintegrate. Compounded lozenges can be prepared by molding mixtures of ingredients containing: sugars to form a hard lozenge polyethylene glycol (PEG) to form a soft lozenge gelatin to form a chewable lozenge

ROUTE OF Administration: ORAL

Effervescent tablets not a final dosage form (drug is administered as the solution), CO2 produced by chemical reaction of acid and NaHCO3. Hygroscopic! designed to dissolve in water before taking orally to facilitate administration Effervescent tablets contain sodium bicarbonate and citric and/or tartaric acid, causing carbon dioxide gas bubbles releasing the active drug. Effervescent tablets administer Orally taken by means of rapidly dissolving tablets that form a carbonated solution in water. Effervescent tablets absorption Site of absorption: small intestines Rate of absorption: rapid absorption because the drug is dissolved before it reaches the stomach. Rapid absorption rapid on-set of action

LOTIONS A lotion is a low- to medium-viscosity, topical preparation. Route of administration: -application to skin(epicutaneous route) Varieties: -water in oil -oil in water Composition: -The key components of a skin care lotion aqueous and oily phases, an emulgent to prevent separation of these two phases, and, if used, the drug substance or substances. -And a wide variety of other ingredients such as fragrances, glycerol, petroleum jelly, dyes, preservatives, proteins and stabilizing agents are commonly added to lotions. Pharmacodynamics: Lotions can be used for the delivery to the skin of medications such as: Antibiotics Antiseptics Antifungals Corticosteroids

Anti-acne agents Soothing, smoothing, moisturizing or protective agents (such as calamine)

an example of a lotion dosage form drug (calamine)

Honey Are thick liquid preparations which are sweet in taste. Herbal remedies often use a mixture of honey simmered together with herbs. At one time, before sugar was available, honey was used as a base, instead of syrup. There are few official preparations containing honey. e.g. Oxymel , or" acid honey "'is a mixture of acetic acid, water and honey . Route of administration: -oral route -epicutaneous route(application to skin) Composition: Honey is primarily a saturated mixture of two monosaccharides: fructose (about 38.5%) and glucose (about 31.0%)and tiny amounts of several compounds thought to function as antioxidants, including chrysin, pinobanksin, vitamin C, catalase, and pinocembrin. Pharmacodynamics:

Antibacterial properties of honey are the result of the low water activity causing osmosis, chelation of free Iron, its slow release of hydrogen peroxide, high acidity, and the antibacterial activity of methylglyoxal.

PILLS A small, round, solid pharmaceutical oral dosage form that was in use before the advent of tablets and capsules. Pills are oral dosage forms which consist of spherical masses prepared from one or more medicaments incorporated with inert excipients. Pills were made by mixing the active ingredients with an excipient such as glucose syrup in a mortar and pestle to form a paste, then rolling the mass into a long cylindrical shape (called a "pipe"), and dividing it into equal portions, which were then rolled into balls, and often coated with sugar to make them more palatable. Composition:

Glucose syrup

5-10% of the drug (active substance); 80% of fillers, disintegrants, lubricants, glidants, and binders; and 10% of compounds which ensure easy disintegration, disaggregation, and dissolution of the tablet in the stomach or the intestine.

Routes of Administration Oral digestive tract Enteral administration involves any part of the gastrointestinal tract and has systemic effects.

EXAMPLES Birth Control

Monophasic birth control pills deliver the same amount of estrogen and progestin every day. Biphasic birth control pills deliver the same amount of estrogen every day for the first 21 days of the cycle. During the first half of the cycle, the progestin/estrogen ratio is lower to allow the lining of the uterus (endometrium) to thicken as it normally does during the menstrual cycle. During the second half of the cycle, the progestin/estrogen ratio is higher to allow the normal shedding of the lining of the uterus to occur. Triphasic birth control pills have constant or changing estrogen concentrations and varying progestin concentrations throughout the cycle. There is no evidence that bi- or triphasic oral contraceptives are safer or superior to monophasic oral contraceptives, or vice versa, in their effectiveness for the prevention of pregnancy.

STORAGE: All oral contraceptives should be stored between 15 C (59 F) and 30 C (86 F). DOSING: Many of the birth control pills come in easy-to-use dispensers in which the day of the week or a consecutive number (1, 2, 3, etc.) is written on the dispenser with a corresponding tablet for each day or number.

Diabetes Pills Help your pancreas make more insulin. Help your body use the insulin it makes. For these pills to work, your pancreas has to make some insulin. Generic names for some of the more common sufonylureas are glimepiride, glyburide, chlorpropamide, and glipizide.

DOSING: Some sulfonylureas work all day, so you take them only once a day - usually before breakfast. Others you take twice a day, typically before breakfast and before supper. Your doctor will tell you how many times a day you should take your diabetes pill(s). DIET PILLS Weight loss drugs are all pharmacological agents that reduce or control weight. These drugs alter one of the fundamental processes of the human body, weight regulation, by either altering appetite, metabolism, or absorption of calories. It is common for them to be tried and if there is little or no benefit from them to discontinue treatment.[1] The main treatment modalities for overweight and obesity remain dieting and physical exercise. DIET PILLS

Suppression of the appetite. Catecholamines and their derivatives (such

as phentermine and other amphetamine-based drugs) are the main tools used for this, although other classes of drugs such as antidepressants and mood stabilizers have been anecdotally used for appetite suppression. Drugs blocking the cannabinoid receptors may be a future strategy for appetite suppression.

Increase of the body's metabolism. Interference with the body's ability to absorb specific nutrients in food. For example, Orlistat (also known as Xenical and All) blocks fat breakdown and thereby prevents fat absorption. The OTC fiber supplements glucomannan and guar gum have been used for the purpose of inhibiting digestion and lowering caloric absorption

RESINS

- Resin applies to product which is more or less solid, with a complex chemical nature. When heated, they will often soften & melt. - CHEMICAL COMPOSITION: Resins are mixtures of resin-acids, resin alcohols (resinols), resin phenols (resinotannols), esters & resenes (chemically inert compounds).

- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS: Resins are insoluble in water. Normally insoluble in petroleum spirit. Will dissolve more or less completely in alcohol, chloroform & ether.

Routes of administration: orally

SYRUPS Syrups are concentrated solutions of sugar such as sucrose in water or other aqueous liquid.

Site of administration :Oral Route

simple syrup: when water is used alone for making syrup.

medicated syrup: when the aqueous preparation contains some added medicinal substance flavored syrup: which contains aromatic or pleasantly flavored substances and is intended to be used as a vehicle or flavor for prescriptions Polyols (e.g. glycerin or sorbitol) may be added to - retard crystallization of sucrose or - increase the solubility of added ingredients. Alcohol often is included as - preservative - solvent for volatile oils. Syrups possess remarkable masking properties for bitter and saline drugs.

yeasts, and other microorganisms. In concentration of 65 % by weight or more the solution will retard the growth of such microorganisms. A saturated solution may lead to crystallization of a part of the sucrose under conditions of changing temperature. Invert Syrup: It is prepared by hydrolyzing sucrose with hydrochloric acid and neutralizing the solution with Ca or Na carbonate. The sucrose in the 66.7% w/w solution must be at least 95% inverted. The invert syrup, when mixed in suitable proportions with syrup, prevents the deposition of crystals of sucrose under most conditions of storage.

In dilute solutions sucrose provides an excellent nutrient for molds,

Preparation of Simple Syrup

(a) Solution with heat This is the usual method of making syrups: in the absence of volatile agents or those injured by heat when it is desirable to make the syrup rapidly. The sucrose is added to the purified water or aqueous solution and heated until dissolved, then strained and sufficient purified water added to make the desired weight or volume. Excessive heating in the preparation of syrups must be avoided to prevent inversion of sucrose, with increased tendency to fermentation. Syrups cannot be sterilized by autoclaving without caramelization (yellow color). The specific gravity of syrup is an important property to identify its concentration. Syrup has a specific gravity of about 1.313, which means that each 100 ml of syrup weighs 1313 g. (b) Agitation without Heat This process is used in those cases where heat would cause loss of valuable volatile constituents. The syrup is prepared by adding sucrose to the aqueous solution in a bottle of about twice the size required for the syrup. This permits active agitation and rapid solution. The stoppering of the bottle is important, as it prevents contamination and loss during the process. (c) Addition of a Medicating Liquid to syrup This method is resorted to in those cases in which fluid extracts, tinctures, or other liquids are added to syrup to medicate it. Syrups made in this way usually develop precipitates since alcohol is often an ingredient of the liquids thus used and the resinous and oily substances dissolved by the alcohol precipitate when mixed with syrup. A modification of this process consists of mixing the fluid extract or tincture with the water, allowing the mixture to stand to permit the separation of insoluble constituents, filtering & and then dissolving the sucrose in the filtrate. This procedure is not permissible when the precipitated ingredients are the valuable medicinal agents.

(d) Percolation In this procedure, purified water or an aqueous solution is permitted to pass slowly through a bed of crystalline sucrose, thus dissolving it and forming a syrup a pledget of cotton is placed in the neck of the percolator If necessary, a portion of the liquid is repassed through the percolator to dissolve all of the sucrose. This method is used for the preparation of Syrup USP. Preservation of Syrups The USP suggests that syrups be kept at a temperature not above 25C. Preservatives such as glycerin, methyl paraben, benzoic acid and sodium benzoate may be added to prevent bacterial and mold growth, particularly when the concentration of sucrose in the syrup is low. The concentration of preservative is proportional to the free water. The official syrups should be preserved in well dried bottles and stored in a cool dark place.

Dextrose-Based Syrups Dextrose may be used as a substitute for sucrose in syrups containing strong acids in order to eliminate the discoloration associated with inversion.

Dextrose forms a saturated solution in water at 70% w/v, which is less viscous than simple syrup. It dissolves more slowly than sucrose and is less sweet Preservatives are required to improve the keeping qualities of such syrups. Glycerin is added in 30% to 45% v/v as preservative. Artificial Syrups (Non-Nutritive Syrups)

intended as substitutes for syrups and are to be administered to persons who must regulate their sugar and/or calorie intake accurately. e.g. persons suffering from diabetes mellitus. Some early formulae included glycerin, however, glycerin and propylene glycol are glycogenetic substances, i.e. they are materials which are converted into glucose in the body. An example of nonnutritive syrup is Diabetic Simple Syrup. It contains compound sodium cyclamate (6% cyclamate sodium and 0.6% saccharin sodium)

Sorbitol-Based Syrups Sorbitol which is hexahydric alcohol made by hydrogenation of glucose has been used in the preparation of syrup. It is used mostly in the form of a 70% w/w aqueous solution. Sorbitol solution is not irritating to the membrane of the mouth and throat and does not contribute to the formation of dental carries. Sorbitol is metabolized and converted to glucose; however, it is not rapidly absorbed from the GlT as sugars. No significant hyperglycemia has been found; it may be used as component of non-nutritive vehicles. Sorbitol solution does not support mold growth. Preservative should be used in solution containing less than 60% w/w sorbitol. It is chemically stable and inert with respect to drugs and other ingredients used in pharmaceutical perpetration.